Pathos and Mathos Before Zeus

Pathos and mathos before Zeus

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TheTangledWaysofZeus:AndOtherStudiesInandAroundGreekTragedyAlanH.Sommerstein

Printpublicationdate:2010PrintISBN-13:9780199568314PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:September2010DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199568314.001.0001

PathosandmathosbeforeZeus

AlanH.Sommerstein(ContributorWebpage)

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199568314.003.0012

AbstractandKeywords

ThischapterseekstointerpretthestatementinAeschylus,Agamemnon176–8thatZeuslaiddownthelawpatheimathos(‘learningthroughsuffering’),askinginparticularwhetherwearemeanttoassumethatlearningand/orsufferingexistedbeforeZeuslaiddownthislaw,and,ifweare,whattherelationshipwasbetweenthem.ItarguesthattheonlyanswerconsistentwithAeschylus'text,andwithcurrentpopularbeliefsaboutprimevaltimes,isthatbeforeZeustherewasnosuffering(allman'sneedswereproducedspontaneouslybytheearth)andnolearning(becauseitwasunnecessary).Zeusdeprivedmanofhappiness,sothathecouldsurviveonlybyacquiringwisdom—which,attheendoftheOresteia,theAtheniansatleasthavesucceededindoing.

Keywords:wisdom,Agamemnon,Oresteia,Zeus,learning,suffering,primeval


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ItwasZeus—sosingthechorusofAeschylus'Agamemnon(177–8)—wholaiddown(θέντα)thelawπάθειμάθος.ThisisnottheplacetoinvestigatetheexactmeaningofthatbriefphraseoritssignificancefortheOresteiaasawhole;1thoughitcannotbetoooftenemphasized,firstlythatπάθειμάθοςisnotthesameasπαθόνταμαθεıν̑anddoesnotimplythatthepersonwholearnsisnecessarilythesameasthepersonwhosuffers,2andsecondlythatdespitetheeffortsofalongsuccessionoftranslatorstoconfinetheapplicationofthelawtomortals3totheexclusionofgods,nothinginitsactualexpression(p.179) impliesanysuchrestriction.Themainpurposeofthepresentnote,however,istoraiseanewthequestion:ifthelawπάθειμάθοςwasestablishedbyZeus,whatthenwastherelationshipbetween‘suffering’and‘learning’underhispredecessors,OuranosandKronos,ofwhomwehavebeenremindedintheprecedingstanza(168–73)?

Isay‘toraiseanew’becausethequestionisonethathasbeenaskedbefore.ItseemstohavebeenfirstraisedbyKitto:4

WhatAeschylussaysabout[Zeus]isthathebroughtanewlaw,Learnbysuffering.Howwasthisnew?Wecannotimaginethatunderhispredecessorsmenlearnedwithoutsuffering;AeschylusdidnotbelieveinapastGoldenAge.Theonlyinterpretationisthatundertheearliergodsmensufferedbutdidnotlearn;nothingcameofhardexperience.

SomeyearslaterthesamequestionwasdiscussedbyMauricePope,5who,withoutreferringtoKitto,consideredthesametwopossibilitiesofinterpretationonlytorejectboth:

Arewetosuppose[thechorus]tomeanthatsuchusefulexperiencesasthesacrificeofIphigeniaweredeniedtomankindinthebadolddays?Thethoughtisgrotesque.Orarewetosupposethatsuchexperiencesweretakingplaceallthetimebutthatnobodylearnedanythingfromthem?Thethoughtislessgrotesque,butitisaverycomplicatedonetohavetothink.Ontheotherhandthethought‐sequenceinthepessimistinterpretationisnaturalandeasy.Thingshavealwaysbeenlikethis.

[110]WhetherPope'sfavouredinterpretationisreally‘naturalandeasy’maybeamatterofopinion.Whatisnotamatterofopinionisthatitwillnotsquarewiththetext:ifyousaythatXἔθηκεtheprincipleYtoholdasvalidlaw(κυρίωςἔχειν178),youaresayingthatbeforeXdidthisYwasnotvalidlaw.D.J.ConacherinhisrebuttalofPope'spaper6foundnodifficultyinacceptingtheexplanation—substantiallythesameasKitto's—whichPopehad(p.180) considered‘verycomplicated’.Andtherethematterhasrested.7Letusnowre‐examineit.

