PAUL F. J. EAGLES · Hornback, Kenneth E., and Paul F.J. Eagles, 1999. GUIDELINES FOR PUBLIC USE MEASUREMENT AND REPORTING AT PARKS AND PROTECTED AREAS. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and

W O R L D C O M M I S S I O N

O N P R O T E C T E D

A R E A S ( W C PA )

F IR S T E DI T ION

GUIDELINES for

PUBLIC USE MEASUREMENT and

REPORTING at PARKS and

PROTECTED AREAS

AUTHORS:

KENNETH E. HORNBACKNational Park ServiceUnited States of America

PAUL F. J. EAGLESUniversity of WaterlooCanada

IUCNThe World Conservation Union

Cooperative Research Centrefor Sustainable Tourism

GUIDE LIN E S for

P U BLI C US E M E A S U R E M E N T and

R E P OR T ING at PA R K S and

P ROT EC T E D A R E A S

G U I D E L I N E S F O R P U B L I C U S E M E A S U R E M E N T A N D R E P O R T I N G

Founded in 1948, The World Conservation Union

brings together States, government agencies

and a diverse range of non-governmental

organizations in a unique world partnership:

over 895 members in all, spread across some 137

countries.

As a Union, IUCN seeks to influence, encourage

and assist societies throughout the world to

conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and

to ensure that any use of natural resources is

equitable and ecologically sustainable. A central

secretariat coordinates the IUCN Programme and

serves the Union membership, representing their

views on the world stage and providing them with

the strategies, services, scientific knowledge and

technical support they need to achieve their goals.

Through its six Commissions, IUCN draws together

over 6,000 expert volunteers in project teams and

action groups, focusing in particular on species

and biodiversity conservation and the

management of habitats and natural resources.

The Union has helped many countries to prepare

National Conservation Strategies, and

demonstrated the application of its knowledge

through the field projects it supervises. Operations

are increasingly decentralized and are carried

forward by an expanding network of regional and

country offices, located principally in developing

countries.

The World Conservation Union builds on the

strengths of its members, networks and partners

to enhance their capacity and to support global

alliances to safeguard naturals resources at local,

regional and global levels.

W O R L D C O M M I S S I O N O N P R O T E C T E D A R E A S

The World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA),

which is an integral part of IUCN – the World

Conservation Union, is a world-wide network of some

1,300 protected area experts. Its members work in a

volunteer capacity to raise the standard of protected

areas planning and management.

The WCPA has a number of task forces, each of which

tackles policy and program issues of importance to

park and protected area planning and management.

The objectives of the Task Force on Tourism and

Protected Areas are to:

} Provide guidance to the WCPA, and others, on

the relationships between tourism and

protected areas.

} Identify the size and characteristics of protected

area tourism.

} Develop case studies to investigate best

practice models for tourism management.

} Develop guidelines for the management of

tourism in protected areas.

} Communicate tourism management theory and

practice to planners, managers and others.

} Provide opportunities for parks and tourism

people to work together on shared issues within

protected area tourism.

I U C N – T H E W O R L D C O N S E RVAT I O N U N I O N

W O R L D C O M M I S S I O N

O N P R O T E C T E D

A R E A S ( W C PA )

F IR S T E DI T ION

GUIDE LIN E S for

P U BLI C US E M E A S U R E M E N T and

R E P OR T ING at PA R K S and

P ROT EC T E D A R E A S

AUTHORS:

KENNETH E. HORNBACKNational Park ServiceUnited States of America

PAUL F. J. EAGLESUniversity of WaterlooCanada

IUCNThe World Conservation Union

Cave and Basin HotSprings, Banff NationalPark, Canada

Pog Lake andCampground,

Algonquin ProvincialPark, Canada

Safari, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania

Heron Island, Great Barrier Reef National Park, Australia

Green Gables, Prince Edward Island National Park, Canada

Keltic Lodge, CapeBreton Highlands

National Park, Canada

Cooperative Research Centrefor Sustainable Tourism

G U I D E L I N E S F O R P U B L I C U S E M E A S U R E M E N T A N D R E P O R T I N G A T P A R K S A N D P R O T E C T E D A R E A S

The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply theexpression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or the University of Waterloo concerning the legalstatus of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiersor boundaries. Furthermore, the views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCNor the University of Waterloo.

This publication has been made possible in large part by funding from Parks Canada and the CooperativeResearch Centre for Sustainable Tourism of Australia.

Designed and printed by: Graphics, University of Waterloo

Available from: IUCN Publications Services Unit219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, United KingdomTel: ++44 1223 277894Fax: ++44 1223 277175E-mail: [email protected]://www.iucn.orgA catalogue of IUCN publications is also available

Published by:IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK;Parks Canada; Cooperative Research Centre forSustainable Tourism of Australia

Copyright:©1999 International Union for Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources

Reproduction of this publication for educational orother non-commercial purposes is authorizedwithout prior written permission from thecopyright holder provided the source is fullyacknowledged.

Reproduction of this publication for resale or othercommercial purposes is prohibited without priorwritten permission of the copyright holders.

Citation: Hornback, Kenneth E., and Paul F.J. Eagles, 1999.GUIDELINES FOR PUBLIC USE MEASUREMENT ANDREPORTING AT PARKS AND PROTECTED AREAS. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. iv +90 pp.

ISBN: 2-8317-0476-6

Cover photos: Paul F.J. Eagles

The Cooperative Research Centre for SustainableTourism was established as a tourism researchcompany under the Australian Government’sCooperative Research Centre’s Program, with amission to deliver strategic knowledge to enhancethe environmental, economic and socialsustainability of tourism.

CRC for Sustainable TourismGriffith University Gold CoastPMB 50Gold Coast Mail Centre QLD 9726AustraliaTel: (61-7) 5594 8172Fax: (61-7) 5594 8171E-mail: [email protected]

FOREWORD 3

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 4

BACKGROUND TO PUBLIC USE REPORTING 6

CHAPTER 1: TERMS AND CONCEPTS 81.0 INTRODUCTION 81.1 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS 81.2 CONSISTENCY WITH NATIONAL TOURISM STATISTICS 111.3 USES OF PUBLIC USE DATA BY MANAGERS 111.4 THE PROBLEM OF UNDER-REPORTING 14

CHAPTER 2: PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT: FROM INITIAL TO ADVANCED 152.0 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT 152.1 THE SETTING 162.2 LEVEL I: THE INITIAL PUBLIC USE REPORTING PROGRAM 172.3 LEVEL II: THE BASIC PUBLIC USE REPORTING PROGRAM 182.4 LEVEL III: INTERMEDIATE PUBLIC USE REPORTING PROGRAM 202.5 LEVEL IV: DEVELOPED PUBLIC USE REPORTING PROGRAM 242.6 LEVEL V: ADVANCED PUBLIC USE REPORTING PROGRAM 262.7 HOW FAR TO GO? 272.8 HOW THE GUIDELINES WORK 27

CHAPTER 3: STATISTICS – CONTINUOUS COUNTING SYSTEMS 293.0 INTRODUCTION 293.1 MEASUREMENT OPTIONS 293.2 INSTRUMENTATION 293.3 CONTACT SENSORS 303.4 MAGNETIC DETECTORS 303.5 ADVANTAGES OF MAGNETIC DETECTORS 303.6 DISADVANTAGES OF MAGNETIC DETECTORS 303.7 SEISMIC DETECTORS 313.8 ADVANTAGES OF SEISMIC DETECTORS 313.9 DISADVANTAGES OF SEISMIC DETECTORS 313.10 OPTICAL SENSORS 323.11 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL SENSORS 333.12 DISADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL SENSORS 343.13 OTHER TECHNOLOGY 343.14 REMOTES – TRANSCEIVERS, RECORDERS, FIBER OPTIC CABLES 353.15 SECONDARY RECORDS 363.16 VISITOR REGISTERS 363.17 OBSERVATIONS 383.18 CALCULATIONS, COUNTER ROTATION, PARTIAL COUNTS 393.19 COLLECTION SYSTEM DESIGN 393.20 CONVERTING INSTRUMENT MEASUREMENTS TO REPORTABLE DATA 403.21 AUTOMATION 403.22 CENTRAL OFFICE FUNCTIONS 413.23 REPORTING INTERVALS 413.24 FEEDBACK 42

1G U I D E L I N E S F O R P U B L I C U S E M E A S U R E M E N T A N D R E P O R T I N G A T P A R K S A N D P R O T E C T E D A R E A S

C O N T E N T S

3.25 AUDITS 423.26 ASSISTANCE 43

CHAPTER 4: VISITOR STUDIES 444.0 INTRODUCTION 444.1 GENERAL 444.2 STUDIES THAT VERIFY STATISTICS FOR COUNTING 464.3 STUDIES OF THE TRIP AND VISITOR CHARACTERISTICS 484.4 STUDIES OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY 484.5 STUDIES ON SATISFACTION: EVALUATING THE PARK, RESOURCES AND SERVICES 494.6 STUDIES OF CROWDING AND CONFLICT 534.7 STUDIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES, BELIEFS, EXPECTATIONS, PERCEPTIONS 534.8 STUDIES OF PUBLIC VALUES, WANTS AND NEEDS 544.9 STUDIES OF RESOURCE UTILIZATION – CREEL SURVEYS – SPECIFIC POPULATION STUDIES 544.10 STUDIES OF VISITOR TYPES (MARKETS, RECREATION LIFESTYLE, AND COMMUNITY STUDIES) 544.11 COMMUNICATING THE RESULTS 54

CHAPTER 5: DATA 555.0 INTRODUCTION 555.1 HOW TO COLLECT A GOOD SAMPLE 555.2 METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA 565.3 WHO WILL DO THE STUDY? 575.4 SURVEY DESIGN, PRE-CODING AND PRETEST 585.5 QUALITY CONTROL DURING STUDY, EDITING 585.6 DESIGNING YOUR OWN QUESTIONS 595.7 POST-CODING, RECODING, DATA PROCESSING, REPORTS AND PRESENTATION 595.8 LONG TERM STORAGE OF THE DATA 59

CHAPTER 6: DATA PROCESSING COMPUTER PROGRAMS 606.0 INTRODUCTION 606.1 RECUSE 1.0 606.2 QDATA 606.3 FORMS AND DATABASE MANAGERS 616.4 COMMERCIAL STATISTICS PACKAGES 61

CHAPTER 7: MEASUREMENT OF PUBLIC USE OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS 627.0 INTRODUCTION 627.1 MARINE PROTECTED AREAS 637.2 TYPES OF VISITOR ACTIVITIES 647.3 DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF USE 667.4 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR MARINE PROTECTED AREAS 667.5 POTENTIAL METHODS FOR MEASUREMENT OF PUBLIC USE 67

CHAPTER 8: THE EVOLUTION OF THE BEST PRACTICE GUIDELINES 71

TABLES 17, 19, 21, 22, 26, 27, 51, 52

FIGURES 16, 25, 51

APPENDICES 72-86


The World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA)

is a Commission of the World Conservation Union

(IUCN). In April 1996 the WCPA established a task

force to deal with strategic objectives of tourism

and protected areas. The approved objectives of

the Task Force on Tourism and Protected Areas are

to:

} Provide guidance to the WCPA, and others, on

the relationships between tourism and

protected areas.

} Identify the size and characteristics of

protected area tourism.

} Develop case studies to investigate best

practice models for tourism management.

} Develop guidelines for the management of

tourism in protected areas.

} Communicate tourism management theory

and practice to planners, managers and

others.

} Provide opportunities for parks and tourism

people to work together on shared issues

within protected area tourism.

The absence of global data on visitor use of the

world’s protected area is a major policy problem.

The lack of such data results in tourism being

undervalued in public policy. It is difficult to

understand the scale of the world’s tourism use of

protected areas without standard measurement

units, collection procedures or integrated data

management systems.

The WCPA’s tourism task force moved quickly to

develop procedures for the identification of the

size and characteristics of tourism in the world’s

protected areas. This involved a three-phase

project. Phase 1 was the development of

definitions, approaches and standards on public

use measurement and reporting for protected

areas. The guidelines in this report are designed to

work towards this end. Phase 2 involved the

publication and distribution of the GUIDELINES to

protected areas though the network of the WCPA.

This alerted agency managers about the concepts

and about Phase 3. Phase 3 involves the global

collection of data concerning park and protected

area tourism. The plan is to have the collection as

part of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre’s

collection of data for the United Nations List of

Parks and Protected Areas. The timing of the

phases depends upon the funding that becomes

available for the work.

You have in your hands a copy of the final version

of the first edition of GUIDELINES. This version was

published in English in book form and in English

on the world wide web. The long-term goal is to

continue to revise, refine and deepen the

GUIDELINES over time. As money, time and

expertise become available, the goal is to have the

GUIDELINES prepared in several languages. The

GUIDELINES will be published in both written and

electronic format. The world wide web address that

contains these GUIDELINES, and other information

developed by the WCPA’s tourism task force is at

http://www.ahs.uwaterloo.ca/rec/taskfce.html.


F O R E W O R D

Thanks must go to the Australian state park

agencies and the Australian Nature Conservation

Agency for initiating the work on standardizing the

visitor data collection procedures in that country.

Their work was very useful in the preparation of

these GUIDELINES. Special thanks must go the

Denver Service Center of the US National Park

Service. This office generously made Dr. Hornback’s

time available in late 1996 and early 1997 for the

preparation of the first draft of this document. For

some time after his retirement on March 31, 1997,

the National Park Service continued to provide

office space and communication facilities in the

Denver office for Dr. Hornback for his work.

These GUIDELINES are the result of the

contributions of many people. Jay Beaman and

Dick Stanley set high standards for counting

visitors in Parks Canada in recent decades. Their

important fundamental contributions are

acknowledged in this manual. Special thanks goes

to Gene Murphy of the Federal Provincial Parks

Council of Canada for circulating a draft copy of

the GUIDELINES to the federal and provincial park

agencies in Canada. Per Nilsen and Bill Aris of

Parks Canada provided useful comments. Dr. Dan

McLean of the University of Indiana circulated the

Draft Guidelines to all state park agencies in the

United States of America. In response, comments

were received from Fran Mainella of Florida, Phillip

K. McKnelly of North Carolina, Charles Van

Genderen of Utah, and Jeff Erickson of Montana.

Ron Seale, then working in Uganda, Norman

McIntyre of Waikato University in New Zealand and

Glen Hvenegaard of the Augustana University

College in Alberta, Canada provided detailed

comments. Robin Kruk, of the New South Wales

National Parks and Wildlife Service of New South

Wales, Australia, and Robin Grimwade of

Centennial and Moore Park Trust, Sydney,

Australia, commented on the draft GUIDELINES.

Chris Haynes, Louisa Liddicoat and Wayne

Schmidt, all of the Department of Conservation

and Land Management of Western Australia

provided a coordinated set of comments. Derek

Wade, then working on visitor management in

national parks in Tanzania, provided comments

and case study examples from his work in

Serengetti National Park. Vera Chizhova of the

University of Moscow undertook the large task of

translating the Draft GUIDELINES from English into

Russian. She then coordinated a review by

Zapovodnik managers throughout Russia.

Alan Moore provided comments as well.

Kenneth J. Vrana, the Director of the Center for

Maritime & Underwater Resource Management at

Michigan State University in the USA prepared

Chapter 7 on marine parks’ tourism. Dr. Vrana

encourages any questions, comments, and

suggestions that may enhance future revision of

information in this chapter on measurement of

public use of marine protected areas. He can be

contacted by e-mail at [email protected].

In addition, Dr. Vrana acknowledges the

contributions to this chapter by Dr. Daniel Stynes,

Dr. Edward Mahoney, and Dr. Gail Vander Stoep of

the Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism

Resources at Michigan State University.

Thanks must go to the Faculty of Applied Health

Sciences at the University of Waterloo, Canada.

This Faculty provided the office facilities and

computer resources for the preparation of the

GUIDELINES and for the maintenance of the

Tourism Task Force web pages. Wayne Smith and


A C K N OW L E D G M E N T S

Anne Ross, both in the Department of Recreation

and Leisure Studies at the University of Waterloo,

provided technical assistance for the publication.

Most photos in this publication are from the

private collections of Ken Hornback and Paul

Eagles. A few are from Parks Canada.

Dianne Keller and Jan Weber provided design and

desktop publishing expertise to the publication.

Ken E. Hornback retired from the National Parks

Service of the United States of America in 1997.

For many years he was head of the social science

research and visitor data collection for that

agency. In that role he was responsible for the

development and application of visitor data

collection procedures. Ken has a PhD in Sociology

from Michigan State University.

Paul F. J. Eagles is a professor in the Department

of Recreation and Leisure Studies at the University

of Waterloo in Ontario, Canada. He is a biologist

and a planner. He has written more than 225

publications in the fields of environmental

planning and park management. At the University

of Waterloo he is the coordinator of the Parks

Option for undergraduate students. Professor

Eagles is the Co-Chair of the Task Force on Tourism

and Protected Areas for the World Commission on

Protected Areas. This Commission is part of the

World Conservation Union, also well known by its

old acronym, IUCN.

Dr. Hornback is retired from the National Park

Service and is unavailable for routine comments

and questions.

Please direct all comments on these GUIDELINES

and suggestions for change to:

Dr. Paul F. J. Eagles

Professor

Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies

University of Waterloo

Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. N2L 3G1

Telephone 519-888-4567 extension 2716

Fax: 519-746-6776

Email: [email protected]

World Wide Web:

http://www.ahs.uwaterloo.ca/rec/taskfce.html

Ken E. Hornback

Paul F. J. Eagles

Task Force on Tourism and Protected Areas

World Commission on Protected Areas

March 20, 1999


I N T R O D U C T I O N

Park and protected area visitors are important.

They have political, economic, social and

ecological impacts. Much of a reserve’s staff time

and operational funds are dedicated to assisting,

supporting and managing human use. Much of a

reserve’s planning and development activities are

centered on human factors. The same information

needed by managers is also often important to

residents and business people from local

communities. All of the people living on the routes

traveled by park visitors will be influenced by the

flow of people to and from the park.

All management is dependent upon information.

The better the quality of information, the better

the opportunity for good management.

Information about the visitors and their activities

enables managers to deal with the challenge of

increasing volumes of tourism.

This manual describes terms, approaches and

techniques for gathering information about public

use of parks and protected areas. The goal of the

manual is to supply the information necessary to

meet the needs of park and protected area

management in this rapidly changing field.

Parks and protected areas are unique and attract

significant public interest. Public interest leads to

an annual stream of visitors who invest large

amounts of money, time and effort to experience

these areas in person. Many factors determine the

experience of visitors including; the conditions in

the resource itself, the logistical support available

in the park or available locally, and the attitudes

of people contacted, including the park staff and

other visitors. When visitors return home, many of

them become articulate and important voices

favoring legislative support for existing parks and

the creation of new sites. Monitoring public use is

a fundamental responsibility for managers. The

resulting numbers are critical indicators of the

natural, social and economic functions performed

by parks and their caretakers.

The very factors that make parks and protected

areas unique and exciting also make the

necessary measurements of use difficult. Where

great distances are involved, staff time is

consumed by the logistical demands of

transportation to areas where measurement takes

place. Park boundaries may enclose villages and

residences as well as roads and trails which

necessitate the use of calculations to adjust

measurements so they conform with the basic

rules of reporting. The local residents near the


B A C KG RO U N D TO P U B L I C U S E R E P O RT I N G

Sportsmen’s Show, Toronto, Canada

Local tourist operators are very interested inreliable and detailed park visitation data.

parks and protected area may visit in high

numbers but carry out activities distinctly

different from foreign tourists. Such complications

of the human ecology surrounding and occupying

the park require careful visitor studies in addition

to basic volume counts.

The GUIDELINES serve as a statistical governor

which yield data to serve as reliable foundations

for management and planning. As circumstances

change, the GUIDELINES FOR PUBLIC USE

MEASUREMENT will need modification to maintain

the closest possible consistency with previous

enumerations and remain comparable by adhering

to standard definitions.

S O L U T I O N S

The design of a public use data system at

protected areas is a creative process. The

designer has to balance the need for accuracy

with difficult geophysical features, insufficient

staff, limited funding, and competing priorities. To

deal with the measurement problem most

efficiently, the manager needs an inventory of

options to draw from. These guidelines cover a

mixture of options ranging from direct

measurements with

automatic counters to

indirect measurements

based on simple

mathematical

calculations. The

GUIDELINES contain a

kit of options which

produces the most

accurate and

sustainable

enumeration of public

use of protected areas

under existing

circumstances.

B E S T P R A C T I C E G U I D E L I N EO B J E C T I V E S

The objectives of the World Commission on

Protected Areas’ GUIDELINES FOR PUBLIC USE

MEASUREMENT AND REPORTING are to:

1. Provide valid, reliable, and uniform criteria andmethods for public use data collection andreporting to the independently administeredparks and protected areas of member nations.

2. Identify best practices and techniques whichare within the means of participatingprotected areas to gather regularmeasurements of use for local, regional,national, and international protective oversightand assistance.

3. Establish an international body of protectedarea use data based on consistent andcomparable measurements, appropriatequality control and verification for governmentagencies’ use in furtherance of resource andenvironmental protection.


Tsavo East National Park Gate, Kenya

Parks and traffic control points, such as

entrance gates, have the ability to measure both

the volume and length of stay of visitation.

1 . 0 I N T R O D U C T I O N

Chapter 1 describes the basic terms andconceptual working tools for a public useinformation system needed by parks andprotected areas. Public use information is basedon statistics that comprise a limited set of data,typically actual counts, collected at regularintervals. Public use information also comes fromstudies consisting of sample data collected in away that is representative of a larger population.In actual practice, public use information is basedon statistics, studies, or calculations which useboth statistics and study data.

1 . 1 D E F I N I T I O N S O F T E R M S

For the comparison of public use measurements,over time and between sites, it is necessary toadopt a standard set of definitions of the termsand concepts involved. The following definitionscomprise the basic terms that describe public useof parks and protected areas. The definitions aregrouped as they relate to each other, rather than inalphabetical order.

1. VISITOR: a person who visits the lands andwaters of a park or protected area forpurposes mandated for the area. A visitor isnot paid to be in the park and does not livepermanently in the park.

Typically, the mandated purpose for the visit isoutdoor recreation for natural parks andcultural appreciation for historic sites.

2. VISIT: a measurement unit involving a persongoing onto the lands and waters of a park or

protected area for the purposes mandated forthe area.

Each visitor who enters a park for a purposemandated for the area creates a visit statistic.Typically, the visit statistic has no length ofstay data associated with it. However, thecollection of additional data on the length ofstay of a visit allows for the calculation ofvisitor hour and visitor day figures.

The purposes mandated for the area typicallyare recreational, educational or cultural. Non-mandated purposes could include passagethrough the park on the way to a site outsidethe park, or entrance by park maintenancevehicles. This definition of visit means that if aperson leaves the park and reenters at a latertime, then a second visit data unit is recorded.

3. VISITATION: the sum of visits during a period oftime.

Visitation is usually summed for use atperiods, such as daily, monthly, quarterly orannually.

