Part Three

The Nature of Roman Mythology

Chapter 26: Roman Mythology and Saga

Fundamental DifferencesRoman gods not as anthropomorphic as Greek godsRoman gods more associated with cult than mythInfluence of Greek culture by third century B. C.Many Roman legends are adaptations of Greek legends.Importance of Vergil and OvidRoots of Roman religion

Traditions of pre-Roman Italic peoplesIdentification of native Italic gods with Greek

Jupiter or Iovis/ZeusJuno/HeraVesta/HestiaMinerva/AthenaCeres/DemeterDiana/ArtemisVenus/AphroditeMars/AresMercurius/HermesNeptunus/PoseidonVulcanus/HephaestusApollo

Myths transferred to Roman counterpartsCults and rituals

Ovid’s Fasti: descriptions of the Roman religious calendarLegends of early Roman history

AeneasRomulus and RemusIdealization of the pastRevival under Augustus (27 B. C. to A. D. 14)Livy’s “preface” to his history, Ab urbe condita (“From the Founding of the City”)

Roman Mythology

The Italian GodsJanus

Janus, first in formal prayersAncient deityPresides over beginningsJanusJanuaryConnection with water and bridgesConnection with boundariesShrine near the Argiletum serving as entrance to the ForumGates open in war, closed in peaceA “janus” was defined as a crossing-place with a roadway

Later significance as a god of going in and coming outAssociation with doors, entrances, and beginningsAs the god Portunus, he was connected to harborsFew legends

Capture of the Capitol by SabinesJanus prevents entrance to the ForumTwo four-faced “herms” on the Pons Fabricius in Rome

Two-faced god on coins

Roman Mythology

Mars (Mavors)More important that AresAgricultural deityAssociation with spring: March, beginning of Roman year in the pre-Julian calendarAssociation with Silvanus and FloraMagical flower and Juno’s conception of MarsNerio, Sabine fertility goddess as consort, sometimes identified with MinervaAnna Perenna (ancient goddess of the year) and the origin of obscene jests at

marriage partiesMars becomes a war godSacrifices before battleTemple of Mars Ultor (“avenger”)Campus Martius (“field of Mars”): field for practice of military skillsGradivus (“the marcher”)Association with Quirinus, a Sabine war deity and later identified with RomulusBellona, a personification of warEnyo (title of Ares, Enyalios)Association with the wolf and the woodpecker

The Latin king Picus (picus is woodpecker in Latin)Canens (“singer”), wife of King PicusTransformation into a woodpecker by Circe who tried to seduce himCanens transformed into just a voice

Roman Mythology

JupiterSky-godTemple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (“best and greatest”) on the Capitoline HillTemple shared with Juno (goddess of women) and Minerva (goddess of handicrafts and

wisdom)The “Capitoline Triad”Triumphal procession King Numa

Sacrifice after lightning strikeThe advice of the nymph EgeriaCapture of Picus and FaunusSummons of JupiterComic exchange between Jupiter and NumaSign of the shield (ancile), talisman of Roman powerThe twelve ancilia in the Regia (office of Pontifex Maximus, the official head of

the hierarchy of the state religion)Priests of Mars, the Salii, and the sacred war dance in the spring

Jupiter Latiaris (god of the Latins) on the Mons AlbanusAssociation with Fides (“good faith”) and Dius FidiusSemo Sancus (from sancire – “to ratify an oath”)Jupiter Indiges (meaning unknown)

JunoAssociated with marriageJuno Lucina, goddess of childbirth, at the Matronalia in MarchJuno Moneta (“adviser”) on the Arx (“citadel”); connection with the Roman mintJuno Regina (Queen Juno)

Livy: Juno persuaded to leave the town of Veii after its defeat in 396 B. C.Camillus’ dedication of a temple to Juno on the AventineEvocatio: calling a god to leave his city

Wife and sister to JupiterRole in Vergil’s Aeneid

Roman Mythology

MinervaIntroduced by the EtruscansIdentified with AthenaShared festival with Ares, the QuinquatrusGoddess of skills of the mindPatroness of craftspeopleGoddess of schoolchildren

Divinties of Fire: Vesta, Vulcan, and CacusVesta

Etymologically connected with HestiaGoddess of the hearth and the fire burning there, symbolic center of family lifeTemple of Vesta in the Roman Forum, tended by six Vestal VirginsStrict vow of chastityKing Numa founded the cult of VestaVesta and PriapusConnected with the Penates (gods of the storeroom or cupboard)

Attempt to remove them from Lavinium to Alba LongaIdentification with the Trojan gods brought by Aeneas

Penus Vestae (sacred repository in the temple of Vesta)The PalladiumL. Caecilius Metellus and the burning of the temple in 241 B. C.

