Particle Physicsyoo.kaist.ac.kr/lectures/2017/1/files/YooKAISTPH450... · 2017-06-30 · PH450 Course Contents 4 The ultimate and practical goal of this undergraduate course of particle

Particle Physics

Introduction

Jonghee Yoo

Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology 2017 Spring Undergraduate Physics Course Lecture Series

PH450 Note 01

PH450 Contact

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Professor Yoo, Jonghee E-mail: [email protected]

- E-mail is the easiest way to reach me Classes: E11-406 (PM 2:30 - 4:00, Tuesday and Thursday)

Office hours: There will be no regular office hours, but if you e-mail me we can schedule meetings (any subject, not necessarily physics topics) - Office#1: KAIST Main Campus, E6-2, room 2306 (2nd floor) - Office#2: KAIST Munji Campus, Creation Hall, room C311 (3rd floor)

* If you visit Munji campus, I may be able to organize a tour of the axion laboratory Web-page: yoo.kaist.ac.kr/lectures/ - course materials, corrections, useful links etc.

KAIST-PH450-Yoo-2017-Note01: Introduction

PH450 Make up Classes?

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* 31 official class opportunities* 5 potential of make up classes (7.5 hours) When?

Today


PH450 Course Contents

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The ultimate and practical goal of this undergraduate course of particle physics is to convince the audience that particle physics is full of intellectually fun and profound subjects.

I wish to cover the following:

• Overall review of modern particle physics • Relativistic kinematics • Symmetries in particle physics • Basics on QED, QCD and Weak Interactions (Standard Model)• Recent innovations in particle physics• Higgs, neutrinos, proton decay, dark matter and dark energy • Future prospects

This is quite challenging goal to achieve in a single semester. Therefore, the subjects will vary depending on the level and interest of the audience. If schedule permits, you will have a chance to tour the Center for Axions and Precision Physics (CAPP) laboratory at the KAIST Munji Campus, one of the world best axion search center on the planet.


Textbooks and References

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Main TextbookThere is no main textbook, but students are encouraged to read auxiliary texts, articles and papers.

Auxiliary Textbooks and references

• The Review of Particle Physics: http://pdg.lbl.gov/2016/html/computer_read.html• Modern Particle Physics, M. Thomson (ISBN 978-1107034266)• Introduction to High Energy Physics, D.H. Perkins (ISBN 978-0521621960)• Introduction to Elementary Particles, D. Griffiths (ISBN 978-3527406012) • Quarks and Leptons, F. Halzen and D. Martin (ISBN 978-0471887416)

Internet resources (two most popular sites)www.arxiv.org : a physics paper archive web page (see High Energy Physics) www.inspirehep.net: a high energy physics literature database


PH450 Evaluation

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Participation: +10%• attendance• checking errors or typos in the lecture slides • suggestions to improve the lecture contents

Home work: 60% • Short assignments during the course (20% x 3)

Final exam: 40%The questions will be about physics details, not about calculation details

IBS Physics Colloquium series: Wednesday 4PM @KAIST Munji Campus Faculty Wing (3rd Floor)You are living in a village (Daejeon, Yusung-gu) that is full of experimental and theoretical particle physicists (~100 PhDs). So don’t miss out the chances to learn about the most updated results of the particle physics from world leaders.


Note - updated 2017-06-10

KAIST Undergraduate Physics

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I would assume you’ve learnt the University Physics and the Quantum Physics. Please skim through and familiarize yourself on relevant topics.


The History of Everything

8KAIST-PH450-Yoo-2017-Note01: Introduction

PH471 Prof. Stewart (E11-202, Wed/Thu 16:00-17:30)

The Origin of Everything


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Profound Questions

• Why do we exist? • Where are we from? • Where are we going?• What’s the beginning?• What’s the ending?

Eventually all of you will dissociate into the elementary particles as you are associated with them. The lump of elementary particles that are called as “you” won’t be in the same lump, and won’t be called “you” any more. However, once in a lifetime, you may probably be bothered about the above questions.

I can guarantee you that there is no final answer to them. We only deal with collection of thoughts and experiments which is called particle physics.


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Everything Around You

• Everything around you is made out of electrons, protons, & neutrons Too simple? Are these elementary particles?Are there more? How these particles form everything around you? How you define things?