4. ENTRANT: a person going onto lands andwaters of a park or protected area for anypurpose.

The entry figure for a park is typically largerthan the visit figure. The entry figure includesdata for all recreational or cultural visits aswell as data for people who are in the park foractivities not related to the purposesmandated for the area. For example, theentrant figure may include park visitors, plusthose just driving through, local people whomay pass through a corner of the park, or the


C H A P T E R 1

T E R M S A N D C O N C E P T S

daily activities of park workers. These non-visitors are usually not there for recreationalor cultural purposes, but their use of parkresources, such as roads, do have an impactand therefore their activities are worthy ofnote.

5. EXCLUSIONS: park or protected area use whichis not visitation for statistical reportingpurposes.

For park management purposes, it is useful torecord all entrants to the park. Later, for avariety of reasons, some types of entrantsmay be subtracted from, or excluded, from thefigures that are reported as park use. Eventhough all entrants to a park have somedegree of impact, there are reasons to excludesome types of use from that reported as parkvisits. Entries that are usually not consideredpark visits include traffic from commutersalong major roads or railways crossing thepark, traffic of attendees at non-park relatedactivities (craft shows, races, or civilceremonies), and traffic from residents ofvillages surrounded by park land. Traffic forwhich counts are adjusted includes traffic ofindividual residents, movement of parkemployees, volunteers working on parkactivities, travel of concessionaires and theiremployees, and the travel of trades peopledelivering supplies to the park. Also excludedare brief traffic across short sections of parkland or waters, persons engaged in the pursuitof specific legal rights such as subsistencehunting, fishing, or native ceremonies.Sometimes law or policy dictates the type oftraffic that is required to be reported, such ascruise ship passages, aircraft overflights, orcommercial fishing use.

E X A M P L E S O F C O M M O N E X C L U S I O N S

I N C L U D E :

a) trips by TENANTS or RESIDENTS within parkboundaries (including guests),

b) travel by EMPLOYEES of, VOLUNTEERS at, or

contractors to the park (includingconcessionaires and their employees),

c) brief, INCIDENTAL PASSAGE into the park bypedestrian or vehicular traffic, and

d) persons engaged in the pursuit of specificLEGAL RIGHTS OF USE (e.g., subsistencehunting and fishing, traditionalceremonies), unless there are legal orofficial requirements to report.

Most excluded traffic is of a type that canbe issued identification, such as withwindshield stickers, to facilitate passageand to help park staff keep track of thetraffic volume. It is important to keep trackof the exclusions, so as to subtract thisdata from the total entry counts that mayhave been derived from manual counterssuch as road counters.

For management purposes, data on theexclusions can be useful in its own right.For example, tenants at private cottages inthe park may use the roads. Knowledge ofthis use is important for maintenancepurposes. Similarly, data of the levels ofsubsistence fishing in the waters of thepark is needed for fisheries managementpurposes. Therefore, it is important that alldata on all use be documented.

In high use areas it may be difficult todetect recreational use from activitiesnormally excluded. Visitor studies of asample of the park users may benecessary to ascertain the reasons for use.

6. CALCULATIONS: determining or refiningvisitation by mathematical conversion ofcounts, partial counts, study data, recordedobservations or judgement. Common types ofcalculations are given below.

a) ADJUSTMENT, meaning a change of avisitation or entries count to removeexclusions, e.g., a traffic count might bereduced by 25% to adjust for local trafficthat is just passing through.


b) CORRECTION, meaning a change of aninstrument reading to reflect error that hasbeen determined by independentcalibration (by visual, multiple instrumentcounting, etc.).

c) CONSTANT, meaning a fixed number forminor volumes of activity determined by aone-time measurement, a special study, orthe judgement by staff.

d) APPROXIMATION, meaning a numberassigned to an uncounted area based onmeasurements at nearby or comparableareas, where studies have determined therelationship between the two sites.

e) ESTIMATE, meaning a number derived froma methodical computation based onregular, but partial, counts. An example is afigure of 2.3 persons per car, an estimatebased on a 1 week sample gate countcollected at the beginning of the peakseason.

f) SUBSTITUTION, meaning the use of apreviously recorded number for an areawhen current data are temporarilyunavailable, for example when the trafficcounter is temporarily broken. An examplemight be the use of the number from thesame month the previous year.

g) CONVERSION, meaning the change of anumber from one indicator to another.Several conversions are typically made. Itis common to convert from visitor hours tovisitor days, for example one person maystay for 4 hours, which converts to .33visitor days when one is using a definitionof 12 hours for a visitor day. Anotherconversion is from visitor nights to visitdays. Since many campers or lodge usersstay for an entire 24 hour period, it iscommon to equate one visitor night, of 24hours, as being equal to one visitor day of12 hours. Many agencies simply count thenumber of entrants to a park, withoutrecording the length of stay for each

entrant and without checking to see if the entrant is really a visitor. To convertentrants to visits, it is necessary to findthe number of entrances that are notrelated to the park. This can be done bysampling the stream of traffic entering thepark and asking the people the reasons fortheir entry. Once the sample data isobtained, the percentage of entrances thatare really visits can be calculated, thenmultiplied by the entire entrance data setto get the actual visitor numbers. Similarlogic can be applied to finding visitor hours.Sample surveys of visitors can be done tofind the average length of stay. Thisaverage length of stay can then bemultiplied by the total visit figure to getvisitor hours.

7. COUNT: the direct observation and immediaterecording, measurement by instrument, orrecording by registration form (such as feecollections) of park or protected area use.

8. VISITOR NIGHTS: the count of persons stayingovernight in a park or protected area for apurpose mandated for the area.

Typically people stay in the park either in alodge or in a camping area. Many parks recorddata on such use as bed nights or campernights, figures comparable to visitor nights.

9. ENTRY NIGHTS: the count of persons stayingovernight in a park or protected area for anypurpose.

Entry nights data are larger than visitor nightsdata. Entry nights include all visitor nights,plus the nights of people who are not visitors.For example, entry nights might include thedata of overnight stays of park staff orconcessionaire employees.

10. VISITOR HOURS: the total length of time, inhours, (both continuous and intervals) thatvisitors stay in the park while visiting for apurpose mandated for the area.


11. ENTRY HOURS: the total length of time, inhours, (both continuous and intervals) thatvisitors and entrants stay in the park for anypurpose.

12. VISITOR DAY: the total number of days thatvisitors stay in the park.

The visitor day figure illustrates levels of parkuse. It is calculated for comparative purposesbetween sites and between time periods.Visitor day data can be recorded directly fromthe visitors. For example, in some parks allvisitors sign in and sign out of the park,thereby providing very accurate records onlength of stay. However, such precise data israre. Therefore, the visitor day figure is usuallycalculated from visit figures multiplied by thelength of park stay. The length of stay is oftenan average figure derived from visitor surveysof a sample of visitors. A “visitor day” is oftendefined as 12 “visitor hours” of park use,however this varies amongst agencies. Thetotal visitor day data is generated by theaddition of various lengths of stay. Small parksand historic parks may have short averagelengths of stay, say 3 hours, which means thatit will take several visits to add up to one“visitor day.” Large national parks often havelong periods of stay, say 3 days, which meansthat a single visit constitutes more than one“visitor day.” The visitor day indicator makes acomparison possible between historical andnatural sites, between different park systemsand between different countries.

13. TOURIST: a person travelling to and staying ina place outside their usual environment fornot more than one consecutive year forleisure, business and other purposes.

The definition of a tourist involves twoelements, travel of a certain distance fromhome and a length of stay. For most parks aportion of the visitors will be tourists, the restbeing considered local residents. It is oftenuseful for the park’s visitor management

personnel to report on the percentage of parkvisitors that are tourists.

The definition of tourist varies amongstcountries. Consultation with the nationaltourism body is necessary to ensure that thecollection of visitor data from a park can bedone in a way that is consistent with thecollection of tourism data for the country.

1 . 2 C O N S I S T E N C Y W I T H N A T I O N A LT O U R I S M S T A T I S T I C S

It is important that data on park visitors bedefined and collected in such a way that it isconsistent with the broader tourism data collectedfor the country. For example, one key aspect of thedefinition of a tourist, is the length of travel fromhome to the visitation site. However, this varies.Canada typically uses an 80-km distance (50miles), but the USA typically uses 160 km (100miles). Therefore, the designers of data collectioneffort in a park system need to be aware of boththe national and the international approaches. TheWorld Tourism Organization developed guidelineson international tourism. These guidelines weresubsequently adopted by the United NationsStatistical Committee and published in reportformat. Appendix 1, at the back of this report,contains a more complete set of tourismdefinitions.

1 . 3 U S E S O F P U B L I C U S E D A T A B Y M A N A G E R S

The scope and level of effort put into the publicuse measurement program should be in proportionto the requirement of park managers to provide forgeneral management, natural resource protection,maintenance operations and visitor services andprotection. Examples of the role of visitation datain these categories are explained below.


G E N E R A L M A N A G E M E N T

All managers need quantitative data on howvisitation impacts the park or protected area andqualitative data on how the park or protected areaimpacts the visitor. Moreover, managers need toknow these conditions internally as well asimmediately outside the park or protected area.

Visitation data are needed to compute statisticalreports (rate per thousand) on sanitation, publichealth, accident, fire suppression, criminal acts,search and rescue missions, etc. These data haveexpensive consequences and are especiallyimportant during the government budgetaryprocess.

Current volume gives an idea of the popularity ofvarious activities and services monitored at thepoint of delivery from roadside display utilizationto interpretive programs attendance,concessionaire provided guide, boat or liveryservice demand, and other similar activities.

Measurements from zones of use and avenues ofaccess indicate optimal fee collection locations aswell as allocation of staff resources and possiblestaging of facilities and services.

Current public use volumes, overnight stays bytype, rate of change, comparisons to other localareas, and related data are of value to localresidents, officials, businesses, as well as to otheragencies and to general government functions. Allpeople who must plan for the park visitation musthave good data.

Visitation data are convertible into economicconsequences (tourism sales, jobs, taxes) andhelp evaluate the value of the park and parkresources in common terms with other activities(agricultural, mining, etc.). Visitation data provideuseful insight for people who might otherwise notcare or understand the influence of the park tothem and their economic life.

When unusual events occur and an idea ofimpacts on visitation is needed to deal withunexpected consequences or emergencies,accurate and comparable historical data is

suddenly crucial. In other words, current visitationdata may become critical important at some laterpoint in time.

N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E P R O T E C T I O N

The protection and management of naturalresources is an important activity. Visitor use hasa direct and immediate impact on a park orprotected area’s natural environment. Of specialinterest is any subsistence-based resource use,such as may occur by local residents.

Knowledge of public use activity, location andvolume is needed to evaluate and preserve viablenatural ecosystems, including endangered andthreatened plant and animal species. It is veryimportant to help manage wildlife habitats,prevent human-wildlife interaction problems,protect range, migration patterns, resting andnesting sites, and maintain vegetative cover, soilsurfaces, and water quality within desirable limits.

Knowledge of planned public use activity, locationand volume is necessary to evaluate, protect,preserve and maintain cultural sanctuaries(spiritual grounds), archaeological ruins andhistorical structures.

Attention paid to visitor volume leads to betterawareness of general visitor behavior, from cuttingfirewood to unsanitary personal hygiene, whichcreates a hazard for the resource as well as othervisitors. As a result, preventive measures rangingfrom signs to facility construction can be taken.

Some visitors will go exploring off park roads andtrails. As they leave traces for others to notice,new trails emerge. Resource managers must knowtotal use, use at planned sites and unplannedvisitation around critical sites. They must watchfor, detect, and deal with drifting internal usepatterns. Fractional changes can lead to rapidimpacts on fragile resources, sensitive wildlife,migratory zones or delicate habitats and requireimmediate deterrent measures. Visitation rates,rates at sensitive areas, known peak loads atnearby areas, and records of resource wear atcertain volumes must be regularly analyzed to


protect and maintain the natural resources withinthe limits of acceptable change, i.e., in a mannerthat ensures the damage is minimal andrepairable.

M A I N T E N A N C E O P E R A T I O N S

While maintenance operations can be performedafter damage is evident, preventive maintenanceoperations require a knowledge of visitor uselevels. This section describes some of theseoperations.

Public use volume and short-term forecasts of useare needed to order supplies and maintainminimal inventory of consumables (soap, toiletpaper, paint, gasoline, etc.).

Public use volume at specific service areas(campground landscape, firepits, benches, tables,roads and trails, parking and staging areas, etc.)is needed for daily repair, maintenance andreplacement budgeting and scheduling.

Current, peak and seasonal volume at each majordevelopment (hardened resources, facilities andfunctional areas, e.g., parking, staging, road, trail,etc.) is examined for changes in utilization ratesrelative to capacity, age and useful facility lifecycle, changing rates of routine maintenance andreplacement cost programming or associatedconsequences of prolonged use.

Records of public use volume, visual evidence ofexcessive wear and associated costs areevaluated to determine when the continuous costof labor for preventive maintenance (caused bypoor design, materials and construction) exceedsthe capital costs of redesign and reconstruction orthe costs of redeployment of visitation throughgeneral park use planning.

Park staff need to be assigned on the basis ofinternal concentrations of visitor activity forcleanup and hasty repair. Assignments need to bemade in sufficient strength, with the rightequipment, at the right time to limit publiccomplaints.

Visitor use data are used for road capacityplanning and design. Of special interest are dataassociated with locally originating traffic whichmight only use certain sections of longerpassageways.

V I S I T O R S E R V I C E S A N D P R O T E C T I O N

The provision of visitor services is dependent onthe needs and numbers of visitors, availability offunds, and resource protection concerns, e.g., sitehardening, pollution abatement, etc.

Establishing and maintaining public use safetyand sanitation standards must be conducted inratio to actual volume (water quality sampling andtreatment, waste removal, etc.).

Daily operational service level standards(especially instructional directives to visitors andchanges in monitoring and patrol functions) needto be made according to use volume as it relatesto season, current temperature conditions(extreme heat, cold, weather turnabouts),resource conditions (fire hazard warning andrestrictions) and wildlife control activities(preventive measures associated with unusualdisease threats).

Public use monitoring activities put park staff in aposition to detect, control and correct restricted orillegal activities (poaching, removal of artifacts,destruction of plant materials, etc.).

The park may have legal liability exposure duringcertain times of use, such as periods of very highuse or times of participation in dangerousactivities. The volume and timing of such activitiesneeds to be known, communicated to appropriatepeople and contingency plans made.

Visibility of park staff during various public usemonitoring activities has a secondary benefit ofdeterring vandalism.

Public use monitoring activities make staffaccessible to the public to address needs orprovide impromptu environmental education.


Public use monitoring activities help to ensurethat adequate volumes of materials required forpublic distribution can be ordered and sufficientinventory maintained.

The provision of interpretive programs andinformation services is frequently tied toanticipated visitor numbers based on records ofprevious volumes measured.

All these basic areas of work are subject to theavailability of resources! If resources formeasuring and monitoring public use areinsufficient, it is the responsibility of the areamanager to identify how this managementfunction (and other resource protection functions)cannot be performed and inform the supportingagencies and officials.

1 . 4 T H E P R O B L E M O F U N D E R -R E P O R T I N G

Many parks do not count visitation effectively.This may be due to low levels of staffing, too manyentrances for proper coverage, or other prioritiesof management. Some park systems only countvisitation at those parks with the highest levels ofuse. Many systems report zero levels of use fromsome periods and some parks. All of this results inunder reporting of visitation. Under-reporting givesa misleading impression in government, in thepublic and in business about the level of use of apark and of a parks’ system. This in turn can leadto lower levels of policy emphasis in governmentand to depressed budget levels. It is much betterto develop a simple, but reasonably accurate,public use measurement system that provides anestimate or count of visitation, than to make themistake of not counting at all.


Great Smoky Mountains National Park, USA

Great Smoky Mountains National Park has one of the highest visitation

figures for national parks in the world. This important fact is known

because of a sophisticated public use measurement and reporting system.

2 . 0 P R O G R A M D E V E L O P M E N T

The discussion of program development in Chapter2 is intended to show how public use can bemonitored and useful data be collected at avariety of progressive levels, going from a simplesituation to a complex park with specialized visitormanagement programs. Any park or protectedarea can start to monitor public use at areasonable level of accuracy and reliabilityregardless of staff or funding support. Theoverview in Chapter 2 makes use of techniquesand methods that are discussed in detail by laterchapters of these GUIDELINES. Area managers areencouraged to take one step at a time, startingwith an initial level program and improving it asneeds dictate.

Even the most elementary level of public usereporting represents some investment of park staff effort for: (1) collecting data, (2) summarization of data, (3) analysis of data,and (4) interpretation of data for managementaction. The exact size of the investment made bythe park or protected area in monitoring public usedepends on the needs of management and thenumber of functions there are to be served.

There are five progressive levels of public useprogram advancement described in this reportstarting with an INITIAL LEVEL (I) of public usereporting program and moving on to BASIC (II),INTERMEDIATE (III), DEVELOPED (IV) and ADVANCED(V) levels. Each higher level results in greateraccuracy and detail of public use data and acorresponding increase in required staff time,hardware and funding.

The development of a program for public usereporting involves a progression through thelevels for three reasons. First, parks vary incomplexity of boundaries, access points,composition of natural and human ecology,development of facilities, and the extent of useand degrees of impact. The public use reportingprogram varies correspondingly. Some parks willbe well served by lower level programs than othersfor the present. Times change and so mustreporting programs. Second, to the extent that aprogram grows along with the needs of the parkstaff for management data, the program will tendto be carefully administrated and developed tohigher levels of accuracy. If staff do not trust orunderstand the data, they will never use or learnto use it. As this learning occurs, more and betterdata will be demanded and the program will bechanged to meet the increased demand. Third, itis, unfortunately, too easy to create a program ofreporting which is unnecessarily complicated,especially if the data collectors are not the maindata users. Central office personnel are oftenasked by parks to simplify counting programs thathave been created by the parks themselves . . .usually by previous employees. Even parks thatare already counting public use are encouraged toreview their efforts and redevelop their effortswith careful attention to the balance of effort andthe applicability of data to park management.

Long-term accuracy is a balance of precision andpracticality. If a program is too complicated to bepractically applied in the park, it cannot besustained. An overly complicated program willultimately become problematic.


C H A P T E R 2

P RO G R A M D E V E L O P M E N T:F RO M I N I T I A L TO A D VA N C E D

Parks that collect fees for all visits have theopportunity to collect substantial amounts ofvisitor data, easily and simply. Such parks oftenhave point of sale (P.O.S.) computer terminals.These terminals automatically collect the time ofthe visit, the day and the type of entry (adult,family, school, child, senior, etc.) of each sale. Thesystem is very precise and allows for almostimmediate data on the level of visitation and someof the characteristics of this visitation. The pointof sale data collection works best with single oronly a few points of entry. The data from suchprocedures allow managers to analyze their datain many ways that were not possible in the past.These procedures have often eliminated previousmethodologies such as hand counts, registrationbooks, visual counts and optical sensors at somelocations. The results are highly accurate, yetrequire minimal additional staff time because gatestaff are already collecting entry fees. Parks atthe advanced levels sometimes ask visitors fortheir postal codes, enabling geographical analysisof visitation and cross-tabulation with manyexisting market surveys.

2 . 1 T H E S E T T I N G

To develop the background to a public usemeasurement program, a hypothetical example ispresented. The imaginary Mangrove ProtectedArea (Figure 1) has two areas where staff contactvisitors, a small contact station (visitor center andheadquarters) and a campground. Camping feesare collected. There is only one staff person. Thestaff is assigned to the visitor center most of theday, but makes a tour of the campground duringthe last hour of the work day. Campers pay theirfee and register at either the visitor center orcampground. Campers must fill out a registrationform and receive a receipt for display at thecampsite. A road runs through the park. Entrancesare not monitored. There is roadside parking for atrail head and an overlook.

Six kinds of use occur. People can go to the visitorcenter but not to the campground. They can go tothe campground and skip the visitor center. Theycan visit the park and skip both the visitor centerand campground. They can visit the visitor center,campground, and park. They can also drivethrough the park without stopping. Finally, thepark is visited by a number of governmentemployees who are excluded from counts forstatistical purposes.


Park entrance at Banff National Park, Canada

Controlled entrance procedures can be used forthe collection of significant amounts of data on

park entrants and visitors.

F I G U R E 1 : M A N G R O V E P R O T E C T E D A R E A

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2 . 2 L E V E L I : T H E I N I T I A L P U B L I CU S E R E P O R T I N G P R O G R A M

Any park can count visitation, even if it is on apartial or limited basis. In fact, a good way to builda program is by observing and learning about howa park works on the basis of actual use.

2 . 2 . 1 W H A T I S R E P O R T E D A T L E V E L I

The INITIAL counting program at MangroveProtected Area consists of a staff person with ahand counter keeping track of people who enterthe visitor center during the day. While in thevisitor center, visitors can register to stay in thecampground. Registered campers are issued adisplay tag as a receipt from a registration formthat is kept on file. During the eveningcampground check, the staff person makes a tourof the campground to check the display tags ofregistered campers. People who show up in thecampground without registration are registered atthat time.

The registration forms from additional campersare collected in the evenings and entered into thevisitor center log the next morning as additionalovernight stays. A separate count is recorded forday visitors and the number of visitors registeredto stay overnight (Table 1).

The counts of visits (day use and overnight) aremultiplied by the constants in use for length ofstay to convert them to visitor hours. In this casethose constants are based on staff judgement thatday users spend 8 hours in the park and thatovernight users spend 24 hours in the park.Statistics are compiled monthly and a historicalrecord of seasonal variations is started.

2 . 2 . 2 S H O R T C O M I N G S O F L E V E L I

With a Level I system, generally the staff person isaware of only a small amount of park use and hasno idea of patterns (day use, overnight stays,excluded traffic, traffic in either direction or passthrough or turnabouts). After a few weeks of doingcounts this way the problems become apparent:

} People who show up at the campground mayor may not have been in the visitor center.Some of these “new” registrants, however,seem to be recognized as visitor centervisitors from earlier in the day (indicating adouble count if one knew for sure).

} Traffic is seen passing by the front of thevisitor center which doesn’t stop and isn’tcounted.

} There is no way to tell the difference betweenvisits, entries and other traffic (i.e., potentiallyexcluded use).


T A B L E 1 : W H A T I S R E P O R T E D I N A L E V E L I ( I N I T I A L P U B L I C U S E R E P O R T I N G P R O G R A M )

REPORTED METHODVisits YES MC

Corrected for Counter Error? Not applicableAdjusted for Excluded Use? NOAdjusted for Entries? NO

Visitor Hours YES CSEntries NOVisitor Nights YES MCVisitor Night Hours YES CC-Reg. FormsEntry Night Hours NO

MC = Manual Count AC = Automated Count ES = Estimate (partial count) AD = AdjustmentCS = Constant CV = Conversion CC = Calculation AP = Approximation

} Traffic entering the park from the southentrance are not counted.

} Traffic entering before or after the staff tour ofduty is unknown.

} The accuracy, volume and duration of stay ofday use is unknown.

} An entire group of visitors may not enter thevisitor center and may not be counted.

} Records that are kept on a daily basis andcompiled monthly are prone to clerical errors.This is especially true when calculations areinvolved. Unless there is some independentand reliable checking of calculations, errorsare likely to accumulate and compound inlater reports. If reporting errors are notcorrected immediately there are seldomenough records or recollection to correct themlater.

} Counting of registration forms and calculationof items from separate records (visitor centerlog is updated from the registration formscollected) is error-prone.

