Chapter NineInterest Groups: Organizing for Influence

Multiple Choice

1. By definition, the interest-group system consists of all interests that are ________ and seek ________ goals.a. organized; politicalb. cohesive; narrowc. mobilized; ideologicald. small; narrow

e. None of the answers are correct.Answer: aPage: 246

2. A primary difference between a political party and a typical interest group isthat the partya. promotes public policies.b. addresses a broad range of issues.c. supports candidates for public office.d. influences policymakers.

e. addresses a narrow range of issues.Answer: bPage: 246

3. The theory that nearly all interests are adequately presented through group activity isa. republicanism.b. constitutionalism.c. elitism.d. pluralism.

e. interest-group liberalism.Answer: dPage: 245

4. A basic reason for the existence of so many interest groups in the United States isa. the American tradition of free association.b. the extent of diverse interests in American society.c. America’s federal system of government.d. All of the answers are correct.

e. None of the answers are correct.Answer: dPage: 248

5. According to James Madison, the source of most interest groups or factions isa. the unequal distribution of property.

b. the American political tradition of association.c. the system of separation of powers in America.d. the spirit of individualism.

e. the concept of majority rule.Answer: aPage: 249

6. The most fully organized interests are those that representa. agriculture.b. business.c. civil liberties.d. labor.

e. the environment.Answer: bPage: 247

7. Today, the largest labor unions are those that represent a. service and public employees. b. skilled laborers. c. unskilled laborers. d. corporate leaders.

e. professionals.Answer: aPage: 250

8. A purposive incentive is defined asa. a goal of direct economic gain.b. the opportunity to promote a worthwhile public cause.c. a goal benefiting a specific group.d. any common purpose which brings groups together.

e. corporate profit.Answer: bPage: 251

9. Public interest groups are distinguished by the fact thata. their leaders are elected by secret ballot of the group’s members.b. their members receive no direct economic benefit from attainment of the group’s

goals.c. they do not lobby government officials directly, but rely instead on public service

announcements to get their views across to society.d. they always pursue goals in which there is a high level of agreement among

society members.e. All of the answers are correct.

Answer: bPage: 254

10. An interest group that focuses on policy benefits for senior citizens would be an example of a(n)a. philosophical interest group.b. ideological group.c. professional group.d. business group.

e. single issue group.Answer: ePage: 254

11. Ideological groups are distinct from single-issue groups ina. the number of issues with which they are concerned.b. the intensity of their members’ opinions.c. their tendency to get involved in election campaigns.d. that members do not seek to influence the political process.

e. All of the answers are correct.Answer: aPage: 254

12. State and local governmentsa. are prohibited by law from lobbying the national government.b. are allowed to lobby in Washington, D.C., but only through employee unions.c. are allowed to lobby in Washington, D.C., but only through the mass media.d. lobby in Washington, D.C., but primarily through national conferences to which

the president and congressional leaders are invited to listen to their views on national policy.

e. lobby in Washington, D.C., most effectively through organizations representing groups of states and localities.

Answer: ePage: 255

13. Some groups pursue public or collective goods. A public good is one thata. cannot be selectively granted or denied to individuals; it must be shared.b. is provided by a public service organization.c. is secured by the president.d. is secured by Congress.

e. None of the answers are correct.Answer: aPage: 251

14. The situation where individuals are tempted not to contribute to a cause because they will get the benefits even if they do not participate is calleda. the size factor.b. the free-rider problem.c. the special-interest paradox.d. the disincentive factor.

e. the zero-sum game.Answer: bPage: 251

15. In order to overcome the free-rider problem, non-economic groups havea. deliberately restricted the size of their membership.b. joined up with economic groups.c. convinced government to limit the distribution of public goods to those who have

contributed to the group’s efforts.d. created individual benefits (for example, newsletters and social events) for group

members.e. adopted taxes for nonmembers.

Answer: dPage: 252

16. In recent decades, groups that offer collective goods as an incentive for membership have found it easier to attract new members because ofa. changes in public attitudes—people today have a highly favorable opinion of

interest groups.b. changes in the tax code that allow a tax deduction for membership dues.c. the development of computer-assisted direct-mail techniques.d. changes in the nature of collective goods themselves, such that they are more

easily allocated to people who need them.e. None of the answers are correct.