• You see photons Photons are the force carrier of electric charge.Can your eye see a single photon? If you close your eyes in a dark room, do you see nothing? What is seeing means? What’s the difference between you seeing something and you imagining something?


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Everything Around You

• There are particles which fill the entire Universe but you never feel: neutrinos

• Anything else?You may heard about the following particles:

positrons, muons, tauons, W, Z, gravitons, higgs, pions, kaons, omegas, B-mesons, lambdas, all sort of names ….

How do you know they are existing? What about quarks and gluons?What’s the composition of cosmic rays? Where are they coming from?What about dark matter and dark energy?


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Prologue: Atom

The Atom — “Indivisible” Considered to be the fundamental constituent of matter

Dalton’s atom (1803): Integral ratio of mass

• Everything composed of atoms (cannot be destroyed) • All atoms of an element are identical • The atoms of different elements vary in size and mass

Dalton's A New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808)


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Prologue: Atom

Mendeleev(1834-1907): Periodic table Based atomic mass and properties Chemical reactions atoms are combined, separated and rearranged

* Discovery of subatomic particle has shown that these “classical” atomic view has to be changed — atoms can be divided into smaller particles

from wikipedia


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Prologue: Discovery of Electron

• J.J. Thomson (1897)

• Cathode-ray experiment in a vacuum tube

• Deflect cathode-ray using pair of charged metal plates

• Found that cathode-ray consisted of charged particles,

conclude these particles are universal constituent of matter

• Discovery of particle electrons


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Prologue: Discovery of Nucleus

• E. Rutherford (1909)• Shot alpha particles through a thin gold foil • Small fraction of alpha particle deflected

- indicating small area of concentrated charge (nucleus) • Rutherford (1919) also proved that the hydrogen ion

(proton) is the fundamental constituent of nucleus by observing the reaction of 14N + α → 17O + p


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http://aventalearning.com

General public might understand that atoms look like this

Prologue: Atom


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Prologue: Atom (1910s)

1 Å (= 10-10 m)

proton1 fm (= 10-15 m)

electron < 1 am(= 10-18 m)?

image from www.boundless.com/

Bohr’s Hydrogen model


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Prologue: Atom (Classical View?)

If proton size were ~1 m electron size < 1 mm size of atom: ~100km


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Prologue: Atom (1910s)

Bohr’s model of atom was innovative. It connects the electrons’ orbits to the Planck’s quantum theory of radiation. Energy of electrons inside an atom is not continuous but quantized. The model successfully explained the observed Hydrogen emission (absorption) spectrum. Coulomb const.

hydrogen emission spectrumin visible wavelength range


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Prologue: Atom (Quantum Mechanical View)

I assume you learnt the Quantum Mechanical view of the hydrogen atom(The following few slides are just for reminder)

Schrödinger’s picture:

It’s better to play with the spherical coordinate system:


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The separation of variables:

After some tedious operation you get the following expressions:

µ = MNme/(MN+me) reduced mass of electron


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……

Eigenfunctions:


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Prologue: Hydrogen Atom (Z=1)

=Ψ* Ψπ/

Probability of finding electrons:


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Prologue: Atom

Modern view of atom does not describe the path of electrons in an atom. The atomic orbital does not stands for actual orbit of electrons, but instead refers to the mathematical wave function which used to estimate probabilities of finding electrons in an atom around the nucleus. We can only give probabilities for finding an electron at some set of coordinates.


Coulomb Fine structure Lamb shift Hyperfine structure

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Prologue: Hydrogen Fine Structure

The electron has spin, and the interaction of spin and orbital angular momentum causes a correction to the energy level. This fine structure in the hydrogen spectrum can be explained after giving relativistic corrections to the electron.

There are shifts in energy levels due to the interaction between vacuum energy fluctuations and electrons in different orbitals which is called Lamb shift. This requires quantum field theory.

The interaction between electron spin and the proton magnetic moment causes further tiny splitting to the energy levels. This is called the hyperfine structure.


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Prologue: Relativistic Hamiltonian in QM


Dirac attempted to explain the behavior of the relativistically moving electron, hence treat the atom with relativity.

Schrödinger equation (non-relativistic):

Klein-Gordon equation (for a free particle)

Negative energy?

