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Immigrant Consumer AcculturationLisa N. Penaloza, University of California, Irvine

Introduct ionConsumer acculturation is a term used todescribe theaquisition of skills and knowledgerelevant toengaging inconsumer behavior in oneculture by membas of anotho- culture. This includesho w one leams to buy and consume goods as well asho w one l eams the meanings that weattribute toourselves and others as consumers of goods, processestypically investigated under theheading of consumersocialization (cf. Ward 1974; Moschis and Churchill1978). However, whereas studies ofconsumersocialization examine theprocesses wherebyconsumption skiUs are learned within one socialcontext, consumer acculturation emphasizes thecultural bases ofconsumption behaviors and consumerlearning processes, examining these processes as theyare affected by the interactions oftwo or morecultures. Mo re specifically, consumer acculturationdescribes an eclectic process of learning andselectively displaying culturally defmed consumptionskills, knowledge, and behaviors.This topic is of interest to consumerresearchers because the word "multicultural" describes agrowing number of the world's cities (cf. Kasarda 1984on changing American demographics; Brown andJacobson 1986; Newland 1979 on intemationaldemographics and migration pattems). By addressingthe juxtaposition and interactions of two consumercultures (i.e., groups sharing consumption values andmeanings, and teaming processes) and their effectswithin one consumption context , the study ofconsumer acculturation advances amore critical viewof the process of aquisition of consumer values,knowledge, and behaviors.

The purpose of this paper b todevelop aframework for the systematic investigation ofculturally specific aspects of consumer learningprocesses and behaviors. To begin, theconcept ofconsumer acculturation isdefined and distinguishedfrom its predecessors, concepts such as acculturation,socialization, and consume r socialization. Next, someexamples of acculturation models arebriefly reviewedto illustrate previous conceptualizations of culturaladjustment, and tosuggest relevant dimensions ofconsumer acculturation. While the concept ofconsumer acculturation invokes a multiplicity ofcultures, in this papei, a simplified model ofimmigrant consumer acculturation isdeveloped that iscomposed ofdual sets ofvariables, which correspondto a culture of origin and a host culture, respectively.Further, while this model isdesigned toapply toimmigrant consumer acculturation ingeneral, the focuswill be on immigrants tothe U.S .. Having introducedthe concept of consumer acculturation, the discussionwill now tum tothe theoretical roots of this term.

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THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS

AcculturationThe term consumer acculturation is amodification of the more general term, acculturation,which originated inanthropology. Acculturation hasbeen defined as:

"Cultural change that is initiated by lheconjunction of two or more autonomous culturalsystems...it may be theconsequences of directcultural transmission; itmay be derived fromnoncultural causes, such as ecological ordemographic modifications induced by animpinging culture; itmay be delayed, as withintemal adjustments following the acceptanceof alien traits or pattems, or it may be areactive adaptation of traditional modes of life.Its dynamics can be seen asthe selectiveadaptation ofvalue systems, theprocesses ofintegration and differentiation, the generat ionof developmental sequences, and the operationof role determinants and personality factors,"(Social Science Research Council 1954).

At issue inthe study ofacculturation is culturalcontact, conflict, and adaptation that occurs at theindividual and group level (Berry 1980). Culturalcontact varies inits nature, purpose, and duration, andthese factors would be associated with significantdifferences inacculturation processes. Forexample,the least acculturative change would result from anovel experience in a foreign culture, such as avacation; the most acculturation would result from anextended stay inanother country, as in the case ofimmigrat ion.