Answer: cPage: 252

17. Economic groups have an advantage over non-economic groups becausea. they nearly always have larger memberships.b. they are organized primarily for political purposes.c. they have better leadership.d. they have greater access to financial resources.

e. their members are committed to their causes.Answer: dPage: 253

18. Interest group activity is basic to the democratic process because ita. is the only legitimate basis of government action.b. serves to promote the concerns of various interests in society.c. is by far the best means of deciding policy issues.d. is an effective substitute for political party activity.

e. is entirely fair to all interests in society.Answer: bPage: 265

19. A flaw in pluralism theory is the fact that

a. the interest group system is unrepresentative because some interests are far better organized and more powerful than others.

b. the public interest is never served by policies that promote special interests.c. larger groups always prevail politically over smaller groups.d. political parties better represent different interests than do interest groups.

e. All of the answers are correct.Answer: aPage: 267

20. The largest citizens’ group, with over thirty million members, isa. the NAACP.b. the AFL-CIO.c. the AARP.d. MADD.

e. Common Cause.Answer: cPage: 261

21. The group system politically favors those interests thata. are already favored by the economic system.b. take extreme policy positions.c. are concerned with foreign policy issues.d. represent minorities.

e. represent children.Answer: aPage: 248

22. In acknowledging the dilemma inherent in group activity, James Madisona. argued that the free-rider problem would hurt some groups more than others.b. claimed that government could listen to all groups, but should only enact policies

that promote the interests of majority groups.c. worried that government would be overly dominated by groups, but recognized

that a free society is obliged to permit the advocacy of self-interest.d. argued that government must restrict the activities of groups, so that political

parties could act as the major instrument of democracy.e. All of the answers are correct.

Answer: cPage: 267

23. Effective inside lobbying is based upona. countering the aims of other groups.b. providing useful and persuasive information to key officials.c. mobilizing the group’s members.d. bribing or threatening officials.

e. using the media to exert pressure.Answer: b

Page: 256

24. A main difference between iron triangles and issue networks isa. an iron triangle includes members of the legislative, executive, and judicial

branches, while issue networks bypass the judicial branch.b. issue networks involve a stable group of bureaucrats, legislators, and lobbyists,

while iron triangles exclude lobbyists in an attempt to reach impartial decisions.c. issue networks are generally less stable than iron triangles, such that the members

of an issue network may change as the issue develops.d. issue networks, being less formal, rely on outside lobbying only, while iron

triangles use inside lobbying only.e. All of the answers are correct.

Answer: cPage: 259

25. Critics of pluralist theory argue thata. special interests should never receive benefits from government.b. there is no collective interest in a system where each special interest determines

which policy benefits it receives.c. policies which favor a series of minorities are inherently more fair than policies

which ignore small groups in favor of a majority.d. the sum of people’s special interests is a rough approximation of society’s

collective interest.e. Madisonian theory is very accurate.

Answer: bPage: 266

26. PACs tend to contribute money toa. incumbents.b. challengers.c. Independents.d. liberal Democrats.

e. liberal Republicans.Answer: aPage: 263

27. In recent decades, lobbyists in Washington, D.C. have increasinglya. targeted the executive branch in their efforts to influence policy decisions.b. relied on coercive tactics, such as threats of withdrawing election support.c. worked to defeat incumbent members of Congress in order to replace them with

members who would be more supportive.d. relied exclusively on inside lobbying as the means of gaining their policy goals.

e. ignored the judicial branch as a means of influencing policy decisions.Answer: aPage: 257

28. Interest groups’ efforts to influence policy are aimed at all institutions excepta. the presidency.b. Congress.c. the bureaucracy.d. the courts.

e. None of the answers are correct answer.Answer: ePage: 257

29. The term iron triangle refers toa. a tightly knit set of lobbying groups.b. the relationship between the Congress, the military, and defense contractors.c. a small and informal but relatively stable set of bureaucrats, legislators, and

lobbyists who are concerned with promoting a particular interest.d. the strategy of lobbying all three branches of government simultaneously.

e. a corrupt relationship between the president, Congress, and the Supreme Court.Answer: cPage: 258

30. A set of lobbyists, legislators, policy experts, and executives who come together temporarily in debate over a complex policy issue isa. an iron triangle.b. an issue network.c. a caucus.d. a policy system.e. an ideological network.Answer: bPage: 259

31. Outside lobbying does not include the use ofa. face-to-face exchanges between lobbyists and policymakers.b. campaign contributions to legislators who favor the interest group.c. the news media to influence policy makers.d. targeting group resources on key election races.e. the print media to influence policy makers.