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Prologue: Dirac Equation


Schrödinger Equation needed to be made Lorentz invariant if it was to be correct.Modifying the Klein-Gordon equation:

In order the equation to reduce to the Klein-Gordon equation, the coefficients αi and β must satisfy

First order in time and space

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Prologue: Dirac Equation


The problem can be solved if αi and β were to be matrices:

where, σi are 2x2 Pauli matrices:

Solutions to the Dirac equation (take limit p→0 for simplicity):

for E > 0:

or

for E < 0:

or

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Prologue: Negative Energy Particle (?)


We will learn more details on the Dirac equation with EM-field and potential.

Dirac believed in the physical existence of these negative energy states. Most of the other theorists of the time regarded these solutions a flaw in the equation. Dirac postulated the particles of the negative energy solutions are the anti-particles.

It is not surprising that the Dirac equation wasn't universally accepted right away. The theory has an excellent target that immediately falsifiable (the anti-particle)

P.A.M Dirac

me

-me

me

-me

me

-me

𝛾→e+e- e+e-→𝛾 vacuum

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Prologue: Positron Discovery in Cosmic Rays

Carl D. Anderson, Physical Review Vol.43, p491 (1933)

6mm thick lead plate • Vertical Wilson Chamber (cloud chamber) with magnetic field of 15,000 gauss.

• Using energy loss and track information, the observed particle cannot be a proton.

• The observed particle is just like an electron but with positive charge. positron

• The first evidence for anti-matter!

A positive-charge particle track


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Prologue: AntiMatter


Antimatter is a material composed of the antiparticle to the corresponding particles of ordinary matter. A particle and its antiparticle have the same mass as one another, but opposite electric charge and other quantum numbers.

X X_

A collision of a particle and its antiparticle leads to mutual annihilation. → produce photons, neutrinos, and less-massive particle-antiparticle pairs

Antimatter particles can be defined by their negative baryon number or lepton number, matter particles have positive baryon or lepton number.

matter antimatter

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Prologue: Nucleus

The fundamental force between electrons and nucleus is the electromagnetic force. The energy range is in the electron volts. If you are interested in understanding details of atoms forms objects around you, please refer corresponding physics and chemistry courses.

We are moving deeper inside the atom: the nucleus


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Prologue: Natural Unit

Natural units in Particle Physics (let ℏ=1 and c=1)

Energy: GeV

Momentum GeV/c GeV Mass: GeV/c2 GeV Length: (GeV/ ℏc)-1 GeV-1

Time: (GeV/ ℏ)-1 GeV-1

Useful Expressions

* We will mostly use Natural Units through out the class, unless otherwise specified

Relativity:unit of speed of light

Quantum Mechanics:unit of action


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Prologue: More on Useful Expressions

• SI Prefixes

• Lorentz–Heaviside units

and


dealing with particles in vacuum

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Prologue: Neutron

Beryllium bombarded by alpha particles, emitted a very energetic stream of radiation. These rays were extremely penetrating and neutral in charge. When a beam of this radiation hit paraffin, protons were knocked out (1930).

In 1932, Chadwick proposed that these particles were neutrons, which was proposed by Rutherford in 1920. Chadwick was able to determine that the particle mass of the neutral radiation was almost the same as that of a proton.


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Prologue: Neutron Decay

The free neutrons are unstable. It decayed into proton and electron. However the broad spectrum of electron energies was not understood. Understanding the kinematics of beta-decays was a big issue back then.

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu

n → p + e- (?)

mn=939.57 MeVmp=938.27 MeVme=0.51 MeV

decay energy = 0.78 MeV τ(mean)=881.5 s

If neutron decays into two bodies, why is the energy spectrum of electrons from the neutron decay is continuous (not monochromatic)?


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Prologue: Neutron Decay

Wolfgang Pauli proposed in 1930 the existence of an invisible particle that would carry off the energy and momentum. The invisible massless particle is later called the neutrino.

Cowan and Reines discovered the neutrinos while working with discharging radiation from the Savannah River Nuclear Power Plant (1955).