} The staff person in the visitor center can keeptrack of public use for only short periodsbetween interruptions to answer questionsand register people for camping.

} The use of hand counters is error prone.

2 . 2 . 3 B E N E F I T S O F L E V E L I

The Level I program is low in cost and isadministered as time permits. While there are fewmanagement benefits from such a partial countingprogram, it is a start. Even this initial program willhelp staff become familiar with record keeping andthe need for attention to detail. This initialcounting experience will lead to ideas aboutprogram improvements. It is easy to see in thisexample how an apparently simple arrangementcan get complicated. It is better for a park toestablish a reporting program with such initialsimplicity than to design a more comprehensiveprogram and then learn how difficult it can be toadminister.

2 . 3 L E V E L I I : T H E B A S I C P U B L I CU S E R E P O R T I N G P R O G R A M

The difference between the INITIAL and BASICprogram is experience and ingenuity. Initially, thepark layout and staff assignments will dictate aprogram that is feasible under the circumstances.The INITIAL program is driven by what can be doneas opposed to any notion of what should be done.As staff gain experience with such initial practices,they will develop an awareness of the limitationsof such a system and the errors that can be made.Those involved will observe and form impressionsor speculations about actual park use that

suggest changes from theinitial plan for reporting. Whileadditional resources may notyet be available to the park,there are always steps toimprove the INITIAL program.What is surprising is that oftenthose steps are not taken.


Bruce Peninsula National Park/

Fathom Five National Marine Park

Visitor Centre, Canada

Visitor Centres are often usedas contact points for special

visitor surveys.

Experience with the INITIAL program at MangroveProtected Area leads the staff to some ideas aboutwhat to change. Here are the changes made toimprove the initial program and bring it up to theBASIC or Level II program.

} People who show up at the campgroundwithout registration may or may not havebeen in the visitor center where theirpresence would be counted as a visit. Theconfusion about going to the visitor centerand registering for overnight use can beresolved by altering the campgroundregistration form to include use of the visitorcenter (yes or no). This will eliminate under-counts. Campground users who answer no(they did not use the visitor center) are addedto the visitor center count of overnight visitsand to visits. Over-counts will also beeliminated. Campground users who answeryes (they did use the visitor center) will beadded to the visitor center overnight countbut not to visits.

} Traffic can be seen passing by the front of thevisitor center which doesn’t stop and isn’tcounted. Some of this traffic may be throughtraffic (which does not stop in the park) orvisitors who are not interested in going to thevisitor center. To deal with the volume of pass-by traffic some informal observations could

be made for the first 5 minutes of each hourfrom the visitor center window. Carefulrecords (informal does not mean haphazard)from these observations will give an evenlydistributed, daily sample of 40 minutes (5minutes times an 8-hour shift) before leavingto patrol the campground. By multiplying theobserved pass-by traffic times 12 (480minutes in an 8-hour shift divided by 40minutes of observation), an approximationcan be made of the park activity which is notrecorded in the visitor center. A methodicalcomputation (estimate) is better than aguess or omission.

2 . 3 . 1 W H A T I S R E P O R T E D A T L E V E L I I

Although there is no change at the BASIC levelprogram in what is reported, significantimprovements have been made in how data arecollected. The over- and under-reporting that waspart of the INITIAL program has been reduced (Table 2).

Pass-by traffic remains a problem, although thereis now an estimate of the volume. It is still unclearhow much of this traffic is visitation, excluded use,or pass-through traffic. However, if the volume islarge or if there are other indicators of resourceproblems, this deficiency of managementinformation will have to be resolved by makingfurther improvements in public use reporting.


T A B L E 2 : W H A T I S R E P O R T E D A T L E V E L I I ( B A S I C P U B L I C U S E R E P O R T I N G P R O G R A M )


Corrected for Counter Error? Not applicableAdjusted for Excluded Use? NOAdjusted for Entries? NO

Visitor Hours YES CSEntries NOVisitor Nights YES MCVisitor Night Hours YES CC-Reg. FormsEntry Night Hours NO


2 . 3 . 2 S H O R T C O M I N G S O F L E V E L I I

} There is no way to tell the difference betweenvisits, entries and other traffic (i.e., excluded).

} Traffic entering the park from the southentrance are not counted.

} Traffic entering before or after the staff tour ofduty is unknown.

} The accuracy, volume and duration of stay ofday-use is unknown.

} An entire group of visitors may not enter thevisitor center and may not be counted.

} Records that are kept on a daily basis andcompiled monthly are prone to clerical errors.This is especially true when calculations areinvolved. Unless there is some independentand reliable checking of calculations, errorsare likely to accumulate and compound inlater reports. If reporting errors are notcorrected immediately, there are seldomenough records or recollection to correct themlater.

} Counting of registration forms and calculationof items from separate records (visitor centerlog is updated from the registration formscollected) is error-prone.


} The use of hand counters is error-prone.

2 . 3 . 3 B E N E F I T S O F L E V E L I I

Two shortcomings of the INITIAL program havebeen improved at the BASIC level through theingenuity and efforts of park staff. More has beenlearned about additional sources of reporting errorand the need for more complete data for futureresource management and park operationsdecisions. By progressing to the BASIC Level IIprogram, the park is in a better position todemonstrate why it needs additional support toimprove the public use reporting program.

2 . 4 L E V E L I I I : I N T E R M E D I A T EP U B L I C U S E R E P O R T I N G P R O G R A M

As a result of Level II efforts, some resources inthe form of funding become available to the park.There are many ways to improve the MangroveProtected Area program. This improvement canlead to a Level III, or INTERMEDIATE program.

Each staff person will have suggestions aboutimprovements based on their individualexperience and point of view. A commonimprovement that first comes to mind is to buytraffic counters to place on the roads around thepark. Road counters would certainly relieve thestaff of some of the counting and record keeping.The problem with this solution is that visitors maynot be doing what the park staff believe they aredoing. In addition, there may be ways of makingestimates of use for certain areas withoutcounters. In any case, the funding may not beenough to put counters (or read and maintaincounters) in all the places staff think they shouldgo. Purchasing and installing countinginstruments may be the first idea that comes tomind but it is not always the best, next step inimproving a public use reporting program. Forexample, a common problem is that once roadcounters are installed, they will probably staywhere they have been put! If the counters are in apoor locale, they may be recording inappropriateor misleading data.

To develop a program to the INTERMEDIATEprogram, Level III, more basic descriptiveinformation about visitors is needed. Suchinformation often comes from a visitor survey.Surveys are studies designed to represent allvisitors within a certain time period. Surveys usequestionnaires to produce sets of data thataccurately describe the visitors, their visits, andtheir travel to the park. Detailed and accurate dataabout visitor use will help determine the mostcost-effective locations where countinginstruments should be placed as well as measurefactors needed to apply instrument counts to


reportable park use. The survey will measure thepatterns of use (from point of entry to exit),identify the statistical relationships between thebasic areas of use (visitor center, campground,overlook, trail head, and entrances), and producefactors needed for reporting (identification of theamount of excluded use as well as measureentries). The survey will also indicate areas andpatterns of use that have important similarities ordifferences, e.g., day users and overnighters, localvisitors or non-local visitors, large versus smallgroups.

A visitor survey is designed to gather data duringshort exit interviews conducted for one hoursamples at different time periods on randomlychosen days of the study month (survey methodsare further described in Chapter 4). A count ofpassing vehicular traffic is kept so the sample canbe expanded to indicate the entire park use forthat month (Table 3). These data must be collectedfrom a random sample of visitors. If these datacome from a random sample, they arerepresentative of all visitors for the period underinvestigation.

The design and administration of a visitor surveywill enable several shortcomings of the Level IIprogram to be resolved:

} What is the exact volume of basic categoriesof visitors: visitors, entries, and excludedtraffic? A question about the purpose of thetrip through the park should clearly establishthe difference between visit, entry, and anyactivity which is excluded from statisticalreporting.

} What is the relative volume of traffic past thetwo entrances? This can be resolved in anumber of ways. The locations where visitorsare contacted can be alternated between thetwo entrances. If the staff numbers permit, aconcurrent study at each location could beconducted. Separate pretests of the questionsto be asked on the survey could be conductedand estimates of the relative use basedentirely on the pretest.

} What is the volume of traffic entering beforeor after the staff tour of duty? It is seldompractical to answer this question for 24 hoursof the day. However, survey hours can bestaggered to cover several hours before andafter normal tours of duty to estimate thevolume of off-hour traffic.

} What is the exact length of stay in the park ofvisitors? A question addressing date and timeof entrance and exit establishes length ofstay. In cases where there may be somedoubt about exits and re-entries, the questionabout exit may be phrased “are you leavingthe park for the last time this trip?”

} The visitor survey includes a question aboutgoing to the visitor center. Answers to thisquestion can be used to determine apercentage by which visitor center counts areincreased to reflect the number of people whodon’t go inside.

During the design of the survey, some thoughtneeds to be given to future data needs. In the nextlevel of program development it is possible thatautomatic counting instruments will be needed.


T A B L E 3 : C A L C U L A T I N G T O T A L V I S I T A T I O N B A S E D O N S U R V E Y D A T A

Assume a 30-day month of 12hour, dawn-to-dusk days or 360possible hours of sampling.

The 21 hours of sampling are5.8% of the monthly total(21/360) so the pass-by trafficat the sampling site are 5.8% ofthe total traffic count assumingnegligible traffic at night.

In Stage I the percentage of themonthly visitor center countgives a rough estimate of theyear. If the peak month estimateis known, the remainder of theyear can be calculated.

With that possibility in mind, the survey needs tobe broad enough in scope and design to uncoverin detail how people use the park and where theygo. It is important to remember that a part of thejoy of park visitation is exploration and to thatextent the survey must be open to newinformation people have to give about theirexplorations.

2 . 4 . 1 W H A T I S R E P O R T E D A T L E V E L I I I

At Level III the park has a comprehensive estimateof public use of the entire park, at least for oneperiod of time. The complexities of park uses arenow known including local day visits, non-localvisits, visitation and total entries, overnights, andvisitor hours. Most importantly, the full volume ofpark use can be estimated because the numberwho slip past the counters at the visitor center orcampground can be estimated from survey data.At this point the park can use the survey results tocreate an estimate of park use for anymanagement application during the sample period.The Level III program produces visitor use datathat is reliable enough to be useful in manyaspects of park management.

The task of manual computation of overnight stayhours from registration forms is replaced by anaverage length of stay based on the survey. Theestimated day-use hours are also based on thesurvey.

The peak month sample can be expanded to anestimate of the entire month. With a much higherrisk of error, the month can be expanded torepresent the periods immediately before andafter the data collection, but probably not theentire season (depending on what that is).Unfortunately, the relationships indicated from thesurvey data can probably not be counted on topersist throughout the year. The only way to knowthat is to conduct regular surveys, such asbimonthly or seasonally. Quarterly surveys arerecommended as a minimum until enough surveydata are available to indicate otherwise.

While the survey is the main distinction of anINTERMEDIATE Level III program, it is also the basisfor making the transition to a DEVELOPED, Level IV,program to be discussed later.

2 . 4 . 2 S H O R T C O M I N G S O F L E V E L I I I

In a Level III program several of the originalshortcomings have been corrected. The park isnow able to operate on the basis of a broadknowledge of the volume of use that must besupported. Unfortunately, improved as they maybe, refinements of the data are based onextrapolations, estimates, and proportions from asurvey at only one point in time.


TA BL E 4 : W H AT I S R E P O R T E D AT L E V E L I I I ( IN T E R M E D I AT E P U BL I C U S E R E P O R T IN G P R O GR A M )


Corrected for Counter Error? Not applicableAdjusted for Excluded Use? YES SurveyAdjusted for Entries? YES Survey

Visitor Hours YES SurveyEntries YES SurveyVisitor Nights YES MC & SurveyVisitor Night Hours YES Survey Avg.Entry Night Hours YES Survey


Most parks will need more than a single visitorsurvey to represent the full range of visitor useover the cycle of a year as seasons and activitieschange. The data indicated from a visitor surveymay only be good for the particular portion of theyear in which the survey was conducted. It ishighly risky to base general managementdecisions (resource, maintenance or any otherkind) on a single study or month of data.

} The corrections that have been made arebased on a single survey whose data arerepresentative of that month only.

A respectable level of administrative skill isneeded to summarize and use survey data inconjunction with periodical public use reporting. At this level, the work is spread out to individualswith time available. The nature of this work hasgrown to a level of complexity that does not lenditself to informal assignments as time permits.While the overall scope of public use reporting hasimproved, the risk of error in preparing data hasincreased.

} The system in use has becomecomplicated and requires attention todetail, prior experience, administrativeskills and a block of uninterrupted timefor verification of calculations.

Several previous shortcomings remain:

} Records that are kept on a daily basis and compiled monthly are prone toclerical errors. This is especially truewhen calculations are involved. Unlessthere is some independent and reliablechecking of calculations, errors arelikely to accumulate and compound inlater reports. If reporting errors are notcorrected immediately, there areseldom enough records or recollection tocorrect them later.

} Counting of campground registration formsand calculation of items from separaterecords is error-prone.


} The use of hand counters is error prone.

} It is possible that the visitor surveys did notcollect a random sample of park visitors,thereby causing a sampling error and leadingto erroneous conclusions.

2 . 4 . 3 B E N E F I T S O F L E V E L I I I

At the INTERMEDIATE level of public use reportingthe needs of park operation, resource protectionand visitor services functions can be servedaccurately for the sampled period and at a grosslevel for the rest of the year. As respect and theneed for reliable data grow, so will theunderstanding that the standards for careful workapply to all areas of park work: maintenancerecords, resource management records, as well aspublic use records. To the extent that the general


Valley of the Giants Tree Top Walk at Valley of the Giants,

Walpole-Nornalup National Park, Western Australia

Special visitor facilities, such as elevatedwalkways, attract high levels of use. Such

facilities are excellent sites for point of sale datacollection.

importance of monitoring the park grows, theinterest in moving to a Level IV program willspread throughout the staff. Needless to say,changing conditions, especially public use, willdrive general staff interest in resource monitoringto the point of anxiety. The faster park use ischanging, the sooner a single visitor surveybecomes outdated.

At Level III a visitor survey is conducted ratherthan installation of new counters. Data fromcounters has its limitations that should berecognized. However, the use data from one ormore counters as well as data from the visitorsurvey will give a much improved picture ofreality.

2 . 5 L E V E L I V : D E V E L O P E D P U B L I CU S E R E P O R T I N G P R O G R A M

With a DEVELOPED program the park will havesufficient resources and staff to administrate andsupport a public use reporting program at a levelof accuracy that will serve the needs of alloperational departments including planning andbudget.

At the DEVELOPED level program three majoractions are taken to raise the park or protectedarea from the INTERMEDIATE level:

} The visitor survey is replicated for as manyseasons as management determines isappropriate or until no significant variation indata between seasons remain. Seasonaladjustments can be made to the automatedinstrument system to generate public usedata and estimates for all areas of park useincluding entries and exclusions.

} The administration of the overall system haspassed from a few personnel performing otherduties as assigned to a staff person withspecialized skills who controls all aspects ofthe program (instrumentation, operation,compilation and reporting) includingconsultancy to other operational departments

for their public use and visitor data needs. Any errors are the responsibility of a specificperson.

} Instrumentation is installed whereappropriate and cost effective based on ananalysis of visitors and their traffic throughthe park. At a minimum, this means an opticalsensor to count visitor center traffic andentrance station traffic counters. Errors fromhand counters and staff trying to do two jobsat one time are eliminated.

There are, however, two remaining concerns at theDEVELOPED level: improving the accuracy of publicuse data and reducing the labor intensive work ofcollecting and processing reports on the data.

If funding is limited, traffic counter sensors can beplaced where needed. One traffic counter canserve more than one sensor by being rotated fromlocation to location. The data reported becomeestimates based on partial counts. In the case ofMangrove Protected Area, the availability of atleast one traffic counter will add a partial count forthe north entrance and south entrance (Figure 2).

A DEVELOPED, or Level IV, program has at least onestaff dedicated to the task, rather than dependingon the services of momentarily unassignedindividuals. This person has public usemeasurement as a primary part of their jobassignment. They should have specialized trainingin survey design, data collection, datamanagement, statistics and report writing. Theassignment of staff to the public use reportingfunction is warranted by growing demands foraccurate data by other operating divisions of thepark management (resource protection, visitorhealth and safety, maintenance). Those otherusers of visitor data may also have additionalneeds for data requiring further development ofthe program. The campground staff, for example,may want to know the exact volume of traffic thatis turning off the main road into their site. Thegeneral park program does not require that kind ofdetail, but if it exists and contributes to park


management, it should be supplied. This is in thespirit of reciprocity that is the core of anystatistical program. As people (park staff ornational offices) learn they can rely on these data,the applications will spread. As applicationsspread the importance of accuracy at all levels willbecome more apparent. At Level IV there will be apublic use reporting program manager who willhave to address such needs and fulfill the generalreporting requirements as well. Such a programmanager will be responsible for quality control(check detail, reporting, record keeping,equipment installation and operation, etc.) andact as a consultant to the needs of other staff(scheduling patrols and pickup, placement anddesign of signage, monitoring areas showing newsigns of visitor impact, etc.). A regular cycle ofbrief visitor surveys is conducted to updatefactors used in reporting and serve other staffneeds.

2 . 5 .1 W H AT IS R E P OR T E D AT LE V E L I V

A DEVELOPED program, such as Level IV, makescost-effective use of automatic counters to reduceerror and to relieve staff of tedious duties. Limitedfunding may mean only one counter can be addedat a time. In the Mangrove Protected Area wewould start by adding a counter at the entrancegates (split duty at the NW gate for half of themonth and SE gate for the other half). Next wewould add an optical sensor to count visitors atthe visitor center.

These guidelines include an implicit hierarchy ofdata. While the INTERMEDIATE Level III involvedcalculations made from limited survey data andmanual counts existing from the INITIAL program,the DEVELOPED Level IV involves calculationsmade from automated counts and survey data.While what is reported remains essentially thesame, accuracy and reliability of data areimproved and burdens on staff are greatlyreduced. What is reported is close to actual parkuse although survey data will always be neededfor adjustments (visits, entries, and exclusions),and calculations (size of group and length of

stay). As park staff become accustomed todealing with accurate data, their needs andconcerns will turn more toward preventivemonitoring of incidental or emergent use (Table 5).

2 . 5 . 2 S H O R T C O M I N G S O F L E V E L I V

The major remaining shortcoming of public usereporting at the DEVELOPED level is the clerical jobof collecting the different counts, makingwhatever calculations remain to be made andfiling the records. Even though at least one personis assigned to consolidate this work, that personwill probably get help from others who collectcampground registration forms and read trafficcounters. To the extent that monthly records arecumulative, errors will accumulate from month tomonth. Short of careful, independent review, thereis no known way to get records to correctthemselves.

} Counting of registration forms and calculationof items from separate records is error-prone.

A final step is to automate public use datacollection and reporting. Until this system isautomated, it will still be prone to clerical andrecord keeping errors.While automation cannoteliminate all errors, it can eliminate many andleave the remainder easier to identify and correct.

2 . 5 . 3 B E N E F I T S O F L E V E L I V

There are many benefits of a DEVELOPED, Level IVprogram. The benefits of this level include all ofthe uses covered above, including information formaintenance operations, visitor services andprotection, natural resource protection, and


F I G U R E 2 : M A N G R O V E P R O T E C T E D A R E A

general management. Level IV has the depth andaccuracy that stimulates more confidence in itsuse.

2 . 6 L E V E L V : A D V A N C E D P U B L I CU S E R E P O R T I N G P R O G R A M

The purpose of an ADVANCED, Level V, program isstill resource protection, visitor safety and otherapplications described earlier. In addition, at thislevel the program becomes a showcase and centerfor teaching, research and problem solving forparks in the region at large. Not every park withina group of parks needs to have an ADVANCEDpublic use reporting program. However, parks orprotected areas with high volumes of use,extensive development or planned development,or critical and threatened resource conditionswould be well served by the precision, depth, andusefulness that is associated with an ADVANCEDprogram.

Attributes of Level V include trained staffdedicated to the program, the use of computers,enhanced graphic and statistical presentations ofdata, additional detail for all park operatingdepartments beyond those that have already beendiscussed. At this stage visitor surveys areconducted quarterly consisting of policy and issue

specific items as well as statistical and researchoriented questions. Other studies might includedata about transportation, evaluation, activity,perception, etc. At this stage the applications ofdata become especially important, not just to thepark itself but to the entire system of parks itrepresents. The park use data can confidently beused for regional economic evaluation. Data on theeconomic impact of park use and the kinds ofspecific expenditures people make are usuallyhighly valued by local businesses and politicalleaders.

As part of the emergence of the park as a learningcenter, formal relationships with nearby universityfaculty and students bring together the energy ofyouth, guidance of their academic leaders andhelp solve some of the problems of resourcemanagers. As a summary of programdevelopment, the Table 6 is offered.

Along with Table 6, the following caveat is offered.The amounts of staff, time and funding do notnecessarily make the difference between aprogram of one level or another. They do notaccount for the difference between data which areeither superficial and unreliable on one hand orcompletely sufficient to management’s needs onthe other. Even though our example is presented


T A B L E 5 : W H A T I S R E P O R T E D A T L E V E L I V ( D E V E L O P E D P U B L I C U S E R E P O R T I N G P R O G R A M )

REPORTED METHODVisits YES AC

Corrected for Counter Error? YESAdjusted for Excluded Use? YES SurveyAdjusted for Entries? YES Survey

Visitor Hours YES SurveyEntries YES SurveyVisitor Nights YES MC & SurveyVisitor Night Hours YES Survey AverageEntry Night Hours YES Survey

MC = Manual Count AC = Automated Count ES = Estimate(partial count) AD = AdjustmentCS = Constant CV = Conversion CC = Calculation AP = Approximation

as a series of progressions from one level toanother, this is not necessarily the case. Thecomplicating factor is the need for data. Forexample, a historic structure with a singleentrance and no overnight use could have a verysimple counting program to which it would be hardto assign a level.

2 . 7 H O W F A R T O G O ?

Throughout the progression of steps toward acomprehensive program of public use reporting,field staff and management personnel need to testthe data for applicability to the needs ofmanagement. Parks should make the decision toimprove data collection when they see the need toimprove their own actions to protect the area andto serve the public.

The development of a program must becoordinated with all park staff whether directlyinvolved in the current program or not. It is likelythat changes will affect everyone in the park.Early sensitization is part of the basicpreventative function of monitoring public use. It is suggested that some rotation of countingeffort and equipment be integrated into theevolving program from the beginning. To theextent that the park is a dynamically changingplace, the occurrence of and provision for changein public use and associated development will alsochange.

Future park professionals might handle changedifferently. An alternative is the provision ofmultiple and temporary access points allowing fordispersion of demand and enabling the reversal ofdevelopment even as we have seen demand abatefrom time to time. Further changes in syntheticmaterials and construction technology may leadto additional options for those who look for them.

The First Law of Crisis Management states: if onelabors exclusively to solve the problem of theimpending, however well one accomplishes theneeds of the moment, one is predestined to repeatthe mistakes of the past. If managers are toprotect the resource, they must step back andtake a longer view. A way to do that is to includeflexibility in the statistical program (and everyother major program). It is important to constantlyevaluate the data collection system and theproducts from the data analysis. A long-term viewand careful evaluation of the data collectionprocedures will lead to continual improvement inthe accuracy of the data and the usefulness of thedata.