Vulcan (Volcanus)Chief fire-godGod of destructive fireMulciber (“he who tempers”)Vergil’s description, Aeneid , Book 8

CacusAssociation with VulcanConflict with Heracles after his labor with GeryonHeracles worship at the Ara Maxima, between the Aventine and Tiber

Scalae Caci (“steps of Cacus”) on the Palatine Hill

Roman Mythology

Agricultural and Fertility DivinitiesSaturn, Ceres, and their associates

Saturn, perhaps of Etruscan originTemple dates to the early Republic, with the state treasury beneathAgricultural deitySaturnalia celebrated on December 17, perhaps connected with winter

grain sowingRelaxation of the normal social inhibitionsSaturnalia linked with the festival of OpsIdentified with Greek Cronus and the Golden AgeRhea, consort of Cronus, linked with Ops, Italian goddess of plentyCult partner was Lua, whose consort in the cult of Ops was ConsusConsualia festival in August and December

CeresTemple on the Aventine dating to 493 B. C.; political and commercial

centerCeres (Demeter), Liber (Dionysus), and Libera (Kore or Persephone)Wine-god Liber without ecstatic aspects of DionysusAssociation with Tellus Mater (“earth mother”) and the festival of the

sowing of the seed (feriae sementivae)

PalesLivestock and the farmOriginally a pair, then one deity, either male or female

Festival of Pales, the Parilia (Palilia) celebrated in April

Roman Mythology

Forest Divinities: Silvanus and FaunusSilvanus (Forester) and Faunus (Favorer) were the gods of the woods and forests.Vergil’s Aeneid: Faunus, son of Picus and father of Latinus by Marica, an Italian

birth-goddessThe consort of Faunus was Fauna, who was identified with Bona Dea (“good

goddess”).Faunus and Silvanus identified with PanOracular powers of FaunusConnected with the Lupercalia in FebruaryLupercal, cave where the she-wolf (lupa) was believed to have suckled Romulus

and RemusLuperci : two young noblemen who smeared themselves with sacrificial blood and

ran around the Palatine naked, striking women with leather strapsStory of Faunus and Hercules

Garden Divnities: Venus and PriapusVenus

Italian fertility goddessProtectress of gardensVenus Obsequens (Venus “who is favorable”)Temple to Venus Erycina on the Capitoline Hill dedicated by Quintus Fabius

Maximus Cunctator; Eryx, in Sicily, site of temple to Phoenician Astarte, identified with Aphrodite, and then Venus

Lectisternium: festival at which statues of gods were placed on couchesVenus paired with MarsLucretius’ De rerum natura and the invocation to Venus Venus Victrix (“bringer of victory”) dedicated by PompeyJulian family traced its ancestry back to Venus.Temple to Venus Felix (“bringer of success”) and Roma Aeterna dedicated by

HadrianVenus Cloacina, after Cloacina goddess of the Cloaca, the Etruscan drainage

system for the Forum area

PriapusProtector of gardensWooden statue, painted red, with erect phallus

Cult at Lampsacus

Roman Mythology

Water Gods: Portunus and Gods of Rivers and SpringsTiberinus, god of the Tiber; propitiation by dummiesNeptunus, identified with PoseidonPortunus, originally god of the gates (portae), but later of harbors (portus)Tiberinus, the most significant of the river-gods; appearance to Aeneas in the AeneidJuturna and the Juturnalia, the spring of Juturna in the ForumCamenae, water-nymphs, identified with the Muses; water used for purificationEgeria, nymph, counselor and consort of Numa, helper of pregnant womenCarmentis (or Carmenta), associated with water and birthParcae, Roman birth-goddesses identified with the three Fates

DianaWorshiped at AriciaLake Nemi, “Diana’s Mirror”Sir James Frazer’s The Golden BoughRex Nemorensis (“king of the grove”), priest of Nemi and a fugitive slaveDiana concerned with the life of women, and identified with Lucina, who brought

children into the light (in Latin, lux, lucis)Worshiped at Mt. TifataAssociation with ArtemisHorace’s Carmen SaeculareAt Aricia, Hippolytus identified with Virbius

MercuryGod of trading and profit (Latin merces, “merchandise”)Identified with Hermes and all his attributes

Roman Mythology

Divinities of Death and the UnderworldVergil’s Aeneid and Aeneas’ journey to the UnderworldParentalia, worship of spirits of dead ancestorsLemuria, ritual to drive out spirits who can harm the householdLemures, identified with the Manes, spirits of the deadOrigin of the gladiatorial games: Etruscan ritual of spilling blood on the earth to

propitiate the deadOrcus, the Roman name for the UnderworldDis Pater, ruler of Orcus (Dis = dives, “wealth”)Libitina, goddess of burial