At an individual level, several distinct stages ofcultural change were outlined in a study ofmissionaries (Oberg 1960). InPhase 1, the"honeymoon" stage, the individual is fascinated bythe endogenous culture. Cultural contact is superficial,and conflict and adaptation are virtually nonexistent.Phase 2 isthe "rejection" stage, characterized byhostile and aggressive attitudes tothe new culture. Atthis stage, the individual begins torealize that his/herbehavior isnot appropriate, but does not know whatto substitute inits place. He/she seeks comp any withothers from the culture oforigin. Cultural contact andadjustment are minimized, and conflict is intense.Phase 3, the "tolerance" stage ischaracterized by theacquisition of some cultural skills and knowledge.Cultural contact and adjustment increase, and conflictis beginning to lose its intensity. InPhase 4,"integration," cultural adjustment is generallyadequate. The individual now has confidence inhis/her ability tofunction inthe new culture, which isviewed as just another way of life (Oberg 1960, p.178-179) .

There is, however, animportant distinctionbetween themissionary and the immigrant. TheAdvances in Consumer ResearchVolume 16, 1989

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Advances in Consumer R esearch (Volume 1 6) I 111missionary, seddng to convert the native people to acertain belief system, may be more resistant tocultural adaptation. The immigrant, lacking this"mission," may be more adaptive to the newenv iron mo tt Moreover, the order and (Regression ofihesK stages may differ, depaiding on individual,cultural, and contextual factors which will be discussedlater in the pqie r. Nev ertheless, the immigrant andthe missi

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Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 16) I 113

FIGURE 1A M odel of Immigrant Ccmsumer Acculturation

Consumer Culture of OriginSources of Consumption InformatioiFamilyPeersMediaInstitutions

Immigrant

Demographic variablesCultural consumption values

Language preferencesGeneration/Age

Intensity of affiliationEnvironmental factors

Leaming ProcessModelingReinforcementSocial Interaction

Consumer Culture of ImmigrationSources of Consumption Informadoi

FamilyPeersMediaInstitutions

AcculturationsOutcomeDimensions1. Culture ofOrigin2. Culture of

Immigration3 . AdaptiveDimension

A MODEL OF IMMIGRANT CONSUMERACCULTURATIONIn this model (see figure 1) the immigrantenters the new consumer environment withconsumption knowledge previously acquired in theconsumer culture of origin. He/she then comes intodirect contact with members of the new consumerculture. The effects of previously acquired knowledge(depicted on the left of the diagram) relate to present

and future consumer leaming processes and consumerbehavior that take place in the new coimtry (depictedin the middle of the diagram). Outcomes of consumeracculturation are depicted as three dimensional; thefirst dimension represents outcomes associated withthe culture of origin, the second dimension relates tooutcomes identified with the culture of immigration,and the third dimension represents those outcomesthat contain adaptive characteristics of a third, hybridculture.

Antecedent VariablesAntecedent variables represent the attempt tolocate the individual in social space and time and setthe stage for consumer acculturation. These variablesmay affect the aquisition of consumer leaming bothdirectly and indirectly (Ward 1974; Moore andStephens 1975; Moschis and Churchill 1978).1. Demographic variables - Age, education,income, occupation, sex, marital status, race/ethnicityand combinations such as social class and family lifecycle are examples of demographic antecedentvariables that have been associated with differences inconsumer socialization (cf. Wells and Gubar 1966;Schramm 1969; Ward 1974; Moore and Stephens 1975;Ward et al. 1977; Moschis and Churchill 1978; StampO1979; Belk et al. 1982). In addition, recency of arrivalis an important factor affecting acculturative change(Padilla 1980). It is hypothesized that these variables