2 . 8 H O W T H E G U I D E L I N E S W O R K

The following chapters contain sections that dealwith various topics such as counting instrumentsand visitor surveys. Few areas will contain all ofthe information needed or available.


T A B L E 6 : L E V E L S O F P R O G R A M D E V E L O P M E N T

LEVEL STAFF TIME FUNDING

Initial 1 (other duties as assigned) (as time permits) NoneBasic 1 (other duties as assigned) 10% allocated NominalIntermediate 2 (other duties as assigned) 25% allocated Same as small operating departmentDeveloped 1 (dedicated to program) 100% Same as any operating departmentAdvanced 2+ (dedicated to program) 100% Enhanced

Each section is intended to provide users with abasic understanding of the subject. Sections willbe revised and replaced over time to createdocumentation which is evolutionary along thelines of technological developments and userexperience and comment.


Taita Hills Safari Lodge, Kenya

Globally, the number of private ecotourism reserves has increased

dramatically in recent years. For public policy reasons, it is important

to tabulate the use levels of both public and private parks.


Chapter 3 covers the continuous measurement orestimation of public use for a park or protectedarea. Such counts are made monthly andsummarized annually or as needed. Data fromindividual reporting areas around the world can bepooled as an indicator of movement on the path ofplanetary understanding.

3 . 1 M E A S U R E M E N T O P T I O N S

Park use can be measured by a variety ofmethods. Indeed, a mixture of methods is therecommended solution for most areas. Assumingwidespread shortage of staff and hard currency,some mixture of methods will be the most cost-effective path for parks to follow for some time. Ifthe standard definitions given above are followed,parks using entirely different methods canproduce data which are compatible andcomparable.

The following discussion covers three basic waysto count, by instruments, from administrativerecords, and by making simple calculations. Thepublic use reporting system selected by theprotected area manager will consist of thatcombination of methods which can be reliablyperformed at the moment. Many parks will not beable to measure all use nor will future use be thesame as it is now. The reporting system willchange and get better. The resulting data will alsoget better and find their way into decisions andissues that now are lacking.

3 . 2 I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N

There are a variety of technologies which produceinstruments that automatically detect and recordobjects. The instruments react to mass,temperature, or motion made by horses, people,cars, snowmobiles, boats, etc. For the purchaseprice of one counter, a park or protected area canautomatically measure traffic at a point on a roador trail. For the cost of about five of these countersa resource manager can equip the area with arotating schedule of partial counting at points on15 to 25 road or trails (depending on thefrequency of relocating counters).

With any instrument using small amounts ofelectricity, attention needs to be given to thepossibility of electrical interference (bothelectromagnetic and radio interference) fromautomobile ignitions, radios, etc. Technicalspecifications given by manufacturers areaverages and may not take into accountcircumstantial impediments or improvementssuch as better radio frequency range possible withalternative antenna design or positioningarrangements.

In addition, hardware is not foolproof. Eachinstallation requires some field trials beforemeasurements can be taken for the record. Allcounting assemblies should be independentlyverified. Raw data from counters will usually haveto be adjusted to some extent. Most equipment,for example, is insensitive to parallel traffic wheretwo or more objects intersect a sensor (possibly inopposite directions) at the same time and aremeasured as one.


C H A P T E R 3

S TAT I S T I C S – C O N T I N U O U SC O U N T I N G S Y S T E M S

Instrument assemblies may include anycombination of sensors (separate or combinedemitter and receiver), cables or transmitters andrecorders and associated power supplies. Whenconsidering any assembly, remember that thepower supply that has to be changed most oftendictates the maintenance of the entire assembly.A passive infrared emitter may run for months ona small battery. However, if the emitter is coupledwith a power hungry receiver (as with activeinfrared) which transmits a signal to a remoterecorder, it is the short life of the receiver/transmitter that counts most. With the rapiddecrease in size and increase in the power ofportable computers, it is now feasible to have datarecorders download directly into computer databases. Some parks use solar cells attached tobatteries to power remote sensors, as well as theirassociated computers and transmitters.

Most of the technology has been developed for themanufacturing environment, for high levelsecurity, for assembly-line and robotics controlwhere human safeguard and fail-safe accuracyare of concern. Most instruments are available instructurally tough, corrosion resistant, non-conducting thermoplastic material.

3 . 3 C O N T A C T S E N S O R S

Contact sensors include any device which comesinto close or direct contact with the activity beingmeasured: magnetic detectors in the shape ofpads, mats, or cables, and seismic (vibration)detectors in the shape of spikes, mats, structuralclamps, and other physically activated detectors.

3 . 4 M A G N E T I C D E T E C T O R S

Magnetic detectors activate counters whenferromagnetic metals (bicycles to automobiles)pass over and change the ambient magnetic fieldof the earth or an artificial field created by acharged cable. The most common type ofmagnetic sensor has been the electrically charged

cable buried in the road surface. More recentlymagnetic sensors also come in the shape of smallpads (as small as 8 square inches or 20 sq. cm.)which are spiked onto the road surface. The padsare easy to install, hard to see, and cheap toreplace. Some may be read directly from smallLED (light-emitting diode) displays while othersrequire cable connections to portable computers.

3 . 5 A D V A N T A G E S O F M A G N E T I CD E T E C T O R S

There are advantages with the use of magneticdetectors. When magnetic counters are used withburied cable, they are vandal-proof, wear resistantand close to indestructible. Buried cable isinexpensive. Magnetic counters can be rotatedbetween numerous locations (eithersystematically or according to a random samplingplan). The counts are then expandedmathematically to represent the entire reportingperiod. For example, if a counter is rotatedbetween two locations for equal periods, thecounts are doubled to represent the entire period.

3 . 6 D I S A D V A N T A G E S O F M A G N E T I CD E T E C T O R S

There are disadvantages to the use of magneticdetectors. The applications are primarily forvehicular traffic (special hardware is available forbicycle paths). Installation is labor intensive, andtherefore costly. Installation includes time forcareful adjustments for delay to prevent doublecounting of lengthy vehicles, slow-moving vehiclesand vehicles with towed equipment. Readjustmentof sensitivity levels may be needed for traffic withhighly variable rates. The equipment requiresbattery replacement at intervals.

R E F E R E N C E SNational Park Service. 1988. A Guide for the Installation ofLoop Detectors for Traffic Counting Purposes. Denver ServiceCenter, National Park Service, Department of the Interior,United States of America.


United States Forest Service. 1983. Inductive Loops: TheirDesign, Installation and Maintenance for Road TrafficSurveillance. Equipment Development Center, Forest Service,Department of Agriculture, Missoula, Montana, No. 7700-9.

The United States Forest Service Equipment DevelopmentCenter has reviewed a variety of pedestrian and trafficmeasurement instruments. For a publication on the findingssee U.S. Forest Service, Technology Development Program,April 1994, Publication 2E22A89, Recreation, Missoula,Montana 59801, United States. U.S. Government PrintingOffice publication 1994-589-244/800019.

3 . 7 S E I S M I C D E T E C T O R S

Seismic sensors are activated by direct pressureor vibrations from physical disturbance. Theycome in the shape of floor or surface mats, spikesdriven into asphalt surfaced roadways, tubes orcanisters buried in the ground along trails orclamped onto rigid structures subject to vibrationduring use. When buried, these sensors and theirantennas are undetectable as long as they are notexposed by trail wear or erosion. Seismic sensorsare adjustable for both sensitivity and resetinterval (delay). Some seismic sensors can detectactivity as far as three meters away (10 feet). Astraffic passes within an area a signal istransmitted to a receiver. Receivers can be locatedas far as 90 meters (100 yards) away from thesensor. Some equipment is modulated (tone-coded) to reduce interference from other sources.The receiver can be connected to a variety ofdevices including counters, cameras, and videoequipment. Temporary connections to visualmonitors would enable users to determine factorsneeded to adjust counts to visitors at differentsensitivity settings.

3 . 8 A D V A N T A G E S O F S E I S M I CD E T E C T O R S

There are advantages to the use of seismicdetectors. They can be adjusted to detect eithervehicular or pedestrian traffic. If the soil andvegetation cover are restored to original condition,seismic detectors cannot be seen by park visitors.Buried sensors are resistant to weather conditionsand remain operational for years. Some modelsbroadcast counts to receivers located away fromthe sensor itself (look for pulsed or tone-codedfeatures to avoid radio frequency interference).Some models are designed for use withphotographic or video equipment.

3 . 9 D I S A D V A N T A G E S O F S E I S M I CD E T E C T O R S

There are disadvantages to the use of seismicdetectors for the counting of visitor use. Seismicdetector installations buried in the ground can beexposed over time by soil erosion or flotation incertain soil conditions. Seismic detectors areinappropriate for some applications such as cavesor archeological sites were digging may beinappropriate. The location of the cable connectorsto the buried sensors must be mapped for removallater. The odds are high that the map will lose itselfas personnel change over the long life of thesensors. It is very important that all datacollection procedures be thoroughly documented.Delay and sensitivity testing are important forproper adjustment. Average settings may not beappropriate for all rates of traffic flow. Operationwill vary according to soil conditions. Theseinstruments are relatively insensitive to clusteredtraffic. The distinction between human andwildlife may be difficult to make. Batteries areused in both sensor and receiver or counter andbattery life is limited to several months. Somemodels are inappropriate for applications wheretraffic stops on the sensor.


3 . 1 0 O P T I C A L S E N S O R S

Light waves vary in frequency across a range orspectrum with invisible X-rays at one end andinvisible “far infrared” at the other. Visible sunlighthas a frequency in the middle of the lightspectrum. Different kinds of light have differentproperties. The infrared band remains effectiveunder a variety of lighting conditions such as rain,snow, fog or blowing dust which would obscureother sources of light. This makes infrared a gooddetector for the outdoor applications needed byresource managers.

Three modes of infrared sensing are mostcommon. The opposed mode (also called activeinfrared or beam-break) is where an object (up to350 feet or 107 meters away) passes between anemitter and its receiver, breaks the beam andregisters a count on a recorder. In the retro-reflexive mode (another kind of active infrared)the emitter also contains the receiver which

registers a count when an object breaks a signalfrom a reflector (up to 225 feet or 70 metersdistant).

Some active infrared emitters make use of digitalmodulated light (emissions which switch on andoff at precise frequencies that receivers are tunedto pick up). Modulated sensors are easier to align,use less power and respond only to light of aspecific frequency. Modulated signals are also apart of the detection function of emitters.Receivers count the return signal and register acount only if the signal is blocked for that amountof time determined to be attributable to traffic. Thereceiver then counts more signals waiting for thepath to clear before it resets.

In the diffuse mode (or passive infrared) there isno separate reflector other than the object itselfwhich will reflect (up to 100 feet or 30 meters)some signal back to the emitter/receiver. In someinstances equipment can be installed in pairs to


Alligator and Road Counter, Jean Lafitte National

Historical Park and Reserve, USA

Traffic counters on roads sometimes recordtravel other than vehicles.

double the effective range. Many instrumentsinclude audio/visual indicators that makealignment easy and also tell when the signalstrength is low.

Optical sensors also use visible light fromincandescent bulbs. Such light has generallygreater intensity and range but visibility makes itprone to vandalism. Sensors are also sensitive tounintended light from nearby sources andreflections (proxing). Polarizing filters cut downthe field of vision of the visible light and thechances that it will react to reflections or beobserved by anyone not looking directly at thesource. Unfortunately, such filters cut down theoptical intensity of the beam.

Optical instrumentation performancespecifications should be carefully studied relativeto each proposed installation. Emitter signalstrength (called excess gain) diminishes withdistance and clarity of the operating environment.Manufacturers provide guides suggesting thelimits of each model regarding conditions,distance, and required signal strength. Infraredbeam patterns vary according to the type ofemitter in use. Some will remain fairly focused atsome distance requiring careful alignment,especially visible lasers which have greatrange.

Some attention to the detail of installationis required. If optics are mounted at waistlevel to count vehicles, as is the standardfor pedestrian counting, an optical trafficcounter will probably count passengerheads through auto windows (mounting onthe vertical diagonal is recommended).Similarly, optical counters should not belocated perpendicular to trails so they cancount individuals walking abreast (unlessthe trail is very narrow). Care should begiven to the direction of sunrise and sunsetto avoid alignment of the “eye” directly withthe sun which will saturate any kind of opticalsensor if not burn it out entirely.

The lenses used in all of this equipment can varyand lens design (image enlargement) can amplifythe effective range of emitters but withcorresponding limitations due to atmosphericclutter. (See O’Rourke, 1994 for a comparativestudy of eight different optical systems.)

A range of instruments and manufacturers usingthis technology is available. Several instrumentshave been specifically designed for outdoorapplications in regard to size, demand onbatteries, concealment, and range.

3 . 1 1 A D V A N T A G E S O F O P T I C A LS E N S O R S

Optical sensors have some advantages. Opticalsensor technology is no longer limited to low lightinterior spaces. Some optical sensors can cover awide distance such as across a body of water orlanding strip (up to 700 feet or 215 meters forvisible laser beams). Used in pairs, ranges candouble what is shown in specifications. Thedevices provide high levels of accuracy at lowcost. Most optical sensor assemblies have aneffective operational range of -35 to 50 C (-30 to120 F) with lithium batteries. Such batteries cost


Hikers in Yoho National Park, Canada

There are many technologies available for theautomatic recording of visitor use on trails.

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less than US $10 per year for batteries and can bepurchased for about US $200. Several kinds ofapplicable optical sensors are tough and needlittle attention for long periods. Infrared can beused to measure any heat emitting sourceincluding bicycle and horseback riders, hikers, andvehicles. They will not react to falling leaves, snow,trailers towed by cars, or hikers swinging walkingsticks. Instrument sensitivity in the form of resetinterval can be adjusted to avoid duplicatecounting expected from certain activity (horse,bicycle and canoe traffic).

This technology has yet to be fully explored for itspotential benefits. Optical sensors are useful inareas where an entrance may involve an irregularconfiguration, such as circular entrances inhistoric buildings and outdoor spaces involvingconcave terrain.

3 . 12 D I S A D V A N T A G E S O F O P T I C A LS E N S O R S

While robust in the presence of atmosphericclutter, optical sensors are prone to suffer fromfrost on lenses and dirt accumulation. The “eye”can be protected by recessing it away from theelements or by manual cleaning at intervals. Whilelaser diode emitters have the longest range,alignment becomes more critical. Fractionaloffsets become spans of misalignment whenprojected into the distance. Alignment can also bedisturbed by vibrations or platform shifting due tohumidity or temperature variations. O’Rourke(1994) reported different sensitivities to clothingwith active infra-red tending to misread lightclothing and passive infra-red tending to misreaddark clothing. While light, small, inexpensive andeasy to install, diffuse or passive infraredequipment provides less range and accuracy dueto the higher sensitivity levels needed for weakreturn signals. That makes them error-prone dueto variations in reflectivity, contrast, ambient lightand thermal conditions.

Wide detection zones characteristic of passiveinfra-red are not always an advantage. The longerthe “target” remains in the detection zone, thelonger will be the delay before the instrument canreset (sometimes up to 3 to 4 seconds). Thischaracteristic can be offset by installations alongdifficult portions of a trail. These may be prone tovandalism, especially where visible light andreflectors of active infra-red are involved.Nonlinear applications involving mirrors canexpect a 30% loss of signal at each point ofreflection which will substantially reduce effectiverange. Any application involving polarization willlose about 50% of signal.

R E F E R E N C E SBanner Engineering Corp. 1993. Handbook of PhotoelectricSensing. Banner Engineering Corp., Minneapolis, Minnesota,United States of America.

O’Rourke, D. 1994. Trail Traffic Counters for Forest Service TrailMonitoring. United States Forest Service, TechnologyDevelopment Program, Publication 2E22A89, Recreation,Missoula, Montana 59801. U.S. Government Printing Officepublication 1994-589-244/800019. U.S. Forest Service,Technology Development Center, Building 1, Fort Missoula,Missoula, Montana 59801. United States of America.

3 . 13 O T H E R T E C H N O L O G Y

The application of technology to the task ofresource monitoring has yet to be fully developed.The use of fiber-optical cable, for example, meansoptical sensors can be far removed from what theymeasure with little loss of signal. The limits ofoptical, sonic and magnetic sensing have yet to befully tested in submerged environments in riversand lakes where use is often unmeasured.

Microwave detectors are primarily designed foruse along automobile roadways in conjunctionwith doorway and traffic control systems(activation of doors and traffic lights). Microwaveemitter/receivers detect motion (above 3 km perhour) of any mass out to a maximum range ofabout 107 meters (350 feet ). At that distance thecone of sensitivity covers about 11 meters across


(36 feet). The advantage of microwave is itsrelatively broad area of sensitivity (up to 30 x 120feet or 9 X 36.6 meters) can sense direction oftravel without the use of turnstiles or constrictivezones.

The use of ultrasonic detectors is primarily inconjunction with traffic controller applicationssuch as presence sensing to prevent gates ordoors from closing on objects. Ultrasound emittersare used to produce an inaudible signal (above 20kHz) which reflects or “echos” off of solid objectsat relatively short distances (15 meters or less).The advantage of ultrasound is less sensitivity tothe surface condition of the sensed object thanoptical emissions which tend to react differentlyto color and light reflectivity. That advantage doesnot include sound reflectivity. Sound absorbingsurfaces are not good targets for ultrasoundwhich limits their uses for trail applications(human/wildlife sensing). Ultrasound canmeasure distances from the reflected objectwhich is an advantage not found in other trafficsensors. Ultrasound is among the more costlytechnologies.

Turnstiles and hand counters will remainappropriate technology for measuring public usefor a long time. Turnstiles can be installed at anyplace where pedestrian traffic is funneled througha narrow space. People are counted individually asthey pass through a rotating gate. A portion of thegate rotation is recorded by a simple mechanicalcounter. Hand counters are useful in situationswhen staff can devote most of their attention togroup turnover such as in a theater, amphitheater,or equivalent presentation. As a source ofcontinuous recording by an individual tasked withother responsibilities, data compiled by handcounters is error prone.

Pneumatic hoses are used where vehicles maymake an impact and activate an air pressuresensitive counter. Pneumatic counters aresensitive to traffic from 1 kilometer per hour orhigher. In hot climates rubber hoses will be sunk

into asphalt. Hoses are also prone to deteriorationin direct sun. Installations across dirt or looserock should be reinforced to prevent hoses frombecoming buried. Installation should avoid curveswhich will involve excessive wear andmiscounting. Hoses require frequent examinationfor tears which allow air out and moisture in,causing the system to fail. Records of theinstallation of new hoses will guide the frequencyof inspection required as hoses age. Ideally theyshould be located near entrance stations,congested areas or stop signs where the chanceof vandalism is reduced.

Photographic sampling is an important extensionof the basic measurement task. Surveillancecameras are useful for remote sensing of largeareas (100 meters plus). They can be installed tobe activated randomly or at regular intervals forareas where activity is low or unknown. Time lapsephotography can be used to sample public useacross broad fields of view. While some camerascome with intervalometers which activate theshutter at set intervals, intervalometers can bepurchased separately. A small frame (e.g., 8 mm)motion picture camera activated by an appropriatesensor (e.g., passive infra-red) would be able tocount thousands of visitors before replacement,as well as differentiate between people andwildlife. Such an application would yield both ahuman and animal census. Visual media, ofcourse, sort out what is counted when wildlife andhuman populations intermix.

3 . 14 R E M O T E S – T R A N S C E I V E R S ,R E C O R D E R S , F I B E R O P T I C C A B L E S

Emitter, receiver, transmitter, recorder associatedcabling and power supplies may be in one packagefrom one manufacturer, packaged separately, orpackaged in some combination. The possibilitiesfor combination include multi-optic cable feeds tovideo cameras which detect hot-spots replacingthe tedious function of the fire watch.


A device called a transceiver can be used toextend the range of measurement equipment torecorders by hundreds of kilometers (within rangeof overflying park aircraft). At least onemanufacturer has a small transceiver thatcontains data memory, a real time clock, receiver,transmitter and power supply. The transceiver canstore data, listen for transmission instructions,and broadcast data on demand as far as a mileaway (or up). Such a transceiver could uploadweather and surface resource conditions includingwind velocity, wind direction, humidity,temperature, soil conditions, or any othermeasurable quality of the environment needed by park managers.

Fiber optic cables made of glass can be used toextend the reach of optical sensors. These cablesare rugged and flexible. Applications include cavesand other remote environments where the sensor,power pack and recorder assembly needs to bemore conveniently located than the area wheresensing is actually taking place.

3 . 15 S E C O N D A R Y R E C O R D S

Counting handouts at entrance stations is anefficient and reasonably accurate method ofestimating visitors. Since “counts” are made bycomparing the end volume with the beginningvolume, park staff are free to engage visitors asneeded without losing track. Asking staff to makecounts with a hand counter while engaging inmaterial distribution should be avoided. Theobvious distractions for the staff leads to errors incounting.

There are often existing local activities whichcount visitors independent of the park orprotected area itself. Railway stations, marinelandings, bus operators, and airports may havetheir own reasons to keep track of nearby traffic.While such data may include non-park activity,there may be ways to make adjustments that willgive an indication of the portion which has thepark or protected area as its destination. Local

accommodations may be used as jump-off pointsfor visitors and those occupancy statistics couldbe used. While it would be cost effective to haveothers collect statistics on behalf of the park,consideration must be given to the limitationswhich bear on such numbers. There may be aproprietary interest in withholding such data fromcompetitors. Government regulations coveringtaxation and immigrations may create bias orother constraints. Secondary records may bepoorly kept or kept in ways which are too timeconsuming to recover compared to the simplemonthly reading of automated instruments.

3 . 16 V I S I T O R R E G I S T E R S

A simple, but effective and useful way to collectattendance data is through the register. A registeris simply a form on which people record their tripto the park. In addition to registration, parks oftenencourage people to place a colored pin on theirhometown on a world map (the maps are changedperiodically). People are naturally curious to see ifthey are the only ones to visit or if there areothers from home. If a park has brochures to giveout, it can be done along with a request to register.Most people will respond to the trade of a nameand address for a brochure.

A register is easy to design and make. Someregisters are simply titled lines on a page coveringdate of visit, hometown, number in group, andvisitor comments. Such registers are commonlypresented on a large, attractive binder displayedon a podium at a visitor center entrance. Registersare a way of communicating a “welcome” to thepark.

A register can also be in the form of a card withdate, name, address, and other informationneeded by the park. Cards can be passed outwherever people are to be found (overlooks, visitorcenters, entrances, program presentations). Ifcards are methodically collected, they can beinvaluable. They account for visitation volume, tellsomething about the visitor, and give visitors an


opportunity to communicate back to the park (the“comments” part). If an effort is made to have allvisitors register, the accuracy of estimatedvisitation counting can be as good as counting byinstruments. Registration is usually easier andalways cheaper than counting by instrumentconsidering the trials of instrument calibration,breakdown, maintenance, and regular datarecording. Registers, especially cards, can bedesigned to include such diverse information assites visited, activities, expenditures, etc.