Answer: aPage: 261

32. Grass-roots lobbying is based on the assumption that officials will respond toa. well-reasoned policy arguments.b. the opportunity for extensive media publicity.c. moral pleas.d. the efforts of party organizations.e. pressure from constituents.

Answer: ePage: 261

33. The most important resource that most groups give congressional candidates isa. delivering members’ votes.b. helping make telephone calls to get out voters on Election Day.c. help with issue research.d. campaign volunteers.e. money.

Answer: ePage: 265

34. There are roughly ________ political action committees (PACs) in the United States.a. 40b. 400c. 4000d. 400,000e. 4,000,000

Answer: cPage: 262

35. The largest number of PACs are those associated witha. single-issue groups, such as environmental groups and right-to-life groups.b. labor.c. business.d. agriculture.e. education.

Answer: cPage: 262

36. Supporters of the pluralist view of interest groups would accept all of the following statements excepta. people’s separate interests are a legitimate basis of public policy.b. the idea of the public interest or the collective interest does not have much

meaning in cases where the public is sharply divided in its policy opinions.c. the opinion of the majority should always prevail in a policy dispute over the

opinion of a more intense and directly affected minority.d. most interests benefit from the workings of the group system, which is a reason to

support a policy process that is responsive to groups.e. public policy should represent the diversity that exists in society.

Answer: cPage: 265

37. A pluralist could be expected to argue thata. the presidency is more representative of society’s interests than is the Congress.b. the sum of people’s separate interests is nearly the equivalent of the collective

public interest.c. U.S. society is best run by a power elite.

d. most interests are poorly represented through the group process.e. the judiciary is more representative of society’s interests than is the Congress.

Answer: bPage: 265

38. According to Theodore Lowi’s theory of interest-group liberalism, the effect of groups on policya. constitutes a partial and wrongful abdication by government of its authority over

policy.b. results in a system of rule by minorities rather than by a majority.c. results in an inefficient use of society’s resources.d. All of the answers are correct.e. None of the answers are correct.

Answer: dPage: 266

39. James Madison’s solution to the problem of factions (special interests) has, in the modern policy process, actually contributed to the problem bya. suppressing the claims of special interests, thereby making it more difficult for

them to get their opinions heard by officials.b. resulting in a fragmentation of authority among policymakers, and thereby

providing groups more opportunities to get their way.c. eroding the strength of political parties, and thereby increasing the opportunity

for group influence.d. weakening the legislative branch, and thereby allowing groups to bully Congress

into accepting their demands.e. eroding the power of the mass media, and thereby increasing the opportunity for

group influence.Answer: bPage: 268

40. The most well-financed interest groups are those that promotea. social services.b. political ideologies.c. corporate interests.d. public interests.e. children’s interests.

Answer: cPage: 248

41 James Madison, in Federalist No.10, argueda. against all interest groups.b. for the advocacy of self-interest free from all systems of restraint.c. for regulation of interests through a governing system of checks and balances.d. for the replacement of interest groups by formal political parties.e. for a powerful judiciary.

Answer: cPage: 268

42. Interest group liberalism refers toa. the proliferation of interest groups throughout society.b. the fact that liberal groups are more numerous than conservative groups.c. the disproportionate influence of interest groups over policy in their respective

areas of concern.d. the activity of groups in support of disarmament, environmental protection, civil

liberties, and other left-wing causes.e. the power of tradition in the United States.