UnderZeus,accordingtothechorus,thereissuffering,anditleadstolearning;thereislearning,anditistheresultofsuffering.WhatwasthepositionbeforeZeus?Therearefourlogicalpossibilities;allofthemhavebeencanvassedinoneorotherofthestudiesmentionedabove,butneverallfourtogether.Thepossibilitiesarethese:


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1.Thingswerethesameastheyarenow(Pope).2.Therewaslearning,butnosuffering(rejectedbyKitto).3.Therewassuffering,butitdidnotleadtolearning(KittoandConacher;rejectedbyPope).4.Therewasneithersufferingnorlearning(dismissedbyPopeas‘grotesque’;notconsideredbyKitto).

Wehavealreadyruled(1)outofcourtasinconsistentwiththeAeschyleantext.Wecanalsosafelyreject(2),notonKitto'squestion‐begginggroundthat‘AeschylusdidnotbelieveinapastGoldenAge’(whichpresupposes,notonlythatPrometheusBoundisgenuinelyAeschylean,butalso,lessexcusably,thatthatplayrejectstheideaofapastGoldenAge—moreonthispresently—andthatAeschyluswasincapableofrejectingforartisticpurposesinoneplayatraditionwhichhehadtacitlyacceptedinanother)but,onceagain,becausethetextexcludesit:Zeusisdescribedin176–7asτὸνϕρονειν̑βροτοὺςὁδώσαντα,anditmustfollowthatwhetherornot‘suffering’isbeingpresentedasaninnovationbyhim,‘learning’certainlyisbeingsopresented.Wearethusleftwiththechoicebetween(3)and(4).Bothofthesearewhollyconsistentwiththetextofthepassage:Aeschylushasgivenhisaudiencenoguidanceastowhichtheyshouldassumetobecorrect.Theywillthereforehavebeenguided,notbyhisviewsabouttheprimevalworld,butbytheirown.Doweknowanythingofwhattheirviewswere?

Yes,wedo;agreatdeal.BeforethereignofZeuscamethereignofKronos;andthroughoutallantiquityὁἐπὶΚρόνουβίοςwasa(p.181) proverbialexpressionforaparadisalorutopianexistence,8freefromeveryimaginablekindofsuffering.TypicalistheHesiodicaccount(WorksandDays109–19):9

FirstofalltheimmortalswhodwellonOlymposmadethegoldenraceofmortalmen.TheywereinthetimeofKronos,whenheruledinheaven.Theylivedlikegods,havingasoulfreefromgrief,utterlywithouttoilandtrouble,nordidwretchedoldagecomeoverthematall,buttheyalwayskepttheformoftheirfeetandhands,andrejoicedinfeasting,remotefromallevils.Theydiedasthoughovercomebysleep,andallgoodthingsweretheirs;thebountifulearthofherownaccordbroughtforthabundantfruitsforthem,andtheygladlyinhabitedtheirlandsinpeace,withmanyblessings.

[111]Latersourcesabundantlyconfirmthispicture.Therewasuniversalpeace10andfreedomfromfear11andfromalldiseases.12Evenanimalsdidnoteatoneanother,13andtheveryclimatewasperpetuallyequable14sothatmenhadnoneedforclothing,bedding,orhousing.Privateproperty,15slavery,16andgovernment17wereunknown;menweredirectlyruledbythegods18withabsolutejustice,19andthemselves‘partookofimmortal,divinedescent’20andwerenot(p.182) onlybetterbutphysicallybiggerthanthemenoftoday.21MostpersistentofallistheideathatintheageofKronostheearthspontaneously(αὐτομάτη)bestowedherproduceonmaninbounteousabundancewithouttheneedfortoil,anideathatinfifth‐centurycomedyrepeatedlyfoundexpressioninsuchdelectablefantasiesasthis:


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Everygullyranwithwine,andbarley‐cakesfoughtwithloavesofbreadattheportalsofmen'smouths,beggingtobegobbledup‘ifyoulikethewhitest’;fishwouldcookthemselvesonthewayhome,andlaythemselvesonthetable;besidethediners'couchesflowedastreamofsouprollingdownhotchunksofmeat,andtherewerechannelsofsaucesthereforwhoeverwantedthemtogiveamplefacilitiesfordunkingeachmouthfultobesofttoswallow;andtherewereground‐cakesinlittletrays,sprinkledwithseasonings;androastthrusheswithmilk‐cakeswouldflydownyourthroat,andtherewasgreatdinofflat‐cakesjostlingoneanothertogetbetweenyourjaws;andboyswouldplayatknuckleboneswithsavourytitbitsandslicesofsow'swomb.22

WecanthereforetakeitascertainthatwhenAeschylus'audienceheardthatZeus,theoverthrowerofKronos,hadintroducedtheprincipleπάθειμάθος,theyunderstoodthistomeanthatZeushaddonethreethings:broughtsufferingintotheworld,broughtlearningintotheworld,andestablishedacausalrelationbetweenthem.