One should be cautious not to ask for moreinformation than can be reasonably expectedwhen registration is voluntary. There are, ofcourse, conditions where registration is notvoluntary; usually for reasons which are in theinterests of public welfare or resource protection.Where registration is not voluntary, the purpose ofregistration should be conspicuously displayed tothe park visitors to encourage submission ofregistration information. Keeping track of people isan important resource management function thatmost people understand. Some kind of trafficcontrol is usually needed to avoidbunching up on resources such as rivers,trails, caves, etc. It is appropriate toremind people if they are entering a wildarea because search and rescue is anexpensive and occasionally tragic event.Asking people to record their visit plans isa way to capture their attention andpossibly help them avoid needing help.However, if help is required, having thekey information on the visitor will be ofcritical assistance. In environments whichpose periodic hazards (snake bites,slippery surfaces, hypothermia, etc.), theneed for registration is also anappropriate time to hand out literature on safepractices.

Registers are also useful for general managementand planning purposes. Some people will developa lingering interest in the park and its future. Ifthere are management questions to which the

park wants a viewpoint, the registration ofinterest is a good way to gather address data fornewsletters. (Be careful, on the other hand, not topromise what cannot be delivered.)

In cases where registration is not required of allvisitors, verification of register use can beaccomplished by simply asking (at regularintervals) a certain number of people exiting thepark if they registered anywhere in the parkduring their visit. Of course, periodical checks ofregistration against door counts (assuming thereis a way of measuring foot traffic) can give anindication of registration frequency among thepublic. That leaves open the question of how manypark visitors use the facility where registrationoccurs.

If a park decides to use registration, a mixedstrategy can work well, e.g., using guest registersin combination with cards for certain activities orduring a sample of the visitor season. Recordsfrom entrance fees, wilderness permits, trail headand campground registers can fill in the gaps.


Park Visitors and Park Staff at Forillon


Park visitor service personnel are often very busywith the provision of information and advice topark visitors. Often they are too occupied to be

able to accurately count park visitor use bycasual observation.

©Pa

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Care should be taken not to use sources which willresult in duplication of counts, e.g., visitors whoregister at visitor centers, at campgrounds, andalso at trail heads. Special attention needs to begiven to the sources used. Fees paid forcampground use, for example, are a good source ifthe fee is per person per night or if party size isrecorded along with fee payment. Entrance fees,on the other hand, might not be a good source ifthe fee is for unlimited entrancing over a period oftime. Such complexities as these are what driveparks to implement instrument counting systems.

Registers should be closed out at intervals, thedata summarized in a report and the originalsdiscarded. Making use of register data can be timeconsuming. But considering the costs ofinstrumentation, they remain an attractive andreasonable alternative for small to moderatestatistical systems or as a way to start astatistical program while waiting for funds forinstrumentation and installation.

3 . 17 O B S E R V A T I O N S

The use of informal observation as the basis forcollecting data is common and completelyappropriate for statistics used for public relationspurposes. To the extent that managers have real,immediate, and practical uses for data, they canonly rely on formal observations, i.e., observationsmade according to strict rules of record keeping.

If park staff are stationed at places whereoccasional visitation occurs and if they arerequired to record each instance of visitation, thecumulation of observation records can beconsidered factual. If park staff are asked to recalltheir observations at a later time for a particularinterval of time, the recollection of events is notfactual nor appropriate for use of anyconsequence.

If park staff are provided with a sampling plan formaking observed counts of consistently identifiedobjects (which could be persons, occupants of acampsite, vehicles, etc.) at defined areas andspecified points of observation, such data can beconsidered to be factual. Any methodicalenumeration such as daily counts at a certain


Prince Edward

Island National

Park Campground

Program, Canada

Interpretiveprograms keep

records ofattendance.

hour would be considered factual. Areas should beprecisely defined so counts taken by more thanone observer will have some consistency.

Circumstances, unfortunately, tend to corruptobservations despite the best intentions ofobservers. Questions from visitors, emergencysituations, rule violations, illness, or absenteeismand all kinds of human error can confoundobservations. Any need to use observationsshould be a primary assignment for the observerrather than one of several duties while on patrol.

The use of hand counters is strongly advised. Ifobservers are free from distraction, several handcounters can be combined for multiple counts,e.g., number of people on shore versus off shore,horseback riders versus hikers. Multiple countingcan become complicated, such as for campgroundmanagers who want to know male, female, adults,children, pets, bag-tent-trailer (vehicle), flotationequipment, etc. Tally sheets can ease thisheadache. Nevertheless, remember thatobservations are error prone and detailedobservations are more so!

Other than the distinctions between gender andadult or child, socio-demographic characteristicscannot be observed. Generally, group membershipcannot be observed. There is also difficulty inobserving activity. Activities can change frommoment to moment, with weather conditions, orbased on what other people in the visiting groupare doing.

3 . 1 8 C A L C U L A T I O N S , C O U N T E RR O T A T I O N , P A R T I A L C O U N T S

The accuracy of direct counting declines as thenumber of traffic counters needed to cover anarea increases. As the number of traffic countersincreases, so do equipment failures, vandalism,and errors of record-keeping.

If the park has personnel in the field, there is away to cover large areas without involving scores

of instruments and keeping a warehouse ofbatteries. Counters can be rotated betweensensors according to a plan for sampling variousareas of the park. The resulting partial counts canbe expanded to represent the entire area.However, the design of such a data collectionprocedure will be complex and must be verycarefully designed and carried out.

3 . 19 C O L L E C T I O N S Y S T E M D E S I G N

Unfortunately, few parks have physical layoutswhich involve a single entrance/exit point whichcan be automatically measured. Most parks needto draw from a variety of measurement techniquesand apply them to a variety of locations rangingfrom entrances, landing points, watering holes,campgrounds, or other gathering spots.

The design of a collection system has a range ofcompromises. Accuracy is good but complexity,which increases with accuracy, is bad.Completeness is good, but high cost and effortwhich increase with completeness, is bad. Cheapand easy systems are good, but staffforgetfulness and indifference, which increasewith minimal priority and effort, is bad.

Resource management needs will dictate thedesign of any system. If, for example,management needs to know the differencebetween heavy traffic (horses, mountain bikes,snowmobiles) and light traffic (cross-countryskiing, hiking), it can be done. Dual sensors,seismic for heavy traffic and infra-red for alltraffic, would provide the necessary data.

Finally, the design of a collection system shouldinvolve some experimentation. Experimentationwill help identify when direct counts are neededand when approximations, constants, or estimateswill do. To the extent that seasonal changes andshifting markets of visitors are involved, thecollection system may involve severalconfigurations at different times.


At Buffalo National River Park in the USA, a passiveinfra-red system is used to measure boats goingdownstream. The need for this data is in the parkriver management plan. The assembly has beeninstalled with consideration of periodic flood levelsand at such a point that it detects a relatively fastmoving section where boaters are more likely tobe in single file. Fast-moving channels arepreferred because of the minimum three-seconddelay between counts. Verification of the systemindicates an error of about 2% due to trafficmoving slowly or across the channel andremaining in the beam long enough to be countedagain.

Some parks are composed of several units,geographically separated from each other. Anexample of such a situation is the RichmondNational Battlefield Park in the USA. This park istypical of any multi-unit park (a park with adiscontinuous boundary). The collection ofaccurate, and therefore useful, data from suchsites requires a sophisticated system. Use of eachunit is measured by contact counters (pneumaticand inductive loops), adjusted for the trafficpattern (one or two way), adjusted for visits(compared to visits and entries), non-reportabletraffic, and persons per vehicle multiplier. Thesubtotal for all areas is added and multiplied by afactor which represents the amount of multi-unitvisitation and the product is the grand total for theperiod. All the factors used in the calculation arederived from a multi-seasonal visitor survey using

a randomly selected sampling scatteredthroughout each month. Such surveys are updatedat intervals of about three years.

3 . 2 0 C O N V E R T I N G I N S T R U M E N TM E A S U R E M E N T S T O R E P O R T A B L ED A T A

It is often necessary to convert readings frominstruments to numbers which indicate public use.Such conversions may involve factors which mayenlarge counts (such as persons per vehiclegreater than 1.0) or factors which may reducecounts (such as a visit less than 1.0 to accountfor non reportable use). The determination ofPersons-Per-Vehicle (PPV) and re-entry Length-Of-Stay (LOS), Visits or Entries, exit-re-entry or otherfactors that may be needed are covered in thefollowing chapter on visitor studies.

3 . 21 A U T O M A T I O N

Any statistical program involves activities that aretedious and require attention to detail includingthe collection and recording of data from severallocations, conversion of data to reportablestatistics, correction of erroneous entries,archiving and recovery of data for variousapplications. At some point in the development of a public use reporting program it is necessaryto acquire a computer to store and process data.Of course, there are many other reasons why


Faculty of the Griffith University School of

Leisure Studies, Australia

One of the functions of the head office isto develop liaison with university faculty

and departments.

computers are becoming tools that are basic toany administrative activity.

One kind of computer software that deals withdata processing of the kind we have discussed iscalled forms management software. An example isincluded in Chapter 6 called “EZ Forms Database.”This program allows a form for entering data to betailor-made according to the needs of a user. Theforms can be mathematically related to each otherso that cumulative information can automaticallybe carried from one form to another. The dataentered become part of a relational database.Later data can be recovered in whatever order orformat is desired. The applications of formsmanagement software are not limited to publicuse data. An indirect benefit of the development ofa methodical public use reporting program isthose skills and abilities that will benefit everyother area of park management from basicadministration to resource management itself.

3 . 2 2 C E N T R A L O F F I C E F U N C T I O N S

The public use reporting function at central officesprovides a variety of essential services includingthe prescription of reporting intervals, thepreparation of useful feedback to parks, and thedefinition and regulation of standards. In thecentral office, a few individuals with experience inprogram development, technology and automationcan provide invaluable assistance. Central officescan also provide depot level maintenance,procurement and inventory support.

Many park agencies develop a visitor managementor tourism management office in the head officeor at some other central location. One key task ofthe central office is to develop agency procedures,then to implement the procedures and monitorcompliance. An example of a form, developed byParks Canada for each of its field units, to trackthe visitor attendance methodology in each parkin a system is found in Appendix 2.

The central office can keep track of the suppliersof specialized equipment, of software and ofcomputer technology. System wide surveys arebest designed in a central locale, by speciallytrained staff, and then administered in the field.Sophisticated survey design, statistical analysisand report production is usually a central officerole. It important for the head office to keep trackof trends in visitor management and tourismanalyses. Forming partnerships with universitiesexpert in tourism and leisure management is animportant function of the central office.

The central office can serve as a reviewer andauditor of field data. Standardization of the datacollection procedures and checking of the data forvalidity is best done by those with specializedtraining. The central office can play a pivotal rolein training of the field staff.

Reporting to government and to the public aboutuse levels of a park system is a critical function.When the central office is sure that the data isaccurate and acceptable, it has the role to providethis data to the appropriate people andinstitutions. The application of the data into parkmanagement, into regional tourism plans and intointernational policy development can be a vitalrole of the central office.

3 . 23 R E P O R T I N G I N T E R V A L S

Park managers’ most common need for data is atmonthly intervals. Therefore, reports are puttogether monthly. However, the frequency ofrecording counts is another matter. If counts comefrom automatic counters, they can be read asneeded (monthly). If counts come from manualcounters or observations, they should be recordedat whatever interval they are made. Commonforms for recording data should be prepared andkept as long as they may prove useful and as acheck to resolve errors (usually a year).


Changes in counting procedures at the park orprotected area should be enacted at the beginningof the year following the decision to change ratherthan as soon as changes are determined. Such aconvention makes it easier to study changesamong a group of parks and provides a 12-monthcycle of use between changes.

Advances in computer technology andcommunication technology allow for shorterreporting intervals. For example, computer storageof campground registration data makes it possiblefor almost instantaneous delivery of data analysisreports on that data. The level of campground use,the home location of all campers and trends in useover time can all be calculated quickly andcommunicated widely both within the park and toa central office.

3 . 2 4 F E E D B A C K

The delivery of feedback from central to fieldoffices is necessary to establish a mutuallybeneficial relationship between offices. Individualparks can collect their own data but they oftencannot analyze all data relevant to what ishappening in their own site. Central offices canprovide that service to areas that report to them.The scope and content of data reported back toparks can range from a collection of past andother park data to reports of travel conditions,airport arrivals, relative costs of motor fuel, and a wide range of useful information. That feedbackor quid pro quo is what can keep a relationshipbetween central and field offices healthy andproductive. As communication continues toimprove, and especially with the onset of theinternet, fast and easy communication betweenparks and other offices becomes easier. With theinternet, electronic mail and other forms ofcommunication, parks can send their data to thecentral office frequently, possibly evencontinually. Similarly, the head office can sendback analyses almost as soon as they arecompleted.

3 . 2 5 A U D I T S

Overzealous accounts of public use can resultfrom a range of motivations from deliberate intentto defraud to misplaced enthusiasm. Countingprograms have revealed theft of park fees.Counting records have been forged to justify newconstruction facilities in parks. Indeed, someexpensive projects have been built only to sitlargely unused while the staff struggles tomaintain them. A good counting program is adeterrent to corruption and a check againstmismanagement. A central office audit program isa major means of quality control as well as ameans of communicating to the park staff thataccuracy and faithful representation of public useis important.

Quality control over public use reporting isestablished by regular audits of collection andreporting practices of parks. While parks areresponsible for the quality and integrity of theirown data for their own practical needs, someoversight is needed to deal with misplacedenthusiasm or misunderstanding of instructionsfor counting. Such oversight is also beneficial formaintaining continuity when staff move on to newpositions as well as providing historical records incase park records are lost or destroyed.

3 . 2 6 A S S I S T A N C E

As the technology in use at parks becomes moreinvolved, it is useful to have specialized skills todeal with it. The hiring of people with highlyspecialized skills may not be justified at anindividual park, but is realistic for groups of parks.The need for specialized skills at central offices isespecially evident when employee turnover atparks is high and the task of basic skills trainingin an agency becomes a continuous activity.


The same is true for hardware involved in publicuse reporting. It is usually not practical tomaintain an inventory of spare parts in every parkwhen there is only 1 or 2 automatic counters inuse. A central depot for parks would be costeffective and also serve to maintain someconsistency of hardware in use among parks, notto mention the possibility of savings from bulkpurchasing.


Voi Store, Tsavo West National Park, Kenya

Park visitation can stimulate local involvement

in tourism. Such businesses appreciate receiving

appropriate levels of market information from

park agencies.


Up to this point in the guidelines we have beenconcerned with counts, i.e., statistics. The majorconcern in making counts is that they be complete(cover all of the park and all visitors) andaccurate. We now turn our attention to studies.Studies are data collection efforts that can cover abroad range of characteristics of visitors,everything from their trip to the park to theirevaluation of park programs. Studies arenecessary to create a good statistical program fora park. Studies produce the basic correction andadjustment factors like average persons pervehicle, which are needed to read traffic countersand report park visitation.

The main difference between statistics andstudies is the difference between a small amountof information about all visitors versus a largeamount of information from some of the visitors.In the case of studies, we have to take specialsteps to be sure the visitors contacted arerepresentative of all visitors. (This can be donewith well-designed sampling methods which willbe discussed in the next chapter, Chapter 5.)

4 . 1 G E N E R A L

While the next chapter (Chapter 5) is all about howto do studies, a preview of that material is usefulnow before we discuss the variety of studies thereare to do.

First and foremost, try to find a copy of the “Q-Cat”which stands for question catalog. Last publishedin 1996, the Q-Cat is a list of 177 questions thathave been asked repeatedly in visitor surveys.This catalog was developed by Ken Hornback and

Bill Key to promote the standardization of surveyquestions within the National Park Service of theUnited States. Each question has been carefullydeveloped and field tested. The questions arelisted by ten topic areas and by variable name.Several versions of many questions are listed.Codes for the most commonly given answers arealso included. The entire catalog is available onthe world wide web at the University of Waterloo.The web address ishttp://www.ahs.uwaterloo.ca/rec/toc.htm.

Second, even though you have access to a largenumber of interesting questions, studies mustremain short in order not to irritate visitors bydetaining them for long periods during their trip.Irritated visitors give bad information. One studycannot possibly collect all of the information youwill need. If a small study is conducted eachseason, a large amount of information will soon beon hand. As a general rule you should be able toprint all questions in your first survey on one sideof a single piece of paper. If a lot of information isreally needed in a hurry, try making severalversions of the questionnaire and rotate theversions from location to location during thesampling period. This will probably require a full-time study coordinator.

Third, how do you best collect information fromvisitors? Do you collect data by interviewingpeople about their visit? Is it better to let peoplefill out forms with questions and answer choicesalready provided? Answers to these questionsvary and opinions range widely. Our advice is toconduct a small number of interviews, gatheringdata about questions in which you are currentlyinterested. Keep notes about which questions(and accompanying answers) seem to work


C H A P T E R 4

V I S I TO R S T U D I E S

without confusion or difficulty. Revise theinitial interview form. If at all possible,gather all of the data by interview(according to a sampling plan discussedbelow). A good source for learning how togather interview data can be found inPatton’s (1990) book Qualitative Evaluationand Interpretation. However, if you mustresort to handout forms as a source of data,remember there will always be questionsabout what voluntarily completed formsrepresent, regardless of the numberdistributed or returned.

Fourth, study findings are generally applied to allpark visitors. Therefore, studies must represent allpark visitors. If a study is designed to give allvisitors an equal opportunity to be included, itsfindings may be said to be representative andused with confidence. A large number of visitorsneed not be involved to produce useful results. Onthe other hand, no matter how many visitors areinvolved in a study which contacts only certainkinds of visitors (e.g., spring users of onecampground), the data would not berepresentative nor applicable to all. See Chapter5.1 to learn about collecting a good sample.

Finally, pay attention to details in the design ofyour questionnaire and give it a pretest. Certaincore questions need to be covered for every visitorcontact. Core items may address weather, identityof interviewer, date and location of visitor contact,number of visitors in a group, number of visitorsunder and over certain ages, visitor homeresidence, or other visitor characteristicsobserved by park staff. It is important toremember though, that when you ask corequestions that you make sure you are reallyasking what you think you are asking. Oftenquestionnaires are full of questions that do notask what one thinks they do. This can potentiallycreate many problems as the purpose of corequestions is to address questions about the studyitself, such as; Are the characteristics of thevisitors roughly equivalent from study to study?

or, Are there local conditions which may undulyinfluence the findings? So called “filter” questionsmay also be needed to make sure a visitor is“qualified” by being near the end of the visit. Pickinterviewers carefully, train them, and rehearse acheerful greeting and a statement of how muchthe data are needed to run the park better forvisitors. If handouts are used (questionnaires,maps, lists of activities, etc.), use bright colors.Simple hand drawings can enhance text. Animalfigures can replace names where language is aproblem. If questionnaire editing is to be done inred ink, interviewers have to be told to only useblack/blue ink to fill out a form. These are thekinds of details that need to be worked out beforeyour time as well as the public’s is spent collectingdata for use.

R E F E R E N C E

Patton, M. Q. 1990. Qualitative Analysis and Interpretation.

Newbury Park CA: Sage.


Park Personnel and Visitors in Nahanni


Park employees are often very comfortabletalking to visitors. With additional training,

these personnel can do a competent job ofcollecting specialized visitor data in a personal

interview format of survey.

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4 . 2 S T U D I E S T H A T V E R I F YS T A T I S T I C S F O R C O U N T I N G

The instruments used in continuous countingsystems (Chapter 3) are limited. Instrumentsusually cannot answer such basic questions ashow many people are in the car which is counted.Campground records may not show how longvisitors stay or if they have been in and out of thepark more than once a day. There is no counterthat can determine if people are coming to visit orjust passing through. Something more is neededto resolve these and other questions for anycounting program.

The most basic and essential kind of study is theone which verifies factors used in the generalcounting program. These surveys do not need tobe conducted more frequently than once everythree or four years unless there are majorchanges in or around the park that indicate thebasic characteristics of the visitor or visit havechanged.

4 . 2 . 1 P U R P O S E O F Q U E S T I O N S

The study to verify factors used in the park publicuse counting program is simply an extension ofthat statistical program. The purpose ofverification studies is to both measure errors thatcan be present in a counting program and providethe data needed to correct for the degree of error.The rest of the studies in this chapter focus ondifferent issues of concern to park management(economics, satisfaction, etc.).

A basic verification study will consist of questionscovering seven areas.

1. It is usually necessary to separate peoplevisiting the park (visits) from those who arepassing through (park entries) and those whoare not counted for statistical purposes, (e.g.,concessionaire employees.)

2. In cases where visitation traffic may wanderinto and out of park boundaries, it may benecessary to trace the visit. Data from such a

map will enable calculations to be maderepresenting the amount of exit and re-entriesassociated with each entrance. Without such acorrection, duplicate counting would beinvolved. This item is usually included even ifroad/boundary crossing is not a concernbecause the data have other applications forresource protection, traffic management, andgeneral planning activities.

3. Some duplication of counting will beassociated with the traffic of the same visitorsout of and back into the park during the sameday. This may be caused by a variety ofdevelopments outside the park such ascommunities where supplies are purchased,other scenic areas, homes of friends andrelatives, etc. A specific question on this isasked because the visitor may not rememberexiting and leaving as an activity covered inthe previous question.

4. In cases where many visits last more than oneday, the exact length of stay is needed. Lengthof stay information can easily be used toconvert from visits to visitor hours. Forexample, if half of the visitors (50%) stayovernight (average stay of 42 hours) and halfstay for day use only (average stay of 6hours), the entrance of 1,000 visitors wouldresult in 21,000 overnight hours plus 3,000day use hours for a total of 24,000 overnighthours or (using the statistical convention of 12hours per visitor/day for interpark comparativepurposes) 2,000 visitor days. In reality, themore categories of length of stay (more thanour example of day use and overnight), thegreater the accuracy of subsequentcalculations.

5. Visitors contacted during their visit may needto estimate their time of departure so aquestion about that is often included.

6. The questions about length of stay in the park(4 and 5 above) do not specifically determineif a visitor stayed in or outside of the park. Adirect question is needed. If the visitor did notstay in the park overnight, a question might be


added to determine the length of stay duringthe days after the visitor stayed outside thepark. If the visitor did stay in the parkovernight, the location is usually asked inorder to estimate the amount of use receivedby different campgrounds.

7. In the example given in 4 (above) the 1,000visitors probably are estimated from trafficcounter data which uses a persons per carfactor (multiplier). If that factor were anaverage 2.5 persons found from asking aboutthe number of people a visitor is traveling with,1,000 visitors would arrive in 400 cars(1,000/2.5).

This most basic form of visitor survey is intendedto verify and clarify characteristics of park use soraw counts can be corrected (for duplication) andconverted to reportable statistics (covered inChapter 1): visits, entries, visitor hours and visitordays. The exact content of a survey of this typewill depend on the underlying statistical system,the actual layout of the park and activitiesavailable there, the possibilities for duplications,the adjustments or corrections that are needed todeal with any remaining deficiencies and gaps.

4 . 2 . 2 F O R M A T

The content of this type of study is simple enoughthat one format can be used either as a handout tovisitors or as a worksheet from which interviewersread questions and fill in the blanks. The followingformat may be used.