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114 / Imm igrant Consumer Acculturationare associated with differences in consumeracculturation.In addition to cultural differences in antecedentvariables, it is possible that changes in thesevariables would occur upon immigration. Forexample, the immigrant family could realizesigniHcant changes in their socio-economic statusupon immigrating. It may be that past socio-economic status, while having an effect on theattitudes and values of immigrant consumers, would beless significant in its relation to consumptionbehavior than present socio-economic status.2. Cultural Consumption values - Culturalvalues are mirrored in leaming processes andbehaviors within a given culture (Rotheram andPhinney 1987). Som e examp les of differences incultural value orientations that may be related todifferences in consumer acculturation processes areindividual versus group (Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck1961; Chandler 1979; Firat and Dholakia 1982), activeversus passive (Kahl 1968), present versus future time(Hall 1959; 1976), and egalitarian versus hierarchicalsocial relations (Kahl 1968; Inkeles and Levinson1969). For example, in societies characterized byhaving the group orientation, it may follow thatinterpersonal sources of consumer information such asthe family would have stronger relative influence onconsumer leaming than mass media. The family is akey socialization agent for Hispanics (Guemica 1982;Hoyer and Despande 1982) and Japanese (Shigaki1983), cultures that have been characterized as havingthe group orientation (Chandler 1979; Connor 1977).3. Language - Language preference is a keyfactor because it is directly associated with the abilityto communicate and leam consumption information(O'Guinn and Meyer 1983). Wh ile not all immigrantfamilies must leam another language, colloquialdifferences in language are also a factor in consumeracculturation.4 . Intensity of affiliation - This variable relatesto the individual's preference for one culturalorientation over another (Despande, Hoyer, andDonthu 1986; Alba and Chamlin 1983; Padilla 1980),which may be related to differences in consumerleaming processes and behaviors of immigrants.Choice of cultural orientation could range from cultureof origin to culture of immigration to a blend of thetwo, a third hybrid culture (Wallendorf and Reilly1983). 5. Environmental factors - The immediateenvironment would affect the ability and thewillingness of the immigrant to leam and displaycultural consum ption attitudes and behav iors. Theimmigrant would be more likely to exhibit previouspatterns of consumption in social settings in whichthese patterns were accepted and reinforced. Forexample, in a study of die effects of migration onconjugal relationships, consumption patterns, and jobstatus of women who move seasonally betweenMexico and the US, Guendelman and Perez-Itriago(1985) concluded that in coping with the demandsimposed by the two contexts, these women led"double lives."

Co ns um e r Ac c u l t ur a t i o n Ag e nt sConsumer acculturation agents are thoseindividuals or institutions who serve as sources ofconsumer information and/or models of consumptionbehavior.1. Family - The immigrant family is viewed asa coping social structure in which previous patterns ofconsimier behavior can be jneserved as well as newconsumption patterns leamed . The family differscross-culturally in its structure, pattems of interaction,and social significance, and these differences havebeen related to differences in consumer leamingprocesses (Ward et al. 1987). For examp le, Shigaki(1983) observed more parent-child contact and familymember interaction in Japanese families, as comparedto American families. In another study, Devereaux(1970) reported that British children experienced morephysical punishment and less nurtance and warmththan Amoican children.

Keefe (1980) noted that researchers differ intheir treatment of the family in studies ofacculturation. On one hand, research'S see fa milisticvalues as responsible for the slow rate of acculturation(Kluckhohn and Strodbeck 1961; Chandler 1979), whileon the other hand, others view acculturation as theindependent variable that is affecting the family(Grebler, Moore, and Guzman 1970). The se apparentiyconflicting hypotheses are reconciled in the model,which views immigrant consumer acculturation asaffecting and affected by the acculturation agents,which in this case is the family.2. Peers - Previous research has noted socio-economic differences in the relative influence of thepeer group on processes of socialization (McCandless1969; Mo schis and Churchill 1978). Whether the peergroup was more closely aligned with the culture oforigin or the culture of immigration is an importantissue in immigrant consumer acculturation.3. Mass Media - Mass media is a key source ofconsumption information. The availability of massmedia in the language of the culture of origin is animportant issue in the study of consumer acculturation.Further, previous media habits associated with theculture of origin may affect immigrant responses tomass media in the culture of immigration. Forexample, mass media would have different formsacross societies, as the result of different social, legal,and economic conditions (i.e., the distribution ofresources and the availability and diffusion of mediatechnology). In cultures where television sets are lessdiffused tiiroughout the population, individuals may bemore accustomed to consulting newspapers, word-of-mouth, and radio for consumption information.4. Institutional sources of consumerinformation - The nature of various institutions andtheir role in transmitting consumption-relatedinformation may vary across cultural contexts, andthese variations may be associated with differences inconsumer acculturation, e.g., differences in immigrantpesrceptions of the role of educational institutions inteaching consumer skills

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Advances in Consum er Research (Volume 16) I 115TABLE 1

Varieties of Acculturation as Determined by Group Response

Varieties ofAcculturation

MulticulturalismPluralismMelting PotPressure CookerWithdrawalSegregationMarginalityEthnocide

Retention ofCultural Identity?