We will revisit the beta-decay when we discuss about Weak Interactions

• The neutrino share the energy and momentum of the three-body decay• Neutrino interaction with normal matter is extremely rare: σ ~ 10-40 cm2

Hence, they could not be detected until the detector technology developed further


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Prologue: Binding Energy of Nucleus

For example, deuteron (the nucleus of deuterium):How does the proton and the neutron stick together?a proton (mp=939.57 MeV) + a neutron (mn=938.27 MeV)

Mass of deuteron: 1875.6 MeV (note, mp + mn =1877.8 MeV)The energy to take apart the deuteron to p and n: ΔE = (mp+mn)-md = 2.2 MeV (binding energy)

The binding force between nucleons is called the nuclear force (which is a residual effect of the strong force). The nuclear force is independent from the charge of the nucleons (protons or neutrons).

The electric force between nuclei cannot hold the nucleons of a nuclei together.


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Prologue: Yukawa’s Solution on Nuclear Force

On the Interaction of Elemen2 fury Particles. I.

By Hideki YUKAWA.

(Read Nov. 17, 1934)

§1.Introduction

At the present stage of the quantum theory little is known about the nature of interaction of elementary particles. Heisenberg considered the interaction of " Platzwechsel " between the neutron and the proton to be of importance to the nuclear structure.(1)

Recently Fermi treated the problem of β-disintegration on the

hypothesis of "neutrino "(2). According to this theory, the neutron and the proton can interact by emitting and absorbing a pair of neutrino and electron. . Unfortunately the interaction energy calculated on such assumption is much too small to account for the binding energies of neutrons and protons in the nucleus.(3)

To remove this defect, it seems natural to modify the theory of Heisenberg and Fermi in the following way. The transition of a heavy particle from neutron state to proton state is not always accom-panied by the emission of light particles, i. e., a neutrino and an electron, but the energy liberated by the transition is taken up sometimes by another heavy particle, which in turn will be transformed from proton state into neutron state. If the probability of occurrence of the latter process is much larger than that of the former, the interaction between the neutron and the proton will be much larger than in the case of Fermi, whereas the probability of emission of light particles is not af-fected essentially. Now such interaction between the elementary particles can be des-cribed by means of a field of force, just as the interaction between the charged particles is described by the electromagnetic field. The above considerations show that the interaction of heavy particles with this field is much larger than that of light particles with it.

(1) W. Heisenberg, Zeit f. Phys. 77, 1 (1932) ; 78,156 (1932); 80, 587 (1933) . We shall denote the first of them by I.

(2) E. Fermi, ibid. 88, 161 (1394). (3) Ig. Tamm, Nature 133, 981 (1934); D. Iwanenko, ibid. 981 (1934).

On the Interaction of Elemen2 fury Particles. I.

By Hideki YUKAWA.

(Read Nov. 17, 1934)

§1.Introduction

At the present stage of the quantum theory little is known about the nature of interaction of elementary particles. Heisenberg considered the interaction of " Platzwechsel " between the neutron and the proton to be of importance to the nuclear structure.(1)

Recently Fermi treated the problem of β-disintegration on the

hypothesis of "neutrino "(2). According to this theory, the neutron and the proton can interact by emitting and absorbing a pair of neutrino and electron. . Unfortunately the interaction energy calculated on such assumption is much too small to account for the binding energies of neutrons and protons in the nucleus.(3)

To remove this defect, it seems natural to modify the theory of Heisenberg and Fermi in the following way. The transition of a heavy particle from neutron state to proton state is not always accom-panied by the emission of light particles, i. e., a neutrino and an electron, but the energy liberated by the transition is taken up sometimes by another heavy particle, which in turn will be transformed from proton state into neutron state. If the probability of occurrence of the latter process is much larger than that of the former, the interaction between the neutron and the proton will be much larger than in the case of Fermi, whereas the probability of emission of light particles is not af-fected essentially. Now such interaction between the elementary particles can be des-cribed by means of a field of force, just as the interaction between the charged particles is described by the electromagnetic field. The above considerations show that the interaction of heavy particles with this field is much larger than that of light particles with it.

(1) W. Heisenberg, Zeit f. Phys. 77, 1 (1932) ; 78,156 (1932); 80, 587 (1933) . We shall denote the first of them by I.

(2) E. Fermi, ibid. 88, 161 (1394). (3) Ig. Tamm, Nature 133, 981 (1934); D. Iwanenko, ibid. 981 (1934).

(… skip a few pages…)

* I included Yukawa’s paper (1934) in order to show you how great physics ideas are developed. Most of the case, it’s not a single person’s surprising hidden idea, but a cooperations of many scientists who’s closely following concurrent major issues.