1. What is the main purpose of this trip? Visit Park___ Passing Through___ Other___

2. In the last 24 hours, where did you go andwhat did you do in the park? (Show the visitor a simplified park map;interviewer uses a short activity code list torecord major activities, e.g.. hiking, camping,etc.) Location___ Activity____

3. How many times did you enter and leave thepark since this time yesterday? ____

4. When did you first enter the park on this trip?(Enter the month, day, and time of arrival tothe nearest half hour.) Month_____ Day_____Time_____ AM/PM

5. When do you expect to leave for the last timeon this trip? Month_____ Day_____ Time_____AM/PM

6. Did you stay overnight in the park during thistrip? Yes ___ No____ If NO, how many hours a day did you spend inthe park after staying overnight outside (thepark)?_______ If YES, where? __________________________

7. How many people are traveling with you inyour vehicle? ____

Notice that the answers to this survey arerecorded in blanks, that is, the answers are notidentified and listed for the respondent. Anadvantage of this kind of “open” record is that itallows information to be recorded in the words ofthe respondent which reflects the respondent’sawareness of the park environment, signage, mostmentionable sites, etc. A disadvantage of “open”questions is that they may lead to numerous,ambiguous, or meaningless answers. Surveys thatuse “open” answer format are subsequently codedby a visitor analyst to focus on the major areas ofspecific interest. It is important to remember thatis it more difficult to code and quantify this typeof data. However, an “open” question formats canalso lead to ideas and challenges of which youwere previously unaware.

Statistics gathered to verify basic visitationcounting programs are also used as the basis fordesigning more efficient studies in the future. Themore that is known about how the visitor uses thepark, the easier it is to design studies of minimalsample sizes which are still representative ofvisitors in general.


4 . 3 S T U D I E S O F T H E T R I P A N DV I S I T O R C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S

Parks exist in socio-economic ecosystems thatextend far beyond the park boundaries. Parksimpact their surrounding communities in the waypark visitors make use of those communities asthey travel to the park. If a large park offers noovernight accommodations, park visitors will needa staging area at the gateways. This needtranslates into economic demand for goods andservices which are usually beneficial to localcommunities.

The trip made by visitors can be traced all the wayback to their home residences. The impact of thepark goes that far as well. Who these park visitorsare is a matter of some importance. If the parkattracts people of economic means, the economicbenefits along the way will be greater. If the parkis a recreational oasis surrounded by undevelopedsubsistence agricultural activity, the economicbenefits will be less. Exotic features, beautifulscenery, recreational opportunities, historicalsignificance, and other attributes of parks willattract different public interests and thoseinterests become activities that have significancefor the use of the park and surroundingcommunities.

Because a single message will not get through toeveryone, park communications programs(resource interpretation, explanation of park rules,location of services, posting of hazard and safetywarnings, etc.) are aimed and designed fordifferent audiences: seniors, children, foreigners,people in groups, people on tours, locals, first-timevisitors, campers, risk/adventure visitors, etc.

Information about the volume, activities, andcharacteristics of special populations(handicapped, families with small children, seniorcitizens, etc.) is a prerequisite to the cost-effective location and design of services andfacilities for their use.

Transportation within the park is increasinglyimportant. Increased car traffic in some parksmandates the use of some form of masstransportation. Such transport is expensive, andpark managers need to know about visitorwillingness to use and even pay for such systems.Travel data are used in forecasting park use,economic impact assessment of a park, and intransportation and planning studies. Informationon “host” communities is used in park outreachcommunications efforts to better prepare visitorsfor hazards, conditions, and services found in thepark. These data are also used by parkconcessions in gauging their business plans,planning services, and by the agency in regulatingthe scope of concessions’ activities.

While trip and visitor characteristics studies canbecome involved and complicated, they can alsobe done simply. An illustrated questionnaire is aclever way to handle the need to collect relativelycomplicated trip and expenditure data at Bent’sOld Fort National Historic Site, National ParkService, United States of America (Appendix 3). The questionnaire was printed on brilliant yellowpaper (virtually none were found in trash cans)and handed out with a complimentary parkmemento (keepsake) in appreciation for(expected) cooperation. There are 12 “questions”on this fact sheet which was handed out to allpark visitors during randomly selected hours forthe three-month peak season (Appendix 3).

The content of this type of survey is covered in the“Q-Cat”, Chapter I-III (Visitor Characteristics, TravelCharacteristics, and Visit Characteristics).

4 . 4 S T U D I E S O F E C O N O M I CA C T I V I T Y

Parks supply money to the governments thatcreate them by attracting visitation which createsdemand (local, regional, international), for goodsand services: transportation, lodging, foodservice, guides, fuel, crafts, equipment, etc.Sometimes all it takes is a single question in a


survey to collect basic economic data that canhave great impact on planning and management.

Correspondingly, economic developmentsometimes conflicts with the visiting public’s ideaof a park. Such development may attract non-traditional or inappropriate activities. Somedevelopment may violate the public taste,symbolism, and imagery. Development can beperceived to be inconsistent or out of scale withthe surroundings. Some developments threaten todestroy the entire web of economic interests thatparks benefit. Economic and visitation impactstudies can show both the negative and thebeneficial side of these consequences, and theresults can be used to protect the park and itsimage.

The world is cost conscious and so aregovernments. Because it costs money to protectthe environment, conservationists have learnedthe language of economics. The conservation ofresources can be explained and justifiedeconomically in many ways including the benefitsof flood control, air quality benefits of habitatmaintenance, the renewable revenues contributedby tourism, and the political stability associatedwith countries which have learned to behave ashosts to others.

Economic data is needed for the reasonablesetting of fee schedules as well as the allocationof services (camping in versus outside the park).The development of parks and surroundingcommunities over decades may have beeneconomically sustainable in the past, but ismarginal in the present. Good economic data canhelp illuminate such conditions. Collecting credibleeconomic data can also have many otheradvantages. In many areas, the economic impactof parks is greater than most of the industriessurrounding them. By gathering economicinformation, governments as well as surroundingcommunities can be shown the value of investingand supporting the growth of park resources. Thiscan allow parks to compete against other

industries for scarce governmental resources, onan economic basis as well as on an environmentalbasis. However, it must be stated that economicimpact studies are usually best left to specializedprofessionals. It is often important to useprofessionals who are independent from the park.

The World Commission on Protected Areas has alsodeveloped guidelines for calculating the economicvalue of parks. These guidelines are available inboth book and web format.

Economic impact studies are a logical companionto trip and visitor surveys (section 4.3.). We referagain to the Bent’s Old Fort survey as an exampleof an economic study. Questions for economicassessments are covered in the QuestionnaireCatalogue Chapter V.

R E F E R E N C E S

Bagri, A., J. Blockhus and F. Vorhies. 1999. Economic Values of

Protected Areas. World Commission on Protected Areas, World

Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.

4 . 5 S T U D I E S O N S A T I S F A C T I O N :E V A L U A T I N G T H E P A R K , R E S O U R C E SA N D S E R V I C E S

The measurement of visitor satisfaction withfacilities and services is vital to the understandingof an agency’s impact on visitors. Highly satisfiedvisitors give good recommendations to others.Highly satisfied visitors are more likely to return.Satisfied visitors are more likely to donate moneyto conservation and support political initiatives forconservation.

The measurement of satisfaction, however, is not astraightforward task of asking “are yousatisfied?” Satisfaction is dependent upon manyfactors. One factor, for example, is a person’sexpectations. If a park visitor experienced acertain service or facility at one park, he oftenexpects a similar service or facility at other parks.Another factor is the fulfilment of the need. Allservices and facilities are not needed by all


visitors. Correspondingly, availability is anotherfactor. Was the service or facility available on theday of the visit and at the time it was wanted?Other factors include appropriateness,performance quality rating, and importance. Each factor in satisfaction must be looked at andevaluated in the context of the others.

Parks are often weak in their systematicmeasurement of client satisfaction. As a result,the only options left for visitors to make theiropinions known are to lodge a complaint, todisparage the park to others, to decide to neverreturn, or all of the above. If the complaints aremade a matter of record, the information can beuseful for the manager. More often, dissatisfactiongoes unrecorded as “ill-will” or “bad reputation.”

A properly designed visitor satisfaction surveyhelps detect levels of satisfaction giving earlywarning of problem areas as well as giving seldomdocumented expressions of work that wasappreciated. If these studies are repeated overtime, the data can be tied back to associatedindicators such as weather data, staffing andprogram levels, funding records, fee charges, oreven road construction. All of this informationgives management an operational understandingof how the park works. Operational understanding,in this case, means “when this happens (roadconstruction, higher room rates, entrance delays,lack of signage), satisfaction rates go down.” Byknowing this in advance, it gives you time to makethe proper adjustments to service levels in orderto “make it up” to the customer. This can oftenlead to a customer becoming a repeat one. While itis best to “get it right the first time,” it is alsoimportant to remember that if things do go wrong,it does present an opportunity to get thatcustomer back. By “making up” for mistakes thecustomer knows you are looking out for their bestinterest. It is important to note that it has beenfound that a customer on average is worth manytimes the price of a single purchase.

It is well known in the service industry thatsatisfied people will pay a premium price for high

quality. In the “park” industry one often seesdissatisfaction expressed in the costs of neglect,misuse, and vandalism. Promoting satisfactioncan be seen as a way to combat the effects ofvisitor behaviour rooted in dissatisfaction.

Improved levels of service lead to several benefitsfor any organization, including parks. Betterservice leads to longer periods of stay in a parkand to higher return rates. Parks receive much oftheir visitation due to word of mouth. It has beenfound that if people like a service, they will tell 3others about the service. However, if they don’tthey will tell 11. Good service leads torecommendations from satisfied visitors. Satisfiedvisitors will leave accommodations in good order,and this will reduce cleaning and preparation time.Positive feedback helps staff morale. Bettermorale leads to increased productivity and lowercosts.

To measure satisfaction, start by asking the visitorto rate their experience with a service or facility.One approach is to list the service in thequestionnaire and then ask visitors to rate thepark performance with the service on a scale (e.g.,excellent, above average, average, below average,very poor). Each level can be numbered, from 1 forexcellent to 5 for very poor. After the data iscollected, the numbers can be averaged so thatmanagement can get a numerical score for theperformance rating of each service.

Visitor ratings of performance, however, may bemisleading to the extent that visitors hold variouslevels of importance for different services. Tomeasure satisfaction, you also have to determinethe importance associated with the services ratedby each visitor. For example, the visitors may saythat a park is doing a very good job at somethingthat is not very important to them or maybe noteven needed or used. To measure importance, youlist the service and ask visitors how important theitem is. A scale could be used with options rangingfrom extremely important, important, neutral, notimportant, to not at all important. Each level canbe numbered, 1 for very important, to 5 for not at


all important. After the data is collected, thenumbers can be averaged so that the managercan get a numerical score for the importance ofeach service.

Because people often rate services they do notuse, a question on whether a service or facilitywas used or not used is posed to remove thispopulation from the scores. What is left are twoscales, one for performance and one forimportance.

To compare the visitor’s ideas on the importanceof a service with the park’s performance on thatservice, the two figures are compared. Forexample, if a park got a mark of 2.5 forimportance of a facility, say the cleanliness ofwashrooms, but a lower score of 4.5 on theperformance of the facility, then a largeimportance – performance gap is clearly present.

Subsequently, the manager must look at thereasons for this facility not performing to the levelof importance given by the visitor.

Table 7 shows importance rankings compared toperformance rankings from a large sample ofcampers from Ontario Provincial Parks in Canada.Figure 3 shows the same data as found in Table 7,but in graph format. One can clearly see from afinancial perspective, that most funds should beallocated to the cleanliness of the washrooms, asthis service is high in importance and lower inperformance. Quality of firewood, while low inperformance is also low in importance. Therefore,significant funds should not be allocated to thisarea. However, a performance measure on its own,without the importance measure, could leadmanagement to invest as many new funds towardfirewood, as toward the washrooms. Condition ofthe campsite is high in both importance and


T A B L E 7: C A M P E R S ’ P R I O R I T I E S V S . P A R K P E R F O R M A N C E

Park Services and Facilities Importance Performance Gap

Cleanliness of Washrooms 1.47 2.21 -.74

Condition of Campsite 1.61 1.95 -.34

Quality of Firewood 2.25 2.46 -.21

Availability of Information 2.07 2.04 +.03

F I G U R E 3 : I M P O R T A N C E V S .

P E R F O R M A N C E S M A T R I X

performance (although a small gap does exist),indicating relatively successful service qualitymanagement in this area.

Availability of information is ranked as low inimportance but high in performance. If anoperating budget is to be reallocated towardwashroom upkeep, this would be a good area todecrease spending. Clearly, the addition of ameasure of importance provides essentialinformation for not only elevating levels of servicequality, but also in maximizing the allocation offunds.

An example of the use of importance andperformance measures in a study of lodgeaccommodation in Serengetti National Park isshown in Table 8. Statistical tests, using analysisof variance, found that guests who stay at theSeronera Wildlife Lodge place a significantly lowerimportance on the type of accommodation than dothe guests of the Sopa and Serena Lodges. Inaddition, the Seronera Wildlife Lodge guestsassign a lower performance ranking to theiraccommodation. When service quality gaps areanalyzed, all guests are satisfied with this privatesector accommodation within the park. Ifperformance alone was viewed, a manager wouldincorrectly assume that guests are unsatisfiedwith the Seronera Wildlife Lodge. The data showthat lodge visitors to this national park soughtdiffering service levels at each of the lodges. Thiscase study shows the necessity of measuringboth importance and performance, and calculatingthe difference between the two to check forservice quality gaps.

There are many ways to measure aspects ofsatisfaction from the user point of view:usefulness, expectations, need fulfilment, qualityrating (positive-negative scale), appropriateness,and importance. In addition, there are manycircumstances which may be added together(justifiably or not) by users when evaluatingfactors such as weather, crowdedness, delays, etc.The best way to deal with such possiblecomplexity is to be as specific as possible aboutwhat is being rated.

In addition to the many factors associated withsatisfaction, there are many outside factors whichmay be added together (justifiably or not) in theminds of users when they evaluate services andfacilities such as weather, crowdedness, delays,etc. The best way to deal with such possiblecomplexity is to be as specific as possible aboutwhat is being rated and to undertake ratingsacross a broad spectrum of parks.

It is important that after conducting a satisfactionsurvey, the park visitors are told the outcome.Actions that prove to the visitors that theircomments and concerns are being dealt with areneeded. In this manner, people being surveyedcan see the results of previous surveys, and willbe more likely to complete any upcoming surveys.Appendix 4 shows an example, from Parks Canada,of feedback from a camper satisfaction survey.This document was posted on the campground’sbulletin board for all campers to read.

These GUIDELINES cannot provide all thebackground and intricacies of park visitorsatisfaction measurement. However, it is


T A B L E 8 : I M P O R T A N C E / P E R F O R M A N C E O F L O D G E S I N S E R E N G E T T I N A T I O N A L P A R K

Type of Accommodation Mean Importance of Mean Performance of Service Quality GapAccommodation Accommodation

Sopa Lodge 1.7 1.48 0.22Serena Lodge 1.84 1.33 0.51Seronera Lodge 2.33* 2.42* -0.09*Difference is statistically significant

important for park managers to recognize thisimportant component of an ADVANCED park publicuse measurement program.

R E F E R E N C E SLeBoeuf, M. 1987. How to Win Customers and Keep Them forLife. California: Berkley Press.

4 . 6 S T U D I E S O F C R O W D I N G A N DC O N F L I C T

The quality of a park experience partly depends onthe fit between the resource and the people whouse it. Consequently the analysis of a parkexperience may include a focus on crowding,interpersonal conflict, and, generally on the abilityof the park to support people and their needs.Attempts to set use limits based on notions ofcrowdedness have generated substantialcontroversy and even law suits. Rudimentaryinformation is needed to determine the nature ofpublic sensitivity to crowds and the publicsinvolved.

Appendix 5 contains a questionnaire covering avariety of issues, as all field studies invariably do.The Grand Teton National Park Snake River Surveywas directed at users of a specific area of the parkwith respect to crowds, park policy, developmentdirection, and the visit experience. Compared tothe Bent’s Old Fort questionnaire, the Snake RiverSurvey is complicated. However, this study wasconducted by trained interviewers who werefamiliar with the form and prepared to clarifyvisitor understanding of the questions. It would bea challenge to convert this survey to a form thatcould be self-administered by the public and keepit on one page.

Notice the “core questions” about the interviewconditions at the top of the form. Also, at the endof the form there is a space given for “anythingelse about your visit you would like parkmanagement to know about?” This last item is agood way to close the interview and offers an

opportunity to collect a variety of comments andideas. The content of this type of study is coveredin the Questionnaire Catalogue Chapter VI.

4 . 7 S T U D I E S O F E N V I R O N M E N T A LA T T I T U D E S , B E L I E F S ,E X P E C T A T I O N S , P E R C E P T I O N S

As the demand for outdoor recreation andvisitation to parks and protected areas increases,a growing number of managers will need todevelop policies which guide or restrict visitor useto protect the park resources.

Changing visitation demand will also impact parkcommunities both negatively and positively. Theattitudes that develop in the community areimportant to park managers. Knowledge ofchanging community beliefs is critical to keepingthe park a member in good standing with localpeople. Any park which remains isolated from thesurrounding political economy will not be able toprotect itself from unfavorable development,legislation, funding, etc. The place to start is witha methodical understanding of public attitudes.Such understanding may not come from the mediaor elected officials who sometimes reflect themost colorful or loudest opinions. Such influencesmay not be in the overall best interests of thecommunity in general, especially ifmisinformation, rumor, or gossip surround parkrelated issues.

More attention will also be given to the existingbelief systems of visitors and the new informationwhich can be conveyed to the visitor by the park.Research has shown that environmental attitudesand knowledge about one’s own negative impacton the environment are critical in mitigatingbacklash to such policies. Many of the questions inthis section have been taken from the “newenvironmental paradigm” (NEP) scale developedby Dunlap and Van Liere (1978). Questions aboutenvironmental attitudes are found in theQuestionnaire Catalogue Chapter IX.


R E F E R E N C E SDunlap, R. and K. Van Liere. 1978. The New EnvironmentalParadigm. Journal of Environmental Education 9 (4): 10-19.

Noe, F. and R. Snow. 1989. Hispanic Cultural Influence onEnvironmental Concern. Journal of Environmental Education21 (2):27-34.

4 . 8 S T U D I E S O F P U B L I C V A L U E S ,W A N T S A N D N E E D S

At a public meeting about the development of theCuyahoga National Recreation Area of the UnitedStates of America, the public demanded theNational Park Service “clean up the CuyahogaRiver”. Cleaning up the river was not within theagency’s power but a central clearinghouse forinformation about river cleanup and contactagencies was set up and maintained by the park.The park understood the public message and tookwhat action it could. Everyone was satisfied. Whata disaster it would have been if the agency haddismissed the request or declared it outside of itsauthority. To understand public values, wants, andneeds you have to look beyond the words andunderstand the intent.

Managers need and use a wide variety ofinformation in making policy, planning, andmanagerial decisions. Studies of public issues,policies, and alternatives enable management toavoid unintended consequences of direct action.These studies provide additional information aboutpublic intent, the depth of public understanding ormisunderstanding of technicalities, and providean opportunity to collect background informationthat can enlighten management. The content ofthis type of study are covered in theQuestionnaire Catalogue Chapter VII.

4 . 9 S T U D I E S O F R E S O U R C EU T I L I Z A T I O N – C R E E L S U R V E Y S –S P E C I F I C P O P U L A T I O N S T U D I E S

Certain kinds of information are only availablefrom visitors such as the number of fish takenfrom park lakes and streams, number of peopleencountered in backcountry areas, conditions of

resources they may have experienced or servicesthey have utilized while in the park. These studiesare usually specific to areas, activities, or types ofvisitors. If the data are logically required to dealwith the issue, the associated study should bebased on data from all park visitors, that is anyvisitor during an annual management cycle. If thestudy is exploratory (seeks to discover if a moreformal study should be attempted), the effortshould be limited to a single, continuous datacollection contacting as many visitors as ispractical within a few hours or days. The contentof this type of study is covered in theQuestionnaire Catalogue Chapter X, Creel Surveys.

4 . 10 S T U D I E S O F V I S I T O R T Y P E S( M A R K E T S , R E C R E A T I O NL I F E S T Y L E , A N D C O M M U N I T YS T U D I E S )

Studies on visitor types or submarkets are usuallypart of economic and commercial studies orassociated with strategic planning andforecasting. The content of this type of study arecovered in the Questionnaire Catalog Chapter VIII.

4 . 1 1 C O M M U N I C A T I N G T H E R E S U LT S

It is important that the results of visitor studies becommunicated to the users of information, atseveral levels. The full studies will be compiledand made available to those most in need ofsophisticated analyses, such as tourism analysts.However, it is important to not forget the largenumber of planners, managers and field staff whocan best utilize a short summary. Appendix 4provides an example of feedback to the parkcampers, the people who filled out the survey.Appendix 6 provides an example of a summarydocument for park staff. This example summarizesthe results of a study of the users of a day-usearea in Georgian Bay Islands National Park inCanada. Virtually any staff member involved in themanagement of this day-use area could benefitfrom reading this short, but carefully crafteddocument.



Visitor studies depend upon the collection of dataabout park visitors. Most of this is collected bysurveys, where visitors are asked questions. Theanswers provide the data needed to answer themanagement questions. It is usually not possibleto collect sufficient information from all visitors,so a sample of the visitors is used to represent thelarge group.

5 . 1 H O W T O C O L L E C T A G O O DS A M P L E

While much can be said about sampling and thestatistical considerations that are involved, whenit comes to collecting a sample, the weather, theavailability of staff, and the absence of othercrises dictate what can be done. Given a variety ofimpediments faced by park managers, a simplerandom sample consisting of numerous butlimited efforts to collect data will likely result inthe best sample. A big sample is not necessarily agood sample. For our purposes, the best sample isone which results from short collection effortsspread throughout the month, often at severallocations around the park.

The following steps are for collecting a sample ofvisitors at a location within a park for a givenmonth. The sample described is a sample of timeperiods and representative of visitors for themonth when it is collected.

1. Make a calendar for the month the study is tobe conducted.

2. Divide each day into 3 periods of equal timeintervals during daylight when visitors arepresent, e.g. from 7:00 A.M. to 11:00 A.M.,

11:00 A.M. to 3:00 P.M., and 3:00 P.M. to 7:00P.M.

3. Take a telephone book and open to any page,pick any column of numbers and mark anumber on any line. Look at the last numberon the line. If that number matches any lastdigit of a date on your calendar in the columnof Sundays, it is a sample day. Move to thenext row in the telephone book and see if itmatches any other last digit of a date in theSunday column. Continue until you havemarked 3 Sundays in the sample month. Dothe same for every other day of the week onyour calendar. When you are finished, youhave picked a simple, random sample of 21hours that represent all the visitors for themonth.

4. Start collecting data for approximately onehour anytime during the first A.M. period onthe first randomly sampled day and rotate tothe middle time period on the second sampleday and last time period on the third sampleday. Start over with the first sample period onthe fourth day, etc. The sampling effort willinvolve 21 hours of work.

The method described is for a self-weightedsample, based on approximately one hour of datacollection per sample period. The sampling methodassumes collection of answers to a small numberof questions by face-to-face interview. If thecollection takes more than two to three minutes orif the location is saturated with visitors, more thanone hour may be required. The objective is tocomplete about 20 survey instruments during theperiod when the greatest number of visitors ispresent at the chosen site. If it takes an hour anda half to complete 20 survey instruments due tothe number of questions, all sample periods


C H A P T E R 5

D ATA

should last for that length of time to get a self-weighted sample. That means more surveyinstruments will be collected when visitor volumeis high than when it is low. If attendance is so highthat data collectors are overwhelmed by visitors,it is no longer self-weighting and more help needsto be assigned to the task.