Y esYesNoNoYesYesN oNo

Positive Relationshipto Dominant Society?

YesYesYesYesN oNoNoNo

Group Right toChoose Options?

YesNoYesN oYesNoYesNo

Source: John W . Berry (1980), "Acculturation as Adaptation," in Acculturation: Theory, Models, and Some NewFindings, Amado M. Padilla, ed.. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, p. 16.

Co ns um e r Ac c u l t ur a t i o n Pr o c e s s e sAcculturation processes refer to the ways inwhich cultural consumption values, knowledge, andbehavior are learned. Three methods by whichconsumer leaming is acquired are modeling,reinforcement, and social interaction (McLeod andO'Keefe 1972; Ward 1974; Moschis and Churchill1978). Regarding immigrant consumer acculturationprocesses, certain apriori hypotheses have beenderived. Initially, upon arriving in the new country,the immigrant will try to assimilate the consumptionpattems of the host country, and will try to consultthose sources of consumption information that areperceived to be aligned with the host culture.However, as the immigrant proceeds according to theheuristics of his/her previous culture, seeking outproducts and sources of consumption information,he/she soon realizes that these guidelines no longerfunction. Frustrated, the immigrant may look for afamiliar products, in an attempt to retain his/heroriginal cultural orientation at this secon d phase. Inthe third phase, the immigrant has gained someknow ledge of the new culture. Strengthened by thiscultural knowledge, the immigrant gains confidence inhis/her ability to function in the new consumerenvironment, and can now choose which one of threecultural orieiuations (culture of origin, culture ofimmi^ation, or a third hybrid culture) to display.However, the order and progression of these processesmay differ, depending upon many factors in theculture, the social environment and inherent to theimmigrant.

Co ns um e r Ac c u l t ur a t i o n Out c o m e sOutcomes of consumer acculturation refer toconsumption-related skills and knowledge that areaquired as a result of contact between two cultures.The following are some examples of consumersocialization outcomes that warrant consideration inthe investigation of consumer socialization: priceawareness, brand specification, slogan recall (Mooreand Stephens 1975), attitudes toward advertising (Wardand Wackman 1971), recognition of consumptionsymbolism (Belk et al. 1982, materialistic attidudes(Ward and Wackman 1971). How ever, valueorientation (Kahl 1968) and identity issues (Rotheramand Phinney 1987) are also important outcomedimensions of consumer acculturation.

D I S C U S S I O NThe model of consumer acculturation is notdeterministic; emphasis is given to the range ofcultural orientations that the individual may display.The ability and the desire of the immigrant to leamnew and/or to maintain previous pattems of consumerbehavior may vary as a function of several factors.For example, many of the products they used to buyare no longer available. Another possibleexplanation is that former pattems of consumerbehavior may not be socially sanctioned in the newcountry.Language barriers, limited experience in a newcountry, and the limited amount of non-Englishadvertising limit the ability of immigrants to evaluategoods. Nega tive reinforcement may be the chiefmeans of identifying consumption meanings and