Answer: cPage: 267

43. In the dynamics of an iron triangle, what benefit do interest groups provide to friendly bureaucratic agencies?a. services for constituentsb. travel fundsc. campaign contributionsd. administration of mutually beneficial policiese. lobbying support for agency programs

Answer: ePage: 259

44. Interest groups are using new recruitment techniques which includea. arranging social gatherings.b. computerized mailing lists.c. newsletters.d. disseminating information on the Internet.e. All of the answers are correct.

Answer: ePage: 252

45. Another name for an interest group isa. a faction.b. a cabal.c. a political party. d. a coalition. e. a constituency.

Answer: aPage: 246

46. During his visit to this country in the 1830s, Alexis de Tocqueville described the United States as “a nation ofa. freeloaders.”b. loners.”

c. joiners.”d. fighters.”e. stalwarts.”

Answer: cPage: 248

47. The citizens of ________ are most actively involved in interest groups and community causes.a. the United States b. Germany c. Italyd. Francee. Great Britain

Answer: aPage: 248

48. Which of the following activities is not typical of most interest groups?a. supporting candidates for public officeb. addressing a broad and diverse range of public issuesc. working to influence policymakersd. promoting public policiese. working to influence legislators

Answer: bPage: 246

49. The international treaty that bans the use of land mines was an organizational movement conducted largelya. by television journalists.b. by Hollywood actors.c. by President Bill Clinton.d. by President George W. Bush.e. through the Internet.Answer: e

4950. The air we breathe is an example of a(n)a. collective or public good.b. consumable good.c. material good.d. mass-produced good.e. economic good.Answer: aPage: 258

5150. ________ wrote that “Liberty is to faction what air is to fire...”a. James Madisonb. Alexis de Tocqueville

c. Thomas Jeffersond. Theodore Lowie. Theodore RooseveltAnswer: aPage: 268

512. Under federal law, a Political Action Committee (PAC) can contribute ________ per candidate per election. a. $1,000b. $5,000c. $25,000d. $50,000e. $100,000Answer: bPage: 262

523. The medium of exchange for most inside lobbying activity isa. money.b. information.c. bribery.d. coercion.e. deception.Answer: bPage: 256

534. The fact that only about 10 percent of the people who regularly listen to National Public Radio (NPR) contribute money to their local station is

a. a result of the poor quality of NPR broadcasting.b. a result of the fact that NPR stations don’t regularly solicit contributions from

their listeners.c. a result of the fact that most NPR listeners have low incomes.d. a result of the fact that NPR sells time to advertisers and doesn’t have a need for

listener donations.e. an example of the free-rider problem.Answer: ePage: 252

545. According to E. E. Schattschneider, the interest-group system has a. a strong upper-class bias.b. a strong working-class bias.c. a strong bias in favor of liberal Democrats.d. a strong bias in favor of moderate Republicans.e. a strong bias in favor of racial minorities.Answer: aPage: 268

Essay/Short Answer

1. Identify the two defining characteristics of an interest group. Are college students and bridge clubs considered interest groups? Why or why not?

Answer: An interest group is characterized by formal organization and by pursuit of policy goals that stem from the shared interests of its members. College students are not considered to be interest groups because they are not formally organized. Bridge clubs are not interest groups because they do not seek to influence the political process.

2. Define economic interest groups. Identify four main types of economic interest groups and the constituencies they serve.

Answer: Economic groups promote the economic interests of their members. The four types of economic groups are business, labor, agriculture, and professional groups. Corporate groups, who make up more than one half of all lobbying groups in Washington D.C., concentrate their activities on policies that are concerned with business, such as tax, tariff, and regulatory decisions. Business interests are also represented by associations such as the National Association of Manufacturers and the U.S. Chamber of Commerce. Labor groups have been politically active for a long time, and the AFL-CIO is the largest labor group. Agricultural groups represent various segments of the farm community; for example, the Farm Bureau promotes agribusiness and large farms while the Farmers Union promotes the interests of smaller family farms. Professional groups, such as the American Medical Association, represent various professions and attempt to influence policy on their behalf.

3. Define non-economic interest groups. Identify three main types of non-economic interest groups and the constituencies they serve.