The method described produces a samplerepresenting all visitors at a location within a parkfor a month. If the location is a campground, thedata collected might be considered a study ofcampground users. If the park also has a visitorcenter and a lot of day-use visitors who do notcamp, a sample from the visitor center is alsoneeded. If one needs a sample which isrepresentative of all visitors to the park within amonth, repeat the basic procedure for all majorgathering points with different people, using thesame sampling plan at each of those points orgenerate a different sampling plan for each point.To collect a sample of all park visitors for a year,conduct a sampling for a month during each majorseason.

There are other ways of going about doing a study.For example, as a general convention, moststudies dealing with survey information aim for astatistical error not greater than 5% at a 95%confidence level, based on a question with twoanswers [yes-no] where the findings yield 50%“yes” and 50% “no” [Backstrom and Hursh-Cesar,1981:75]. Such conditions indicate a sample of384 answers which usually means completedinterviews or questionnaires. That is a way tostart solving the problem of matchingmanagement requirements to a study design, andwhere most people stop. The answers to surveyquestions, however, usually include more thanyes-no answers and are often skewed on severalbut not all possible answers. To the extent thatthis happens and to the extent that the needs ofmanagement become critical for one or morepossible answers, the sample designed for suchbasic and simple requirements becomesinadequate. For example, if a sample of 384 is

selected and management becomes interested inthe differences between answers from one part ofthe park to another, the data are statisticallyinadequate.

For a complete treatment of survey design andimplementation, many people recommend DonDillman’s (1978) book.

R E F E R E N C E S

Backstrom, C.H., Hursh-Cesar, G. 1981. Survey Research.Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, U.S.A.

Dillman, Don. 1978. Mail and Telephone Surveys: The TotalDesign Method. John Wiley and Sons, New York, U.S.A.

Yuan, S., Maiorano, B., Yuan, M. 1995. Techniques andEquipment for Gathering Visitor Use Data on Recreation Sites.August, U.S. Forest Service Publication No. 9523-2838-MTDC,Missoula, Montana, U.S.A.

5 . 2 M E T H O D S O F C O L L E C T I N G D A T A

5 . 2 . 1 P E R S O N A L I N T E R V I E W S

The personal interview is the preferred method ofcollecting information from visitors when they canbe contacted at gathering places in the park. Thewillingness of travellers to give information topark staff is quite high relative to other methods(80% or better). Usually, such high rates ofcompletion make efforts to study non-responsebias unnecessary. Most parks have staff who areavailable and trained to communicate with thepublic so this activity is natural for them. Thismethod is cost effective on the basis of simplicity,completion and accuracy.

5 . 2 . 2 R E G I S T R A T I O N C A R D S

Chapter 3 discussed visitor registration as anopportunity to collect information. Registrationcards are intended to be completed by visitors andreturned immediately to the park staff. The cardmay record the date, time and in-park destinationfor public safety purposes, serve as a record ofvisits, establish adjustment factors (e.g., personsper vehicle), indicate payment of fees, andcommunicate to visitors basic hazards and how todeal with them. By designing different versions of


the same basic registration form, a number ofpark operational needs can be served withoutgreat delay to the public. Because such forms areintended to be completed on the spot, they can bechecked over for completeness.

5 . 2 . 3 M A I L B A C K Q U E S T I O N N A I R E S

It may not be practical to interview people orattempt to get all visitors to register. Aquestionnaire can be mailed to visitors forcompletion after their visit to the park. Generally,it is possible to collect more data from a mailbackquestionnaire than is polite to ask in an interviewor convenient to collect from a registration form.Visitors are asked if they would be willing tocomplete the questionnaire and, if so, give theirhome address and date when they expect to behome. The questionnaire is sent later.

By the time many visitors return home, they maychange their minds about completing thequestionnaire. The expected return rate of theoriginal questionnaires is 40 to 50%. Issuingreminders and second copies can improve thereturn rate by about 10% for each effort up toabout 60%. Higher return rates are unusual. Thatleaves lingering questions about people who donot reply at all. For those who do fill it out, thetime difference between the park experience andthe experience of reading questions is expected toresult in errors of recall. On the basis of costversus accuracy, this method is relativelyexpensive.

5 . 2 . 4 T E L E P H O N E I N T E R V I E W S

A telephone interview can be arranged with thevisitor at the park just as with the mailbackquestionnaire. Telephone calls are often maderandomly to residents of a community as part ofcommunity studies or studies of visitors and non-visitors. Calls are often placed as a form of follow-up to a questionnaire non-respondent.

Long distance telephone interviews may not bepractical or cost effective. Calls must be placedduring appropriate time differentials. Unless

arranged in advance in person or by mail, calls tothe home can be viewed as an invasion of privacyand create hostility.

5 . 2 . 5 M I X E D M E T H O D O L O G I E S

Counting visits is a necessary part of the basic jobof park operation, resource and visitor protection.Knowing something about visitors helps keep visitcounts accurate and serves a variety of otherpurposes. Learning about visitors is work. Themost cost effective program will probably be somemixture of counting by instruments, campgroundcounts by observation, registration in conjunctionwith fee payments, and the occasionalrepresentative sample to help understand how theother areas relate to each other. By using mixedmethods, you create a situation where you havesomething called “triangulation”. Triangulationsimply refers to using more that one type of datacollection to make sure what you are seeing in thedata is accurate. It is like having three peopletelling you something, rather than just one. It is away to lend credibility to your findings. Therefore,a better system will use a mixture ofmethodologies.

5 . 3 W H O W I L L D O T H E S T U D Y ?

If a survey must be done, the lowest cost is tohave the park staff do the work. The higher cost isto import labor hired by an outside contractor. Themethod recommended here is the brief face-to-face interview between the park staff and a visitor.The maximum time of delay for a visitor will varyfrom culture to culture and by content of theinstrument. In many western countries people liketo recount their experience and sometimes do toomuch talking, taking the valuable time of the parkstaff! Five to six minutes of interview should beenough to get sufficient information from a well-designed list of questions. Always remember thatthe park can do another survey another time. Ifpark staff are accustomed to communicating withpark visitors, the only thing they have to becomefamiliar with are the questions, codes and anyspecial interpretations in use.


Some park agencies hire students to conductvisitor surveys. The students are carefully trainedto conduct the surveys. With standardized surveyinstruments, well-designed data collectionprocedures and substantial levels of training,part-time employees can be used for these tasks.

For specialized work, such as economic impactstudies or service satisfaction monitoring, it maybe best to utilize professionals from outside thepark agency. It is not possible for any agency tomaintain staffing with all the required expertisefor all types of visitor surveys. In addition, forundertaking studies that are politically charged,outside contractors have a level of independencethat may be necessary.

5 . 4 S U R V E Y D E S I G N , P R E - C O D I N GA N D P R E T E S T

For survey instruments to be used in the field,designers should be sensitive to the user. Littlethings like wind and sunlight can ruin or distortthe most carefully designed study. Wind will blowpaper around. Some of it will get lost. Wind willdelay the time it takes to complete what should bea simple task. Sunlight can reflect off shiny paperand cause items to be skipped or make items hardto read. The texture of some paper makes it hardto mark or easy to smear which could cause errorsin coding or editing data. It is important to tellstaff involved with studies that completed surveyinstruments are valuable pieces of paper. Theyrepresent an investment of time on the part of thegovernment and citizens to get something done.That time is irreplaceable.

Questionnaires of only a single page are easiest touse and process. Single page surveys can beeasily reproduced. Multiple page surveys cancome apart, making it difficult to match upinformation that belongs together. If aquestionnaire takes up more than a page, it isprobably too long. Reducing the size of print helpsput more on paper, but it makes it more difficult toread by people with poor vision. If a lot of

information needs to be put on a page, it is betterto use the margins. Over-size paper can be foldedin half to make a seamless two-page survey whichis still manageable.

Instruments can be subdivided into differentversions to ease the pain of administration andburden on the respondent. The different versionsare mixed together. Each version has a commoncore of questions followed by sections that varyfrom one to another.

The amount of time it takes to give answers needsto be kept to a minimum. For face-to-faceinterviews, it is desirable to limit the time as muchas possible. The best is less than 7 minutes, butthis may vary from country to country. Designersare usually less concerned about completion timewith self-administered questionnaires and thehigh non-response rates show it.

Answers to some questions will always be hard toexpress. This is less of a problem withquestionnaires than with interviews. In the case ofinterviews, a good practice is to make a handoutshowing a map or giving a list of answers. Youhave to be careful in doing this however, not tolead respondents to answer what they think youwant to hear rather than what they are reallythinking.

The use of cartoon-like illustrations is often moreeffective than representational maps. Artisticenhancement can communicate the image ofimportance, ease of completion, fun, legalsignificance or other attributes one might want toattribute to the form.

5 . 5 Q U A L I T Y C O N T R O L D U R I N GS T U D Y, E D I T I N G

It is important that the data collected beaccurately tabulated and reported. Checks shouldbe built into the system so that data is recheckedseveral times to maintain accuracy. Inaccuratedata is worse than no data because it leads toerroneous conclusions that appear to be correct.


5 . 6 D E S I G N I N G Y O U R O W NQ U E S T I O N S

Designing survey questions is difficult. However,many people not trained in the social sciences donot recognize the importance of very carefuldesign and testing of survey questions. Ifquestions not found in the standardized catalogueare required, the following process should beused.

The objective of the question must be clear. Whatimportant information is required? The questionshould be worded in clear, logical language. Itshould be pretested, first with other park staff,and later on a small sample of the intendedaudience. After these pretests, the wording shouldbe carefully evaluated and changes made ifrequired. Only after all these pretests, should anew question be used.

It is important to use survey wording that can beeasily translated into other languages. Manyparks attract international visitors, and it isimportant to utilize survey instruments in thelanguage most suitable for the visitor.

5 . 7 P O S T - C O D I N G , R E C O D I N G , D A T AP R O C E S S I N G , R E P O R T S A N DP R E S E N T A T I O N

Typically the data is collected on paper surveys.This is then input by a person into a spreadsheetprogram for tabulation. When complex statisticalanalyses are required, specialized statisticalprograms should be used. Much of the newer wordprocessing software enables tables and graphs tobe dynamically linked to the spreadsheet database. This means that as new data is added to thedata base, or new calculations are done, the tablesin the report are automatically updated.

New technologies for collecting data are proving tobe very useful. One of these includes opticalreading of the paper survey by machine so as toreduce the need for personal data input through akeyboard. Another and exciting method is directinput into the computer by the survey respondent.In this approach the park visitor sits in front of acomputer that displays the survey questions. Theresponses to the questions are entered into thesurvey through the keyboard or through clicks ofthe mouse. These responses are immediatelysaved into a database. With the onset of the worldwide web, it is possible to have respondents fillout the survey directly into their computer athome or work. They then send the completedquestionnaire to the main data base by their webconnection.

With the properly designed spreadsheet orstatistical program, it is possible to get surveyresults quickly. These results can be distributed inreport format, or as electronic reports. With thepower of the world wide web attached to powerfulpersonal computers, it is possible to have reportssubmitted to key people in a park or in a parks’agency in just a few hours or days after the datawas collected.

5 . 8 L O N G T E R M S T O R A G E O F T H ED A T A

The collected data is valuable. The opportunity tocollect this data is gone forever. Therefore, thepermanent storage of the data must be assured.After a time, the paper copies of surveys can berecycled. The copies of final reports should bestored permanently in a library, both in the centraloffice and in the park. The computer files are theeasiest to lose. Multiple copies of the original databases should be made, and stored in differentlocales. Never leave the data files on just onecomputer. It is easy for this machine to be stolen,be recycled or be lost. Coding books and thedescriptions of the content of the data basesshould be stored with the computer files.



Chapter 6 covers the uses of computers to easethe tasks of public use reporting. Material coveredhere will need to be enlarged and updated atfrequent intervals. The availability of programs willeventually be through telecommunications andthe internet. For the present, programs areavailable from suppliers as indicated.

Many useful programs can be managed by peoplewith limited experience with computers if theyhave been set up and prepared for use by thenovice. Generic programs such as spreadsheets(e.g., Excel, Quattro Pro, or Lotus 1-2-3) can beoperated at a basic level by attentive people withlittle experience but most applications requireadvanced skills and experience. Central officesand centers of higher learning can providepriceless assistance to parks by tailoring genericprograms to do various jobs for park managersincluding public use reporting. Two of the followingprograms (ParkStat and EZForms Database) aresuch bi-level programs . . . bi-level in that they aresomewhat involved to set up but easy to use onan every day basis by field staff.

6 . 1 R E C U S E 1 . 0

RECREATION USE (RECUSE 1.0) is the name of acomputer program developed by the United StatesForest Service (Department of Agriculture) toenable its staff to produce random samples ofdays for visitor surveys. The user provides thestart and finish dates, names of sites involvedand the sampling confidence level needed. Thecomputer calculates and displays a simple or

stratified random selection of days. The programalso accepts field data collected from samplingand calculates basic statistics such as confidencelimits, coefficient of variation, standard error,estimation of variance, etc. The program runs onolder DOS types of computer. Documentation andprograms are available from the United StatesForest Service in Missoula, Montana, U.S.A.

6 . 2 Q D A T A

QData is a package of data analysis programsprepared for the National Park Service by DeanSavage of the Sociology Department, QueensCollege, New York and Jesse Reichler, Departmentof Computer Science, University of Illinois, UnitedStates of America. It is a bi-level program (alsocalled tier-programming) intended to be set up bysomeone with established computer skills andsome experience, but used by others with little orno prior computer experience.

QData is a program that displays the variablesmeasured by park visitor surveys and allows theuser to “tag” those which are of interest at themoment. The selections can then be viewed astables or graphic displays. The program wasdesigned to enable park staff to answer most oftheir basic statistical questions without consultingstatisticians. The program also enables a parkstaff to save screens of data for display as a “slideshow.” The program was designed to replace paperreports in recognition of the emergent needs ofpark staff for data. The program is designed tohelp the staff connect immediate managementand planning problems with visitor use statistics.


C H A P T E R 6

D ATA P RO C E S S I N GC O M P U T E R P RO G R A M S

The Department of Sociology at Queens College ofthe City University of New York have prepared awebsite that includes DOS freeware programelements of ParkStat (QData, a data managementprogram and QStats, a data exploration andanalysis program) as well as related sociologicalinformation. It is all available free for downloadingfrom the web site athttp://www.soc.qc.edu/QC_Software/qdata.html.

6 . 3 F O R M S A N D D A T A B A S EM A N A G E R S

There is a category of software called formsmanager. This program enables a user to design aform on the computer screen. Data is input to thedata base through the form. There are severalgood commercial programs available. Onecommonly used by parks is called EZ-Forms. EZforms database program is a forms’ manager anddatabase management system. It is a bi-levelprogram (also called tier-programming) intendedto be set up by someone. It is available as ashareware program. Information is available onthe world wide web at http://ez-forms.com.

However, many database management programshave form management software built in. Forexample, Microsoft Excel 97, the spreadsheetprogram, and Microsoft Access 97, the databasemanagement program, each have the capabilityfor the design of input forms. These forms areportrayed on the computer screen and look justlike survey forms. When a person inputs data intothese forms, it is placed automatically directlyinto the relevant database. Recently, world wideweb form managers are becoming widelyavailable. These enable a person with web accessto input data directly into a data base both locallyand remotely. This capability is extremely usefulfor widely distributed park units within a parksystem. Each park can input their visitor use datadirectly into a remote data base at a central office,using the world wide web, thereby providing rapidaccess and distribution of the important data.

6 . 4 C O M M E R C I A L S T A T I S T I C SP A C K A G E S

For advanced data management and analysisthere are many sophisticated software packagesavailable. SPSS is available for both mainframeand personal computers. Its use requires goodlevels of knowledge of both statistics andcomputers. The personal computer version isuseful for small offices without access to amainframe computer and the associated dataprocessing department. The world wide webaddress for the company that develops and sellsSPSS is http://www.spss.com. The software isavailable worldwide through computer retailers.

SAS is another useful program, with similarcapabilities to SPSS. The world wide web addressfor the company that develops and sells SAS ishttp://www.sas.com. The software is availablethrough commercial software outlets.

Systat is a commercial statistical package that isless expensive that SPSS or SAS. Some parktourism analysts find that it has sufficientcapability for their needs. Systat is sold by theSPSS company. Information on the software canbe found on the SPSS Web Page athttp://www.spss.com/software/science/SYSTAT.


7. 0 I N T R O D U C T I O N

The designation of marine protected areas hasbecome a common strategy employed worldwideto improve conservation of natural resources andpreservation of cultural heritage, and to enhanceopportunities for coastal recreation and tourism.The term MARINE PROTECTED AREA is commonlyused to describe all areas established bygovernments for protection and management ofocean, freshwater, coastal, and underwaterresources.

Many of the issues associated with measurementof public use at land-based parks also exist atMARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPAs). In most cases,

there is a lack of comprehensive information onpublic uses that can be applied with confidence formanagement and development of these areas.This includes the types of visitors, their activities,knowledge of the resource, satisfaction withrecreation experiences, and expenditures duringtheir trip. Information on different user groups isoften important in resource management becausechanges in one group, such as increases in thenumber of personal watercraft operators, can havesignificant impacts on other recreational groupsand the marine environment. While someinformation is available on selected activities tiedto key industries such as boating and fishing,there is little data on water-based recreationactivities such as swimming, snorkeling, scuba


C H A P T E R 7

M E A S U R E M E N T O F P U B L I CU S E O F M A R I N E P ROT E C T E DA R E A S – Kenneth J. Vrana

Bruce Peninsula

National Park,

Canada

Marine protectedareas often have

multiple land andwater entry

points, makingvisitation

recording achallenging task.

diving, and beach use. Comparison of public useamong marine protected areas is often hinderedby inconsistent definitions and criteria, and gapsin information.

There are many opportunities to improve themeasurement of public use of marine protectedareas. These opportunities are related toincreases in the use of coastal areas forrecreation and tourism, concerns aboutcumulative impact on marine resources, andawareness that monitoring of public use is animportant function of resource management. Avariety of scientific methods is available formeasuring public use of MPAs. Most of thesemethods apply to marine protected areas as wellas land-based parks. The challenges are toeffectively adapt these methods to often difficultcoastal environments, and to design efficientmethods for measurement of water-basedrecreation and tourism.

The primary purpose of this chapter is to increaseawareness of marine protected areas and theneed for measurement of public use. Informationpresented should be viewed as a preliminarydescription of marine protected areas, visitoractivities within these areas, and distinguishingcharacteristics of use and management. Thechapter concludes with general guidelines andpotential methods for measuring public use ofMPAs.

7. 1 M A R I N E P R O T E C T E D A R E A S

Fort Jefferson National Monument, United Statesof America and Green Island National Park,Australia are commonly cited as the first marineprotected areas. Both were established in the1930s. Over 1,000 marine protected areas havenow been designated by governments worldwide.Most MPAs have been established for multiplepurposes of environmental protection, historicpreservation, enhancement of recreation, andtourism-based economic development. Some havebecome worldwide tourism destinations (e.g.,

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary in theU.S.A. and Great Barrier Reef Marine Park inAustralia) that enhance the economic well-beingof nearby coastal communities. Many generaterevenues from user fees and sales to visitors thatare used in support of park operations.

The name used to identify marine protected areasvaries widely by nation and within nations. Thenames usually include a reference to the physicalenvironment (e.g., marine, estuary, aquatic,coastal, underwater) and a reference to the typeof administrative unit (e.g., park, sanctuary,reserve, preserve). A distinction is often madebetween the purpose of marine PARKS and thepurpose of marine RESERVES. Parks are commonlyviewed as more focused on the needs of people;reserves are commonly viewed as focused onresource preservation and the recruitment ofaquatic life (i.e., conceptual equivalent to land-based “wilderness”). In practice, it is often difficultto differentiate between the operations of a parkand a reserve. The key document in determiningthe actual purposes of each area is itsMANAGEMENT PLAN.

The World Conservation Union (IUCN) hasdeveloped different categories of protected areasbased on their purposes for management. Anumber of organizations have developedguidelines specifically for the management anddevelopment of marine protected areas.

Large concentrations and important examples ofnatural and cultural resources often are managedwithin a marine protected area. Natural resourcesmay include coral reefs, other aquatic life, andgeological features. Cultural materials may includeshipwrecks, other historic sites, and prehistoricartifacts. MPAs often include shorelands and land-based facilities, services, and visitor programs.They may also contain human-built underwaterstructures, and intentionally sunken natural andcultural materials (e.g., artificial reefs to improveaquatic habitat, shipwrecks to enhancerecreational experiences).


The many “waterparks” owned and operated byprivate businesses are not considered in thispaper. These areas are generally recreationintensive and have an emphasis on developmentof facilities and entertainment programs.

7. 2 T Y P E S O F V I S I T O R A C T I V I T I E S

The use of coastal areas throughout the world forrecreation and tourism has increasedsubstantially in recent years. Diversification ofcoastal recreation activities has contributed tothis increase and significantly influenced tourismdevelopment and resource management. Thediversification of these activities has beenassociated with changes in consumer preferencesas well as development of marine technology.

Participants in water-based recreation commonlyperceive marine protected areas as tourismdestinations. Management organizations andbusinesses near these areas often promotecompatible recreation and tourism activitieswithin MPAs. Water-based recreation is usuallysegmented in social research by the type ofactivity. The type of activity is often differentiatedby mode of access and specialization of theparticipant. Types of water-based recreationactivities used in survey research include thefollowing:

W A T E R - B A S E D R E C R E A T I O N A C T I V I T I E S

Boating (motorized) Water-skiingBoating (non-motorized) SailboardingFishing Para-sailingSwimming Viewing wildlifeScuba diving Nature studySnorkeling Visiting historical sites

The mode of access to natural and culturalresources within MPAs may include privateautomobile, public transportation (e.g., trains,buses), motorcycle, bicycle, horse or otherdomestic animal, and foot travel (hiking) toSHORELANDS, and by boat on the SURFACE WATERSof the area. Mode of access for boats can be

further differentiated by private, rental, charter,tour or cruise boat. Scuba diving and snorkelingequipment, and recreational submersibles provideaccess to features underwater.

Specialization within boating may include thepowerboat, sailboat, personal watercraft (i.e., jet-ski), canoe, kayak, and other small craft.Specialization within fishing may include hand-line, casting with an artificial lure, bait-casting,fly-fishing, trolling, surf-fishing, and off-shore ordeep-sea fishing. Some researchers considerspecialization of swimming to include snorkelingand scuba diving. Recreational scuba divers oftenperceive specialization by difficulty of dive planand the use of technologies (e.g., mixed gas,rebreathers) to make a distinction between“technical” scuba diving and recreational diving.

Sport or recreational scuba diving is a relativelynew, water-based activity for which managers ofMPAs are in need of information. Divers are oftenvocal advocates of marine protected areas andhave become influential stakeholders in themanagement and development of these areas. Forthese reasons, a brief profile of recreational scubadiving and divers is presented in the followingsection. Some commercial and subsistence usesof MPAs will be identified after the profile ofrecreational scuba diving.