ThatZeushadbroughtsufferingintotheworldwas,aswehaveseen,thoroughlytraditional.Thathehadbroughtlearningintotheworldmayseemonourevidencetohavebeenlessso;atanyratedescriptionsoftheageofKronosarenotasaruleexplicitonthispoint,andPlatointhePolitikos(272b–d)canmakehisprotagonistfloattheideathatthemenofthosedaysusedtheirampleleisuretodiscussphilosophyandgatherwisdom.Headmits,however,thatthisisnot‘thesortofaccountthatiscurrentlygivenconcerningthem’(272c),thoughtantalizinglyhedoesnottelluswhatweregenerally(p.183) supposedtohavebeenthetopicsoftheconversationsmenusedtohavewitheachotherandwithanimals.Butthebestelucidationofthedegreeofmen'sintellectualabilityandachievementintheageofKronosprobablycomesfrom[112]PrometheusBound.ForourpresentpurposeitmatterslittlewhetherthisplayisorisnotbyAeschylus;23itisatanyrateafifth‐centuryAtticdrama,writtenforanaudiencewhosebackgroundbeliefswerethesameasthoseoftheaudienceoftheOresteiaorofTelecleides'Amphiktyones.

Itiscustomarytoregardthe‘anthropology’ofPrometheusBoundasbeingbasedontheideaofprogressfromprimitiveandmiserablebeginnings,insharpcontrastwiththedegenerativeanthropologyfirstfullyarticulatedbyHesiod.Itshould,however,berememberedthatthesorrystatefromwhichPrometheusclaimstohaverescuedhumanity(Prom.442–57)wasnottheirstateduringthereignofKronos,butearlyinthereignofZeus.WearetoldnothingdirectlyofhowmenfaredunderKronos,butwedohearatsomelength(406–24)ofhowthewholeworldisgrievingforthefateofPrometheusandlamentingfortheancienthonoursheldbyhimandhisbrethren(ξυνομαιμόνων410)—theTitansunderKronos,defeatedandimprisonedbyZeus;whichstronglysuggeststhatinthisplay,asinallotherrelevantGreekliterature,itisassumedthatthereignofKronoswasatimeoffelicityformortals.Certainlytheplaynowheredeniesthis.AndyetintheearlydaysofZeus'sreignPrometheusfindsmenlackingnotonlythenecessitiesofdecentlifebuttheintelligencetodevisemeansforprocuringthesenecessities.Theywere‘childlike’(443);they‘hadeyesbutsawnot,earsbutheardnot,


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and…livedouttheirdayshaphazardandconfused’(447–9);they‘didallthingswithoutunderstanding’(456–7);itneededtheinterventionofPrometheustomakethem‘intelligentandpossessedofmind’(444).Whathasbroughtaboutthechange?Didmenformerly,underKronos,possessintelligence,andhasZeusdeprivedthemofit?OrwasitratherthatunderKronostheyhadnoneedofintelligencebecause,inthewordsofHesiod,‘thebountifulearthofherown(p.184) accordbroughtforthabundantfruitsforthem’,andthatZeus,bycuttingoffearth'sbounty,plungedmenintoastateofwretchednessfromwhichtheycouldescapeonlywiththehelpofthatintelligencewhichtheydidnotyetpossess?Forthefirstexplanationthereisnoevidencewhatever;thesecond,ontheotherhand,mightwellberegardedasimplicitinthetraditionalpictureoftheageofKronos.ItmayevenhavebeenmadeexplicitinsomelosttreatmentofthemythearlierthanPrometheusBound:thiswouldaccountnotonlyforthewayinwhichtheauthorofthatplayseemsabletotakeitforgranted,butalsofortheuseofthenameofKronos(andwordsderivedfromit)incolloquialAtticpreciselytoconnotestupidity.24