Answer: Non-economic groups are organized around purposive incentives, which are opportunities to support a cause in which a person believes. The three main types of such groups are public-interest groups, single-interest groups, and ideological groups. Public-interest groups are those that attempt to act in what members believe to be in the interest of society as a whole. Examples are the League of Women Voters, Common Cause, and Public Citizen. Single-interest groups are organized to influence policy in just one area, and examples are the Sierra Club, the National Rifle Association, and the various right-to-life and pro-choice abortion groups. Ideological groups are concerned with a broad range of policies from a general philosophical or moral perspective. The Moral Majority and Americans for Democratic Action are two examples.

4. What is the importance of the distinction between private goods (individual goods) and collective goods (public goods) in assessing why some interests are more highly organized than others? What type of group particularly benefits from this situation?

Answer: Economic groups offer members private (or individual) incentives that benefit

them directly, which is a powerful reason to join the group. An example of a private good is a benefit that a labor union member obtains through the union. Non-economic groups offer collective goods (public goods) which are goods that all people share, such as a clean environment. The fact that such goods are available to nonmembers as well as members is a disincentive for many to participate. This situation, called the free-rider problem, can plague non-economic groups. Economic groups are less affected by the free-rider problem. Economic groups also have ready access to financial resources in the form of profits or dues, while non-economic groups typically have more trouble obtaining financial resources.

5. Compare outside lobbying and inside lobbying.

Answer: Inside lobbying is based on close contacts with legislative, executive, and judicial officials and relies upon the use of information and personal persuasion as means of gaining support for the goals of the interest group. Outside lobbying aims to bring public pressure to bear on officials and rests upon grassroots activity (e.g., a letter-writing campaign) and electoral support in the form of group endorsements, votes, and financial contributions.

6. Compare iron triangles and issue networks.

Answer: An iron triangle is a small and informal but relatively stable set of bureaucrats, legislators, and lobbyists who are concerned with the development of policies beneficial to a particular interest. All sides of an iron triangle benefit from the relationship, which is why such relationships tend to be iron-clad or likely to endure. An issue network is an informal relationship among officials and lobbyists who are linked by common expertise and concern with a given policy area, such as energy, communication, the environment, or trade. Issue networks are different from iron triangles because the former are ad hoc (a response to a particular issue) and are based on shared expertise, while the latter are more enduring and are based on common interest. Issue networks have become a more prevalent manner in which to wield political influence.

7. Define a PAC. What limitations do PACs face when raising funds? What limitations do they face when contributing funds? Who are the primary recipients of PAC contributions and why?

Answer: A PAC is the political action committee of an interest group that tries to gain influence by contributing money to the campaigns of political candidates. PAC power is limited; money does not literally buy votes in Congress. However, money does buy access, and members of Congress listen to groups that financially support their campaigns. Because PAC money is raised early and quickly, PACs play a critical role in getting congressional campaigns started. Their role is less significant in presidential campaigns, which are larger in scale and depend on a wider range of funding sources. PACs face limitations on their efforts to raise funds. They can raise money for election campaigns by soliciting voluntary contributions from group members. A group cannot give organizational funds (such as corporate profits or union dues) to candidates.

Limitations also exist on the levels of contribution. A PAC can contribute no more than $10,000 to a candidate for federal office—$5000 in the primary and $5000 in the general election. The primary recipients of PAC contributions are incumbents. Congressional incumbents are highly likely to win and thus to remain in a position to make public policy. For this reason, the great bulk of PAC contributions are given to incumbents seeking reelection.

8. Discuss interest-group liberalism and indicate how Madison’s constitutional solution for controlling groups has itself become part of the problem in American politics.Answer: Interest-group liberalism holds that there is no concept of society’s collective interest in a policy system that enables special interests to determine for themselves which policy benefits they receive. Regardless of how many interests are served by the system, the public interest is not served because each policy decision is the result, not of majority rule, but of minority, or special interest, rule. Madison’s constitutional solution to the problem of special interests was to offset the power of a faction by pitting it against other factions; in practice, this solution required the fragmentation of political power—checks and balances. Today, Madison’s arrangement results in the delegation of authority in particular policy areas to small sets of officials, a condition that provides a perfect context for group influence.