R E C R E A T I O N A L S C U B A D I V I N G

The development of sport or recreational scubadiving is part of the trend in diversification ofcoastal recreation and tourism. Recreationaldiving began soon after the invention of SCUBA(self-contained underwater breathing apparatus)in France during the late 1940s. Today, anestimated six to seven million people worldwideare ACTIVE participants in recreational scubadiving for a variety of purposes. An activeparticipant is defined in this case as a certifiedscuba diver who participates in one or morerecreational diving-related activities during thepast twelve months.


Estimates of recreational scuba diving activityworldwide vary among certification organizations,the diving industry in general, and the socialresearch community. The variation is due, in largepart, to (1) inconsistent definitions ofparticipation, (2) a high attrition rate amongnewly certified divers that is not well understood,(3) an inadequate amount and quality of scientificsurvey and marketing research, and (4) lack ofcoordination among members of the recreationaldiving industry to produce reliable profiles of divermarket segments and estimates of divingactivities. In addition, there is a lack of scientificinformation for most tourism destinations onrecreational scuba divers and diving activities thatcan be used with confidence in management anddevelopment of marine protected areas.

Profiles of active recreational scuba diversindicate that they possess relatively highhousehold incomes, educational attainment, andpropensity for travel. Expenditures by recreationalscuba divers have in many cases, contributedsignificantly to the economies of coastalcommunities near dive destinations. Surveys ofscuba divers indicate that coral reefs andshipwrecks are the most popular attractions forrecreational diving within marine protected areas,and within a nation’s territorial seas in general.Abundant aquatic life is probably the primary drawto coral reefs, and provides additional aestheticbenefits to divers visiting shipwrecks.

Access to underwater environments byrecreational scuba divers, however, may result in(1) negative impacts to natural and culturalresources, (2) conflicts among users, and (3) often complex decisions involving resourcemanagement and tourism development. Negativeimpacts to natural and cultural resources mayinclude loss of coral or cultural materials due totheft, and localized damage to coral reefs, certainmicro habitats, and historic shipwrecks due tovandalism and the unintentional actions ofvisitors. These impacts over time (i.e., cumulativeimpacts) may diminish the attractiveness of asite for recreation and tourism. Conflicts among

users may arise from congestion on a popular divesite or incompatible uses such as hook-and-linefishing and scuba diving on the same reef orhistoric shipwreck.

Actions taken by resource managers in responseto these negative impacts and the conflicts amongusers may include increased efforts in visitorcommunications, educational programs withinlocal communities, and more active lawenforcement. Many of these actions, such as moreactive law enforcement, have implications for themarketing of recreational diving at a MPA and forprivate investment in tourism development atnearby communities. In nearly all cases,information about public use is needed to enhancethe effectiveness and efficiency of actions takenby stakeholders in resource management andtourism development.

C O M M E R C I A L A N D S U B S I S T E N C E U S E S

Other public uses of marine protected areas maybe allowed under permit by managementauthorities for commercial purposes orsubsistence of local residents. Subsistenceactivities commonly involve fishing, but mayinclude other traditional uses of marine resourceswithin the MPA. Permits may be issued for thefollowing types of activities within marineprotected areas, under certain conditions:

Tour boat operations (recreation and tourism) Charter and rental boat operations (recreation and

tourism)Guide services (recreation and tourism)Commercial fishing (fin-fish and shellfish)Collection of marine resources (tropical fish, coral,

pearls, shells)Salvage of historic shipwrecksMiningOil and gas extraction

The permit requirements may include reporting ofpark entrants, description of work or subsistenceactivities, and other more specialized information.The quality of public use information derived fromthese permits is dependent upon the ability of


resource managers to (1) identify ALL commercialand subsistence users, and (2) facilitatecompliance by these users in providing therequired information.

7. 3 D I S T I N G U I S H I N GC H A R A C T E R I S T I C S O F U S E

There are certain characteristics of use thatdistinguish marine protected areas from land-based parks. These characteristics include thefollowing:

Focus on water-based recreation activitiesPrevalent use of boats as a mode of access Open access to public resourcesDependence on marine technologies

Although many marine protected areas mayinclude beaches and other shorelands within theiradministrative boundaries, the focus of public useis primarily water-based recreation activities,especially boating, fishing, swimming, snorkeling,and scuba diving. Boats of various types are theprincipal mode of access to marine resources ofinterest to participants in water-based recreation.Access to marine resources within MPAs can becharacterized as “open” because of the numeroustravel routes available to visitors aboard boats. Inaddition, the seaward or water boundaries ofmarine protected areas usually are not marked inany fashion by management authorities. Boatersrequire navigation charts and marine technologiessuch as a global positioning system (GPS) orfathometer (depth sounder) to determine theirposition within or outside of the marine protectedarea.

These characteristics of use of marine protectedareas present special challenges to managementorganizations prepared primarily for land-basedpark operations. In particular, the collection ofpublic use information at recreation and tourismattractions within a MPA is severely restricted ifmanagement authorities do not possess theboats, marine technologies, and skilled personnel

necessary to access these sites. Even if theseequipment and personnel are available, the sheersize of some MPAs make the collection of thisinformation very difficult.

Although marine protected areas present somespecial challenges for measurement of public use,there are options that do not require regularmonitoring of recreation and tourism attractionswithin the MPA. The following sections providegeneral guidelines for measurement of public use,and some methods that have been usedsuccessfully with MPAs and associated coastalregions.

7. 4 G E N E R A L G U I D E L I N E S F O RM A R I N E P R O T E C T E D A R E A S

The following steps can be viewed as generalguidelines in the PROCESS of measuring public useat MPAs. Please consult other chapters of thisdocument for further guidance on these topics:

1. Develop the administrative and financialcapacity for measurement and monitoring ofpublic use

2. Define the purposes for which the informationwill be used

3. Define the operational boundaries of the MPA(these may be smaller than the legallydesignated boundaries)

4. Define the visitor populations to be measuredfor use

5. Determine target levels of validity andreliability (i.e., what should be measured andthe quality of results)

6. Develop a design or plan for measurement ofpublic use

7. Select appropriate methods of data collectionand analysis

8. Integrate the results in management plans andactivities


7. 5 P O T E N T I A L M E T H O D S F O RM E A S U R E M E N T O F P U B L I C U S E

The following methods have been used withvarying degrees of success to measure public useof marine protected areas or associated coastalregions. The information provided on thesemethods is NOT intended to be a comprehensive ordetailed analysis. Instead, it should be viewed asa starting point for discussion about thesystematic and scientific measurement of publicuse of MPAs.

Prior to implementation of these methods, eachMPA needs to assess its particular purposes formanagement, characteristics of use, availableequipment and personnel, and other informationto determine which method or combination ofmethods will be most effective and efficient forthe management organization. The informationderived from this assessment should be madepart of a written plan for measurement of publicuse. Please consult this document and othersources in park planning and management forfurther details about preparing plans formeasurement of public use.

1. VISITOR ENTRY PERMITSA nearly complete census of public use may bepossible with the requirement to obtain avisitor permit upon each entry to the MPA.Permit information may include visitordemographics, mode of access, expectedtravel plans within the MPA, expectedrecreation activities, and other information.There may also be a requirement to presentthe permit to management authorities uponexit from the MPA with corrections to indicateACTUAL travel and activities within the MPA.This method may provide the highest quality ofdata, but will probably inconvenience thevisitor unless there are ample facilities andpersonnel to process permits. In addition,there could be undocumented use of the MPAby those that do NOT obtain permits.

2. ANNUAL VISITOR PERMITSAn accurate count of annual visitors may bepossible with the requirement to obtain avisitor permit upon FIRST entry of the year tothe MPA. Visitors are not required to obtainpermits during subsequent visits during theyear. This method may provide high qualityinformation about annual visitors, but doesnot allow estimation of total visitation, lengthof stay, or more specific patterns of useneeded in resource management anddevelopment. This method is more convenientfor visitors who expect to make multiple visitsto the MPA during the year.

3. RATIO-BASED ESTIMATION OF VISITATIONAnnual visitation can be estimated for certainrecreation activities where ratios of use can bedeveloped between an easily measuredsegment of a visitor group and other segmentsof the group. An example is visitation byrecreational scuba divers aboard chartervessels based within or near the MPA, andvisitation by recreational divers aboard privateor rental boats. Charter operators may bewilling to provide information about visitationto the MPA as a requirement of their permit orby voluntary agreement. Occasional surveysof private/rental boat operators would provideinformation on the visitation of recreationalscuba divers aboard non-charter vessels. Acomparison of visitation aboard chartervessels and private/rental boats would provideratios and other bases of comparison betweenthese segments. These ratios could be used toestimate total visitation when only thevisitation aboard charter vessels is known. Thestability of these ratios need to be evaluatedperiodically to maintain the accuracy of publicuse estimates. The steps in developing such amethod include the following:

} Complete an inventory of dive charteroperations

} Determine visitation aboard chartervessels


} Conduct on-site surveys to estimate non-charter visitation

} Develop ratios for visitation over time

} Estimate total visitation

The surveys of non-charter vessels couldinclude information on visitor demographics,recreation activities, and other information.Charter operators may also be willing toparticipate in survey of their passengers undercertain conditions.

4. ON-SITE SURVEYSVisitors of marine protected areas can beasked to complete self-administeredquestionnaires, or to take part in interviewsabout their recreation and tourism activities.On-site surveys should be designed to obtain arepresentative sample of visitor groups to theMPA during a certain period of time (usuallyseasonal and annual). These surveys usuallyrequire trained personnel who directly interact with visitors at predetermined

locations within or near the marine protectedarea. Locations for on-site surveys includefacilities, attractions, and access points suchas visitor centers, marinas, boat launches, baitand tackle shops, dive sites, and fishing areas.The administration of surveys at fishing areas,

dive sites, or other places of active recreationis often viewed as an inconvenience byvisitors.

If properly designed, on-site surveys canprovide high quality information on manydimensions of visitor use. The collection ofCOMPREHENSIVE information on public use byon-site survey may not be feasible due to costand the logistical requirements of thesampling schedule.

5. AERIAL SURVEYS OF VISITOR ACTIVITYAerial surveys may provide information onvisitor activities within MPAs. In particular,aerial surveys can determine the number ofvessels moored or anchored at certain sites(e.g., coral reefs, shipwrecks), vessels intransit within certain geographic zones, andthe probable activities in which these vesselsare engaged (e.g., recreational fishing,commercial fishing, snorkeling/scuba diving).This information would be available only for apoint in time, unless regular aerial surveys arecompleted during different times of the day,days of the week, and months of the year. Inaddition, the accuracy of information isdependent upon the ability of surveypersonnel to distinguish the different types of


Guided Tour at Heron Island

in the Great Barrier Reef

Marine Park, Australia

People who visit parksare usually very

interested in parkmanagement and arewilling to give their

time to assist managersby providing personalopinions on surveys.

vessels and visitor activities sometimes fromgreat distances. Aerial surveys can besupplemented by on-site surveys to verify theaccuracy of aerial observations, and to collectadditional public use information. In manycases, information on the density and patternsof various uses can be developed from aerialsurveys and plotted on maps, or incorporatedinto geographic information systems (GIS).

6. REGIONAL EXIT SURVEYVisitor exit surveys can be conducted whenCOMPREHENSIVE information is needed onpublic use of a marine protected area orcoastal region. The efficiency of such surveysis increased greatly if there are limited exitpoints from a MPA or coastal region. Thismethod would probably NOT be practical forMPAs or coastal regions having numerousentry and exit points (i.e., relatively “open”access) by visitors.

An exit survey of recreation and tourism on aregional basis (including a number of marineprotected areas) was recently conducted inthe Florida Keys and Florida Bay region of theUnited States of America. In this case, exitinterviews were an efficient survey methodbecause of the limited travel routes into andout of the region (i.e., one highway, twoairports, one cruise ship dock).

The survey of visitors to the region included(1) exit interviews with mailbackquestionnaires, and (2) supplementaryinterviews at over 200 sites within the region(e.g., accommodations, recreation facilities,tourism attractions). The exit interviewsprovided visitor profiles, estimates of tripexpenditures, an understanding of theimportance/satisfaction of facilities andnatural resource attributes, perceptions on thestate of the resource, and an indication ofenvironmental concern. The on-site interviewsprovided estimates on intensity of use and neteconomic use values. The economic analysis

of data from the study provided estimates ofboth market (economic impacts) and non-market recreational use values. In addition,the study interpreted visitor perceptions of thefacilities, attractions, and naturalenvironments that support these recreationaluse values.

7. REGIONAL LODGING SURVEYA scientific survey of recreation and tourism isdifficult in “open” coastal areas of a region dueto logistical difficulties in obtainingrepresentative samples of participants/users.The cost of comprehensive on-site surveys is abarrier to obtaining an adequate number ofresponses; this in turn limits the developmentof valid profiles of different visitor groups andmarket segments within visitor groups.Overall, the complexity of logistics and highcosts make it difficult to obtain reliableestimates of total use/participation forpurposes of expanding survey estimates (e.g.,average spending per boating day x totalnumber of boating days). Due in large part tothese constraints, there have been fewcomprehensive and simultaneous studies ofdifferent types of recreation and tourism, andtheir economic impacts within a coastalregion.

An alternative to extensive on-site survey ofrecreation and tourism is a regional lodgingsurvey. This alternative may reduce thecomplexity of logistics and costs in developingCOMPREHENSIVE information on public use of aMPA or other coastal region. The effectivenessand efficiency of this method is dependent onthe support of hospitality businesses in theregion. An outline for design of a lodgingsurvey is presented as follows:

RECREATION AND TOURISM SUPPLY

} inventory lodging facilities to determineovernight capacity and occupancy (e.g.,motels, resorts, bed and breakfasts,seasonal homes, campgrounds, marinaslips);


} inventory recreation and tourismattractions, facilities, services, andprograms within shorelands of the regionusing EXISTING secondary data sources,aerial photos, land use maps, GISinformation, and on-site validation; and

} develop descriptive totals of coastalrecreation and tourism supply.

RECREATION AND TOURISM ACTIVITY

} conduct visitor surveys at overnightlodging facilities to estimate tourism-related recreation activity and spending inthe local area;

} conduct household telephone and/or mailsurveys to estimate local recreationactivity and spending (i.e., permanent andseasonal residents);

} conduct on-site surveys at selectedcoastal recreation attractions and facilitiesto validate visitor surveys at lodgingfacilities, and to estimate day-use; and

} apply survey results to inventory data withspreadsheet models.

ECONOMIC IMPACT

} estimate total spending by coastalresidents and visitors;

} apply spending data to local input-output(I-O) models to estimate economic impact;and

} interpret findings for local decision-makers.

FINAL PRODUCTS

} Descriptive inventory of overnight lodgingfacilities;

} comprehensive and descriptive inventoryof recreation and tourism supply (i.e.,attractions, facilities, services, programs)within the coastal region;

} person days of participation in variousrecreation activities within the region bymarket segments defined by the type oflodging (i.e., household, seasonal home,motel, campground) and day-trip use;

} importance of coastal recreation facilities,services, and environmental attributes to

participants, and their satisfaction afterparticipation;

} spending profiles for specific marketsegments by major activities (totalspending would be estimated bymultiplying per day spending profiles bynumbers of days within segments); and

} economic impact of recreation and tourismspending, estimated in terms of sales,income, and jobs for both direct andsecondary impacts (i.e., indirect andinduced).

Consultation with specialists is generally requiredto complete reliable economic analyses such asassessment of economic impacts. In some cases,computer models are available that can aid inanalysis of economic impacts.

For further information on marine protected areasworldwide, consult the following publication:

Kelleher, G., C. Bleakley, and S. Welles. 1995. A globalrepresentative system of marine protected areas. GreatBarrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The World Bank, and theWorld Conservation Union (IUCN). IUCN @ www.iucn.org


Heron Island Ferry,

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia

Private tourism operators are often very willingto cooperate with park managers in

coordinated, tourism market analysis.

The GUIDELINES FOR PUBLIC USE MEASUREMENTAND REPORTING AT PARKS AND PROTECTED AREASmust continue to develop. The goal is to translatethem into as many languages as possible and todistribute them widely. New measurementequipment, new computer hardware and newcomputer software will appear. As furtherexperience is gained, the GUIDELINES will berefined.

In order to provide as much assistance to parkmanagers as possible, it is important that thesechanges be made known. For the foreseeablefuture, paper reports will continue to have animportant role. However, reports are costly toproduce and to distribute. They can go out of datequickly. With the onset of the world wide web andelectronic documents, a dynamic new method forthe distribution of information is now available.The WCPA’s Task Force on Tourism and ProtectedAreas will continue to develop the existing website. Amended reports and new technologies canbe posted on this site and made available quickly.This method is inexpensive, compared to printingand mailing reports. However, it is only availableto those with web access. Trends suggest thatmore and more park agencies and individuals inthose agencies will gain web access over time.

Comments on the contents of the GUIDELINES, newtechnologies available and suggestedimprovements in public use measurement areencouraged. Case studies on the application of theGUIDELINES are encouraged and will be publishedas they become available. The GUIDELINES areintended to be part of a dynamic process aimedas encouraging best practice in public usemeasurement and reporting in parks andprotected areas globally.

An important goal of these GUIDELINES is toprovide a common base for measurement. Oncethis is in place, it enables a much morecomprehensive understanding of the volume ofpublic use of the world’s parks and protectedareas. The authors of these GUIDELINES hope thatin the future a global, ongoing inventory andreporting of the world’s park visitation will beundertaken, probably in concert with the datacollection for the U. N. List of National Parks andProtected Areas. All readers of the GUIDELINES areencouraged to collect and manage the public usedata of the parks and protected areas in theirjurisdiction so this data can be agglomerated withdata from other sites to achieve the larger pictureof public use.


C H A P T E R 8

T H E E V O L U T I O N O F T H EB E S T P R A C T I C E G U I D E L I N E S

A P P E N D I C E S

APPENDIX 1: International Definitions of Tourism Terminology

APPENDIX 2: Attendance Methodology Form

APPENDIX 3: Bent’s Old Fort National Historic Site Survey

APPENDIX 4: Visitor Satisfaction Measurement Feedback

APPENDIX 5: Snake River Survey

APPENDIX 6: Georgian Bay Islands National Park Visitor Survey – Summer 1997


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I N T E R N A T I O N A L T O U R I S MT E R M I N O L O G Y

A strong statistical base is essential for a goodunderstanding by governments, industries,academia and the public of tourism’s contributionto the social, cultural and economic developmentof a country. For the comparison of tourismmeasurements in different jurisdictions, it isimportant for standard definitions to be used.Below are the standard tourism definitionsaccepted by the United Nations’ StatisticalCommission.

TOURISM: the activities of persons travelling to andstaying in places outside their usual environmentfor not more than one consecutive year for leisure,business and other purposes.

DOMESTIC TOURISM: involving residents of a givencountry travelling only within their own country.

INBOUND TOURISM: involving non-residents visitinga country other than their own country. It isessential to classify visitors by country ofresidence rather than by nationality.

NATIONALITY: the government issuing the passport(or other identification document), even if theperson normally resides in another country.

OUTBOUND TOURISM: involving residents travellingin another country.

INTERNAL TOURISM: comprises domestic andinbound tourism.

NATIONAL TOURISM: comprises domestic tourismand outbound tourism.

INTERNATIONAL TOURISM: consists of inbound andoutbound tourism.

INTERNATIONAL VISITOR: any person who travels toa country other than that in which he has hisusual residence but outside his usual environmentfor a period not exceeding 12 months and whosemain purpose of visit is other than the exercise ofan activity remunerated from within the countryvisited.

DOMESTIC VISITOR: any person who resides in acountry, who travels to a place within the country,outside his usual environment for a period notexceeding 12 months and whose main purpose ofvisit is other than the exercise of an activityremunerated from within the place visited.

OVERNIGHT VISITORS: visitors who stay at least onenight in a collective or private accommodation inthe place visited.

This definition includes cruise passengers whoarrive in a country on a cruise ship and return tothe ship each night to sleep on board even thoughthe ship remains in port for several days. Alsoincluded in this group are owners or passengers ofyachts and passengers on a group touraccommodated in a train.

SAME-DAY VISITORS: visitors who do not spend thenight in a collective or private accommodation inthe place visited.

TOURISM EXPENDITURE: the total consumptionexpenditure made by a visitor or on behalf of avisitor for and during his or her trip and stay at adestination.

T H E O V E R A L L R E F E R E N C E I S :United Nations and World Tourism Organization. 1994.Recommendations on Tourism Statistics. Department forEconomic and Social Information and Policy Analysis,Statistical Division, Statistical Papers, Series M, No. 83.

To obtain the full report, titled Recommendations on TourismStatistics, contact the World Tourism Organization [email protected]. The report presents a conceptualframework, classification system and an overview of futurechallenges.



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D E F I N I T I O N O F T E R M S U S E D O N T H E

P A R K S C A N A D A A T T E N D A N C E

M E T H O D O L O G Y F O R M :

1PERSON-VISIT: 2PERSON-ENTRY(a measure of loading on the park)A person-entry occurs each time a person enters areporting unit regardless of the purpose of theentry.

3PERSON-VISIT-DAY (includes visitors staying overnight – ameasurement used in national parks and historiccanals)A person-visit-day occurs for each day or any partthereof that a person stays in a reporting unit forthe purposes of heritage appreciation orrecreation.

4PERSON-VISIT-HOUR (a measurement used mainly for historic sites)A person-visit-hour occurs when a person stays ina reporting unit for one hour.

5CONFIDENCE LEVELLow May require surveys, report cards, Point

of Sale (P.O.S.) data to improveconfidence level

Medium Measurable improvements tomethodology may still be possible

High Only minor improvements can beachieved by revising methodology

6GENERAL NOTEA park/site can include a general note toaccompany any requests for data. The note might,for example, explain that the park has anextremely high percentage of campers that stay inthe park for an average of 3 days or 2 nights.Under the person-visit unit of count they wouldonly be counted once, however under the person-visit-day count they would be counted for eachday in the park. The note would help to informusers of the data about the unique characteristicsof visitors to the park or site.


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V I S I T O R S A T I S F A C T I O N M E A S U R E M E N T F E E D B A C K

It is important to provide feedback to the population who are involved in service satisfaction studies. Suchfeedback provides the visitor with an indication that visitor surveys are taken seriously, and cause realchanges in operations. The feedback also encourages visitors to participate in the next round of servicemonitoring. Below is one-page feedback note for the campers in the national parks of western Canada. Thepage is mounted on campground bulletin boards for the viewing by the campers.


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A special publication byWCPA – North American Region &

WCPA – Australia and New Zealand Region

World Commission on Protected AreasRue Mauverney 28CH-1196 Gland, SwitzerlandTel: ++ 41 22-999 00 01Fax: ++ 41 22-999 00 10E-mail: [email protected]

IUCN Publications Services Unit219c Huntington Road

Cambridge, CB3 0DL, UKTel: ++ 44 1223-277894Fax: ++ 44 1223-277175

E-mail: [email protected]

Documents

PAUL F. J. EAGLES · Hornback, Kenneth E., and Paul F.J. Eagles, 1999. GUIDELINES FOR PUBLIC USE MEASUREMENT AND REPORTING AT PARKS AND PROTECTED AREAS. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and