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116 / Imm igrant Consumer Acculturationvalue s for the iininigrant consum er. The y may learnwhat is acceptable, by means of a tramatic process oflearning what is not acceptable in the host culture byexposure and interaction with individuals with themessage, "we don't do things that way here."Immigrants may also develop informal networkscomposed of family, friends, and other immigrantswho can offer support and advice concerning how toget by in the new country.Changes in familial roles and status as a resultof immigration may have implications for householdconsumer behavior. For example, Guendleman andPerez-Itriago (198S) examined the impact of seasonalmigration on women's roles and lifestyles in theMexican immigrant family, and observed that wageworkers in the US had a greater tendency to establishcooperative roles with their husbands, sharing powerand decision making. In another study, Humphreys(1944) observed that the sutus of the father declinedrelative to that of the mother and children, while theson assumed a position about equal to that of thefather, and the daughter attained the same level withthe mother.Some of the consumer behavior implications ofacculturation involve purchase roles, decision-makinginfluence and the allocation of household tasks. Forexample, Penaloza and Gilly (1986) suggested that,because of the accelerated rate of assimilation ofchildren in the Hispanic familly, immigrant parentsdepend on them as a source of consumptionknow ledge. There may also be significant differencesin the rate of consimier acculturation for singleimmigrants, as compared to immigrant families, andimmigrant families with children, as compared toimmigrant families without children, due to qualitativedifferences in the nature of the family as a supportnetwork.Previous research indicates that immigrantconsumer behavior is not a simple blending of theculture of origin and die culture of immigration, butrather a unique cultural style (Wallendorf and Reilly1983). The se authors discovered that Mexican-American consumption pattems did not resembleAmerican or Mexican consumption pattems, but weresimilar to Anglo consumption pattems of five yearsearlier. Th is research sugg ests that consumeracculturation is a dynamic process in whichconsumption behaviors of one culture are acquired byanother culture, but not without a corresponding timelag effect and distortions possibly due to culturalstereotypes.

CONSUMER RESEARCHIMPLICATIONSLike the immigrant family, researchers operatefrom within a consumer culture. Perhq>s the mostcritical difHculty to be encountered by researchers inthe investigation of immigrant consumer acculturationis that it is very difficult to comprehend othercultures. Cultural know ledge and leaming have beenlinked to the part of the human nervous system thatfunctions according to the principle of negativefeedback, i.e., we become aware of our own cultural

heuristics only when they do no t function (Powers1973; Hall 1976; emphasis added).Anothn problem experienced by the immigrantfamily and constuner researchers alike is that culturalconsumption values cannot be observed and measureddirectly. Th ey are hypo thetical constructs that areinferred firom "accqXable" consunq>tion bdiaviors asthey are d^med within a particular cultural context.Further, like other macro phenomena, culturalconsumption values and behaviors may not correspondto any one individual or group within a culture (Firatand Dholakia 1982; Amdt 1976).While operationalizing and measuring macroconstructs can be quite problematical, it is suggestedthat the effects of immigrant consumer acculturationare conducive to measurement in terms of theimmigrant family's perceptions of the issues anddifficulties they have experienced as consumers in anew cultural context. Further, inquires as to theconsumption goals of immigrants may lead toinsights concerning their motivations forconsumption, as well as our own . Wh ile the desireand intention of immigrants to continue previouspattems of consumption is assumed by firms whoimport goods and make them available for purchase byimmigrants, the degree to which this assumption iscorrect is of interest to consumer researchers.

C O N C L U S I O NMany cultural issues affecting consumerbehavior have been discussed in this paper, includingcultural differences in consumption-related values,family interactions, the relative influence of sourcesof consumer information, and consumptionknow ledge, skills, and behaviors. The focus of tliispaper, however, has been on the immigrant consumer.A conceptual model of immigrant consumeracculturation was developed and discussed. Immigrantconsumer behavior is not the simple assimilation ofestablished pattems of consumption, nor is it anadamant continuation of previous pattems ofconsumption exhibited in the country of origin.Althou^ the immigrant may try to maintain inreviouspattems of consumption behavior, his/her ability todo so is constrained by several factors both in theconsumption environment and inherent to the cultureand the circumstances of the individu al. Manyquestion s remain. Further research is necessa ry toidentify and examine differences in the consumptionvalues, learning processes, and behaviors of differentcultures, including that of immigrant as well as nativeconsumer cultures throughout the world.

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