(…)

Proceedings of the Physico-Mathematical Society of Japan 17 (1935) 48


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Prologue: Yukawa Potential (Classical Method)


Screened Poisson Equation

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Prologue: Yukawa Potential

Distance (r)

U (r

)

Yukawa (1934) proposed that the short range nuclear force is transmitted by the exchange of massive particles — called U-meson with an estimated mass of ~100 MeV (MESO — “middle”).

U-particle


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Prologue: Cosmic Ray Muons

µ

“Who ordered that?” I. Rabi

1937 muon (mµ = 105 MeV) is discovered from cosmic-ray study (Anderson, Street, Stevenson …) and is mistakenly identified as the Yukawa’s U-particle. It had the mass predicted for Yukawa’s U-meson, but it didn’t undergo nuclear interactions at all.

imagemodifiedbyYOO


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Prologue: Cosmic Ray Muons

Energetic ionizing particle trackwith large bending radius under B-field presumably first reported by Kunzel in 1933

Anderson observed similar energetic ionizing particle as well in 1936. The interpretation of the particle based on statistical analysis and e/m analysis appeared in 1937

• Street and Stevenson (1937) observed cosmic muons in their cloud chamber as well

• The muon behaves identically to an electron but it’s 200 times heavier (mµ=105 MeV), and unstable (mean lifetime 2.2µs).


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Prologue: Cloud Chamber


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Prologue: Cloud Chamber


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Myg-XqfsLSQ

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Cloud Chamber: Assignment


Assignment#1: Take a movie of a muon track from your own cloud chamber

Score: maximum 20% of the full score

Submission: [email protected] Pre-report due by: 24th of March 2017 (Friday) 12:01 PM Main-report due by:14th of April 2017 (Friday) 12:01 PM

• You may team up (maximum 3 registered students) for the detector fabrication • Clearly describe each person’s contribution in the video clip• Each person has to submit their own muon-track in the same video clip (name + student #)

Pre-report: (a PDF file, 2-pages max, font-size 12, margin1-inch x 4, line spacing 1)(1) Project overview(2) Explain uniqueness of your cloud chamber (3) Budget plan (less than 20,000 KRW) (4) Safety plan

Main-report contents: video file size less than 20MB strict (& less than 2 min in length)(1) Participants (all members should be moving and talking in the video) (2) Experiment setup and explanation (new idea would get additional point) (3) Analysis (use professional particle physics vocabulary) (4) Video-play during the class: 18 th of April 2017

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Prologue: Discovery of Pions

1947 π-mesons (mπ= 140 MeV) discovered in cosmic-rays (Occhialini and Powell)1948 man made π-mesons produced at a cyclotron (Gardner et al.)

C. Powell developed and used emulsion detector to study cosmic rays.

π

pion decay π → µ + (neutrino)

µ

muon decayµ → e + (2 neutrinos)

e


- photographic plate with uniform grain size- record charged particle tracks

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Prologue: Cosmic Rays


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Particles originate from outside Earth - solar, Galactic, extra-galactic sources

Galactic Cosmic Rays protons: ~85% alphas: ~10% heavier nuclei: a few % electrons: ~1% gamma rays: ~0.1%


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1021 eV ZeV ?

1018 eV EeV active galactic nuclei, black holes

1015 eV PeV pulsars, neutron starts,supernovae

1012 eV TeV synchrotrons(Tevatron, LHC)

109 eV GeV synchrotrons, solar winds

106 eV MeV nuclear forces, reactors, electrostatic accelerators

103 eV keV power generator, x-rays

100 eV eV battery, molecular binding, atomic electrons


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Prologue: High Energy Cosmic Rays

Example: Pierre Auger Observatory• Malargüe, Argentina ~3000 km2 (~60km x 50km) • Hybrid detection: - 1660 water Cherenkov detectors (12 tonne, 1.5 km spacing) - Air fluorescence telescopes at four locations


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Prologue: High Energy Cosmic Rays

We may have a chance to learn a little more detail on high energy cosmic-rays

High energy cosmic-ray air shower simulation


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Prologue: History of Particle Discovery


Accelerator

Structure within the Atom


Fermions: Leptons and Quarks


• The particles interact with each other through the four fundamental forces - Strong force, electromagnetism, weak force, and gravity

• The four fundamental forces are mediated by the force carriers - Gluons, photon, W/Z, and graviton

• Electrons, muons, tauons, and all quarks are electrically charged. These particles participate electromagnetic interaction of Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)

• Neutrinos are electrically neutral, and thus only experiences Weak force.