InPrometheusBoundhuman‘learning’isalmostexclusively(inthebroadsense)technical.IntheOresteiaitisrathermoralandpoliticalwisdomthatistothefore.Buttheprincipleholdsjustasstronglythatwherethereisnosuffering,asunderKronos,therewillbenolearning.Manwillbehappy,nodoubt,buthishappinesswillbethatofachildorapamperedslave,utterlydependentonthefavourofhisdivineproviders.TheharshregimeofZeusseemsacurseonman—acursewhichOldComedyrepeatedlydreamsofshakingoff;25andyetonlyunderthatregimecanmanbefullyhuman,withthemindofanadult—andonemeaningofAeschylus'ϕρονειν̑,asPoperightlyemphasized,26isprecisely‘tohavethemindofanadult’.BeforeZeus,thelawπάθειμάθος,evenifitwastheoreticallytrue,wasineffective(ἄκυρον),vacuous,[113]trivial:itisofnointerestthatXisthecauseofY,ifXissomethingthatcanneveroccur.Zeus,byintroducingsuffering,forthefirsttimemadethelawactuallyoperative(κυρίωςἔχειν).Andthus,paradoxically,ifhumanintelligenceisagoodthing(asGreeksonthewholedoseemtohave(p.185)believedittobe),27theregimeofsufferinginauguratedbyZeuscanbeseenasagreatblessing.WhetherZeushadthatinviewfromthestartisquiteanothermatter.IseenoreasontobelievethattheZeusoftheOresteiadid,anymorethandidtheZeusofthePrometheusplays.28

Suchthenseemstohavebeen,initssimplestform,thecommonGreekunderstandingofhowhumanlifecametobeasitnowis.Manwasoncepossessedofallhappinessanddevoidofallwisdom;thencameZeusanddeprivedhimofhappiness,sothathecouldsurviveonlybyacquiringwisdom.Butitisnotdifficulttoseehowthesametransitionfromblissandunintelligencetosufferingandintelligencecouldbeinterpretedinasensealmostdiametricallyopposite.Whatifπάθειμάθοςwerereplacedbyμάθειπάθος?Whatif,insteadofsufferingbeingseenasthestimulustointellectualadvance,thegainingofwisdomwereseenasthecauseofsuffering?Thatmaywellseemtobewhathappenstotheindividualhumanbeingas(s)hepassesfrominfancytoadulthood;butitisnotanentirelystraightforwardmattertoturnthisideaintoanoriginmyth.What,afterall,isthesorrow‐bringingwisdomthatthegrowingindividuallearns?AstheSophocleanAjaxknew,29itistheknowledgeofthegriefsandhardshipsthattheworldcontains.Butthat


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kindofknowledgecannothavebeenthecauseoftheexistenceofthosegriefsandhardships.Theconnectionhastobemadeinaslightlylessdirectway.Childrenaretypicallyeagertoknoweverythingthatadultsknow—includingthingsthatadultsprefertokeepconcealedfromthem;onlywhentheythemselvesbecomeadultsdotheydiscoverhowgreataspiritualburdensomeofthatknowledgeis.Thatideacanreadilyenoughbetransposedintomythicalterms.Inthechildhoodofhumanity,someonereachedoutfor,andgot,knowledgeofthatkindwhichhumanityoftenfeelsitwouldhavebeenbetteroffwithout.ThatisthebasisofthestoryofPandora'sjar(Hes.Works94 ff.);forthoughwearenottoldwhysheremovedthejar'slid,ZeushadinstructedHermestogiveheranἐπίκλοπονἠ̑θος(Works67–8,77–9;missing,togetherwith(p.186) thejar,fromtheparallelpassageintheTheogony)andonemayreasonablysupposethatsheremovedthelid(whilepoorEpimetheus'backwasturned)forthesamereasonforwhichGreekwomen(orsotheirhusbandsalleged)wereforeverremovingthelidsofstoragejarsorsecretlyopeningcupboards:shewantedtoknowwhatwasinside,incaseitmightbesomethingworthstealing.30AndofcoursethesamenotionofreachingoutforknowledgethatprovesacurseisalsothebasisofthestoryofAdamandEveinGenesis.

ButwithlaterGreekstheideaofμάθειπάθοςdoesnotseemtohavebeenpopular.Thereis,aswehaveseen,plentyofnostalgiafortheageofKronos,butitdoesnot,evenincomedy,includethewishforareturntoastateofblissfulimbecility:itisonethingtowishforalifeinwhichonewillneverneedtoputastrainonone'smentalapparatus,andquiteanothertowishthatonedidnothavethatapparatus.MostGreeksconsideredhumanwisdomagoodthing,notjustinthewretchedworldwenowinhabit,butabsolutely:noancientGreekcouldever,asChristianshaveoftendone,regardamentaldefectiveor‘holyfool’asapersondeservingadmirationinhislifetimeandworshipafterhisdeath.Itisbettertobeadult—ϕρονειν̑.Andwhathascaused[114]humanitytobecomementallyadult,intheOresteia'swayoflookingatthings,istheharsh,ungiving,unforgivingworldinwhichZeushascausedthemtolive.

AndyetinonesensetheOresteiatoocanbesaidtojoinhandswithGenesis.WhenAdamandEvehaveeatenofthefruitofthetreeofknowledge,Godhimselfexpressestheviewthat‘thismanhasbecomelikeoneofus’:31theywhowerecreatedinthephysicalimageofGodhavenowbecome,inasense,mentallyhispeersaswell.32IntheOresteiatheacquisitionofwisdomisnomatterofeatinganattractive(p.187) pieceoffruit:itcomesbysuffering—bybloodandtoilandtearsoveraperiodofgenerations.Butwhenithasbeenattained,whenhumanity,andinparticulartheAthenians,havebecome‘wiseatlast’(σωϕρονου̑ντεςἐνχρόνῳEum.1000),*theErinyeswhohavebeenagentsofsomuchofthatsufferinghavethistosayof<theAthenians'>relationshiptothedivineworld:

Παλλάδοςδ'ὑπὸπτεροις̑ὄνταςἅζεταιπατήρ.

YouareunderthewingsofPallas,andherfatherreveresyou. (Eum.1001–2)

Thatistheultimateandparadoxicaloutcomeofwhatthepopularmindsaw—andthe


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Oresteianowhererejectsthisview—asthespitefuldecisionofZeustocutoffthespontaneousbountyofEarthandcondemnmantoalifeoftoilandpain:theemergenceofahumanpopulationwhomerittheaweandreverence33ofZeushimself.34

Addendap.182n.22 seenowalsoRuffell(2000);Farioli(2001:27–137);Olson(2007:75–7,99–107)(textof,andcommentaryon,fourofthefragmentscitedbyAthenaeus).

p.183n.23 IwouldnotnowmaintaintheviewthatPrometheusBoundwasearlierthanAjax;Bees(1993)seemstometohavedemonstratedthatitbelongstothe430s.

p.185n.29: theSophocleanDeianeira(Trach.142–54;note143μήτ'ἐκμάθοιςπαθου̑σα)andtheSophocleanProcne(Soph.fr.583.3–5)knewittoo.

p.187 thisreadingandinterpretationofEum.1000(whereWest1990ahadadoptedvanHerwerden'semendationσωϕρονου̑ντεςἐνκόρῳ‘wiseamidsurfeit’)arebrilliantlydefendedbyChiasson(1999/2000);IwasprobablywrongintheLoeb(Sommerstein2008:ii.477)tounderstandthephraseas‘wiseindueseason’(i.e.notneedingtolearnwisdom,toolate,throughpainfulexperience),whichgivesἐνχρόνῳasenseforwhichthereisnoclearparallel.

Notes:

(1)OnthesemattersseeKitto(1956:6–8,69–86);Conacher(1987:11–12,83–5);andSommerstein(1989b:19–25).

(2)Cf.Booth(1976:228).

(3)SoThomson(1938)‘manshalllearnbysuffering’;Murray(1952)‘ManbySufferingshallLearn’;Vellacott(1959)‘manmustsuffertobewise’;Fagles<andStanford>(1977)‘wemustsuffer,sufferintotruth’;cf.Fraenkel(1950)‘bysufferingtheyshallwinunderstanding’andLloyd‐Jones(1979)‘bysufferingtheyshalllearn’,bothofwhommakeitclearintheirnotesthattheymean‘they’toreferbackto‘men’(=βροτούς176);GreneandO'Flaherty(1989),whiletranslating177accuratelyenoughas‘knowledgecomesinsuffering’neverthelessimposethetime‐honouredinterpretationbyspeakingofZeusas‘havingsetthislawfirmlyinourhearts[emphasismine:AHS]’.TonyHarrison'sOresteia(inT.Harrison1985/1986)omitsthepassagealtogether,alongwiththewholeofthe‘HymntoZeus’(160–83).OftheEnglishtranslationsIhavesampled,onlythoseofWeirSmyth<([1925]1957)>‘wisdomcomethbysuffering’andLattimore(1953)‘wisdomcomesalonethroughsuffering’avoids,astheGreekdoes,anyattempttoidentifythesufferers<with>thelearnerseitherdirectlyorindirectly.TheGermanrenderingscollectedbyNeitzel(1980:283n.3)showagreatertendencytocircumspection:onlyfouroutofeightinterpolateareferencetohumanity.OnNeitzel'sowninterpretationofthepassage(retainingthemanuscripts'readingτῳ̑πάθει,andtakingthesensetobe‘bringingitabout,bymeansofsuffering,thatlearningiseffective’)IagreewithConacher(1987:94n.21).