• Only the quarks carry color charges (r,g,b) of Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) - the theory of the strong force. Quarks are never observed as free particles, but are always found as confined states (hadrons: baryons and mesons).

Fermions: Leptons and Quarks


* We don’t understand why there are three generations* Neutrinos are much lighter than other fermions (<3 eV) We know that neutrinos have non-zero mass but do not know why so small

Baryons


Mesons


Quarks


Quark Model was proposed by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1963. Three quark types (flavors) were originally proposed to account for the then-known mesons and baryons: up (u), down (d), and strange (s) — (Composite Quark Model)

• Baryons are composed of three quarks, and antibaryons are composed of three antiquarks.

• Mesons are combinations of a quark and an antiquark.

Quarks (More Direct Evidence)


Rutherford (1909) Electron scattering from protons (1967)SLAC

High-energy electrons (20-GeV) scattering from protons at Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC) produced evidence of three point-like charges consistent with quark properties. High-energy electrons are used so that the probe wavelength is small enough to see details smaller than the proton.

Experimental Evidences of Quark Theory


(sss)

(uss)

The predicted Ω(-) (sss) particle from the Quark Theory discovered (1964). The discovery of the Ω(-) was convincing indirect evidence for the existence of the original quark flavors.

Discovery of the Ω(-) Brookhaven National Laboratory Simulations of the p-p collision at 14-TeVcenter-of-mass (ALICE/LHC/CERN)

Modern high-energy physics experimentconfirms three-quark model in a nucleon

Quarks (Charming, Bottom and Top)


Two heavier quarks are discovered: the charm quark (J/ψ) in 1973 (BNL&SLAC), and bottom quark (Upsilon) in 1977 (Fermilab) .

p + Be → J/ψX→ e+/e-X

Quark Spin


Evolution of our understanding of nucleon spin structure. A nucleon's spin was explained by the alignment of the spins of its constituent quarks. In modern picture, valence quarks, sea quarks and gluons, and their possible orbital motion are expected to contribute to overall nucleon spin. (Eur.Phys.J. A52 (2016) no.9, 268)

1980s Now

Bosons


• In classical potential theory describes the force as a mysterious action at a distance • In modern particle physics, each force is described by Quantum Field Theory (QFT).

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Forces in the Standard Model

Forces Field quanta Relative strength Interaction range [m] JP

Strong gluons (g)mesons 1 10-15 1-

Electromagnetic photon (𝛾) ~10-3 ∞ 1-

Weak W±, Z0 ~10-16 10-18 1-

Gravitational graviton (g0) ~10-41 ∞ 2+


Large Hadron Collider (13 TeV)

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Large Hadron Collider (LHC)


Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)

• 27km in circumference, 175 m deep — France and Switzerland border • Beam energy 7 TeV (2010) 8 TeV (2012) 13 TeV (2015) 14 TeV

Two collaborations for the Higgs Discovery - Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) - ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS)

68

LHC Beam Line


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Collider Detector (ATLAS)


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Gauge Boson Exchange in Standard Model


Event recorded with the CMS detector in 2012 at a proton-proton centre-of-mass energy of 8 TeV. The event shows characteristics expected from the decay of the SM Higgs boson to a pair of photons (dashed yellow lines and green towers).

71

Discovery of Higgs (2012)


Higgs (spin-0 scalar particle) discovered by ATLAS and CMS experiments at LHC CERN in 2012 mH = 125 GeV

All elementary particles acquire mass through the Higgs mechanism

We will learn the Higgs mechanism soon

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Discovery of Higgs (2012)


After you learn the Higgs mechanism, please come back to this page and see if you would feel the same

Hierarchy of Particle Mass


Only mass boundsare known

New comer!

1014 ?

74

Summary


Super Kamiokande


Super Kamiokande


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Particle Physicsyoo.kaist.ac.kr/lectures/2017/1/files/YooKAISTPH450... · 2017-06-30 · PH450 Course Contents 4 The ultimate and practical goal of this undergraduate course of particle