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(4)ThequotationisfromKitto(1961:68);earliereditions<ofKitto'sGreekTragedy>havenocorrespondingpassage,thechapterhavingbeenrewrittenforthethirdedition.KittohadalreadystatedthesameconclusioninKitto(1956:81),butwithoutthesupportingargument.

(5)Pope(1974:111).

(6)Conacher(1976:332):‘itisZeusalonewhoputmanontheroadtousinghisintelligenceandsotolearnthroughsuffering’.

(7)Neitzel(1980)doesnotconsiderthequestionwhetherlearningand/orsufferingexistedbeforeZeus.

(8)Cf.[Pl.]Hipparchos229b;Arist.Ath.Pol.16.7;Plut.Arist.24.3;Philodemos,OnPiety51Gomperz<=B6798Obbink>,citinginteraliathearchaicepicAlkmeonis(fr.7Davies<=West>).Onthehistoryoftheconcepts‘lifeunderKronos’and‘GoldenAge’,seeBaldry(1952:esp.84–6);Guthrie(1957:69 ff.);Gatz(1967:esp.114–28);Blundell(1986:135–64).

(9)Cf.alsoibid.90–2:‘Forformerlytheracesofmenhadlivedonearthremotefromevilsandwithoutharshtoilandpainfuldiseasesthatdealtdeathtomen.’

(10)Telecleidesfr.1.2,Pl.Polit.272e,Laws713e.

(11)Telecleidesfr.1.3.

(12)Ibid.

(13)Pl.Polit.271e.

(14)Ibid.272a;cf.perhapsHes.fr.204.124 ff.M–W<=fr.155.124 ff.Most>whichseemstodescribeadeteriorationofclimateattheendoftheheroicage.

(15)Plut.Cim.10.7τὴνἐπὶΚρόνουμυθολογουμένηνκοινωνίαν.InPl.Polit.271e–272aοὐκἠ̑σαν…κτήσειςγυναικω̑νκαὶπαίδων·ἐκγη̑ςγὰρἀνεβιώσκοντοπάντεςthelogicalconnectionasthetextstandsisobscure,andonewonderswhetherγυναικω̑νκαὶπαίδωνmaynotbeagloss(basedonrecollectionofthefifthbookoftheRepublic),inwhichcaseκτήσειςwouldoriginallyhavereferredtopropertyinlandandgoods.

(16)Plut.ComparisonofLycurgusandNuma1.12;Luc.Saturn.7,20.

(17)Pl.Polit.271e.

(18)Pl.Laws713c–e.

(19)Ibid.713e;Plut.Mor.266 f.

(20)Soph.fr.278Radtεὐδαίμονεςοἱτότεγένναςἀϕθίτουλαχόντεςθείας:cf.Gatz


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(1967:115–16).

(21)Telecleidesfr.1.15.

(22)Telecleidesfr.1.4–14;cf.Cratinusfr.176.Numerousotherfragments,manyofthemcitedbyAth.6.267e ff.,takeustothesamefantasyworldwithoutlinkingitexplicitly(inthelinesthathavesurvived)withtheageofKronos;onthiscomictoposseeGatz(1967:116–21);Heberlein(1980);Sutton(1980:58–65);Zimmermann(1983:59–61);Reckford(1987:323–8).*

(23)See(againstauthenticity)Griffith(1977);(forauthenticity)Pattoni(1987).PattonidoesnotinmyjudgementcomenearrefutingGriffith'scase;buthercomparisonbetweentheprologuesofProm.andofSophocles'Ajax(seeespeciallyPattoni1987:181)makesithighlylikelythatProm.istheearlierofthesetwoplays.*

(24)Cf.ΚρόνοςAr.Clouds929,Wasps1480,Pl.Euthyd.287b,Hyp.fr.252;ΚρόνιπποςAr.Clouds1070;Κρονόληρος,Κρονοδαίμων,Κρονοθήκηcom.adesp.1052–4<Kock=607,610,751KA>.Inmostofthesepassagesthemeaningis‘oldfool’;butHyp.loc.cit.usedΚρόνοςinthesenseofμω̑ρος(Bekk.Anecd.i.104.7),andinAr.Wasps1480thetermisappliedtotragicactorschallengedtoadancingcontest,andthethreewhotakeupthechallenge(thesonsofKarkinos)areinfactyoungmen.

(25)ThusZeusissuccessfullydefiedinAristophanes'Peace,andactuallydeposedinhisBirdsandWealth.Cf.Sutton(1980:42–3);Reckford(1987:326,339–40,359–63).

(26)Pope(1974:108–9).

(27)Itmaybesufficientheretocitetworelevanttexts:oneisSoph.Ant.332–64;theotheristheOdyssey.

(28)SeeSommerstein(1989b:23n.78).

(29)Soph.Aj.554–5ἐντῳ̑ϕρονειν̑γὰρμηδὲνἣδιστοςβίος,|ἕωςτὸχαίρεινκαὶτὸλυπεισ̑θαιμάθῃς.*

(30)Cf.Ar.Thesm.418–27,556–9,812–13;Ekkl.14–15;Alkimos,FGrH560F2.Semonidesfr.7Westgivesusonewomanwho‘wantstoheareverything,knoweverythingandhavehereyeseverywhere’(13–14),anotherwhoisconstantlystealing(55–6—thoughshestealsfromneighbours'housesorfromofferingsataltarsratherthanfromherhusband),andathirdwho‘knowsallthewilesandtricksofamonkey’(78–9).

(31)Genesis3:22.

(32)Theironlyremaininginferiorityistheirmortality—for,asGenesis3:22clearlyindicates,theywerecreatedmortalandcouldhavebecomeimmortalonlythrougheatingthefruitofthetreeoflife.InHesiodtoomanismortalevenintheageofprimevalbliss(Works116,121).


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(33)Eumenides1001–2,likeAgamemnon177(seen.3),hasbeenmangledbyalongsuccessionoftranslatorswhohavereaditthroughthelensesoftheir(orperhaps,insomecases,theirpredecessors')preconceptionsaboutGreekreligion.Thishasledtosuchrenderingsasthefollowing:‘yoursatlastthegraceofZeus’(Thomson1938);‘thereforeshallZeustheFatherloveyou’(Murray1952);‘heaven's…king…guardsandgovernswellthosefavouredones’(Vellacott1959);‘blessedwithFather'slove’(Fagles<andStanford>1977);‘onyou…herfatherlookswithkindness’(Lloyd‐Jones1979);‘Zeuswillfavouryou’(RaphaelandMcLeish1979);‘withherfatherlookingonyouwithfavour’(T.Harrison1985/1986).EvenLattimore(1953)(‘grandeveninherfather'ssight’)tonesdowntheGreeksomewhat,asnowdoesPodlecki(1989)(‘FatherZeushasrespectforyou’);ofmysampleonlyWeirSmyth(<[1925]1957>)(‘theFatherholdethyeinreverence’)translatesthewordsthatwerebeforehim.Recentlytherehasbeenawelcometendencytorecognizethetrueforceofἅζεται(‘standinaweof,especiallygodsandone'sparents’LSJ;cf.Eum.389,Supp.652,Iliad1.21)andhencetheaudacityofwhatAeschylusmakesthechorussayhere;seeGoldhill(1984:278)andChiasson(1988:20).ThetranslationofGreneandO'Flaherty(1989)omitsthepassage,togetherwithalmostthewholeofthetrilogy'sconclusion.

(34)ThischapterwasoriginallypublishedinH.D.Jocelyn(ed.),TriaLustra:EssaysandNotesPresentedtoJohnPinsent,FounderandEditorofLiverpoolClassicalMonthly(Liverpool,1993)109–14.IammostgratefultoMrsHelenaHurtPinsentforgivingpermissionforthisrepublication.

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Pathos and Mathos Before Zeus