Lares and GeniusLares, linked with the PenatesLares, household spirits, bringers of prosperityCompitalia (crossroads festival)Lares honored at the crossroad with a shrineLar familiaris: spirit of the houseLar praestites, or “guardian Lares” of the cityLares viales or protectors of travelers “by land”Lares permarini or protectors of travelers “by sea”Genius: creative power of a man

Lectus genialis, or marriage bed

Roman Mythology

Non-Italian GodsHercules

Story of CacusThe precinct of Hercules, the Ara Maxima (“greatest altar”)Bringer of luck and profit, and patron of traders

The DioscuriCastor and PolluxAppearance at the battle of Lake Regillus (496 B. C.)Patrons of horsemen and of knights (i.e., the economic and social class below

the senators)

The Sibylline oraclesAssociated with Cumae and the SibylThe Sibyl and Tarquinius Superbus, last king of Rome

Apollo and AesculapiusApollo introduced as a result of plagueApollo Medicus (“the healer”)Ludi Apollinares (“games of Apollo”)Asclepius introduced in 293 B. C. after an epidemicRoman name: Aesculapius

CybeleImportation of the Phrygian mother-goddess CybeleMagna Mater (“great mother”)Black stone from Pessinus in PhrygiaMegalensiaPriests (Galli), who castrated themselvesCatullus (Poem 63)

Importation of Egyptian Isis, Asiatic Ma, Syrian Baal, and Persian Mithras

Roman Mythology

Legends of the Founding of RomeAeneas and Romulus

Origins of Rome: Aeneas and his son Iulus (Ascanius)Ancestor of the gens Iulia

Traditional date for the founding of Rome, 753 B. C.Iulus founds Alba LongaRomulus founds RomeEarly control of Rome in the hands of EtruscansRoman independence by the earth fifth century B. C.Historical/legendary elements

Aeneas: the tradition before VergilAeneas, son of Aphrodite and AnchisesThe prophecy of Poseidon in Homer’s IliadFlight from TroyWanderings through the Aegean and MediterraneanLegends of his arrival in Italy established earlyHellanicus, Greek historian of the fifth centuryStatuettes at Veii found depicting Aeneas carrying Anchises from TroyEarly epics of Naevius and EnniusEarly Roman historian Fabius PictorCato the Elder and his OriginesAeneas’ arrival in Italy, marriage to Lavinia, founding of LaurolaviniumPresence of Latinus, Turnus, and Mezentius in the legendary evolutionAscanius leaves Laurolavinium to found Alba Longa

Basic foundation myth available to Vergil

Roman Mythology

Vergil’s AeneidGreat nation epicCombination of Homeric conventions, Greek mythology, and Roman ethical and

historical insightsEstablishment in the mythical past of the destiny of Rome to be achieved in Vergil’s

own time by AugustusAeneas sails to Delos and receives an oracle about returning to the land of DardanusArrival in Crete and the vision of the PenatesAt Epirus Aeneas receives the prophecy of the white sow from HelenusAeneas sails to Sicily; encounter with Achaemenides a survivor of Odysseus’

wandering; Anchises dies and is buriedFrom Sicily to North Africa; encounter with Dido, queen of Carthage and the story of

her flight from her original home in Tyre and the death of her husband, SychaeusAeneas received by Dido; narration of the fall of TroyDido’s destructive passion for AeneasMercury commands Aeneas to set sail againAnother stay in SicilyFuneral games for AnchisesReaching Italy at CumaeThe Cumaean Sibyl; the presentation to Aeneas in the Underworld of the future

greatness of RomeSailing to the mouth of the Tiber and the fulfillment of propheciesLatium, King Latinus and Queen Amata, and the princess LaviniaTurnus, prince of the RutuliansJuno’s intervention; the Fury Allecto maddens both Turnus and AmataWar begins between the Latins and the Trojans, who are aided by the Etruscans and

the forces of King Evander Pallanteum and the future site of RomeMezentius, a man hostile to the gods, and his son LaususPallas, son of Evander, given to the charge of Aeneas but eventually killed by Turnus

Turnus killed by Aeneas

Roman Mythology

Jupiter in the AeneidIdentification with fate or destinyIntertwining of mythology and Roman historyJupiter much more powerful a figure than Zeus in Homer

Aeneas: a new epic heroPietas, devotion to family, country and godsA man following a destiny he cannot see clearlyA combination of Odysseus and Achilles, but differentQuintessential image of Aeneas in flight from a burning Troy, carrying his father on his

back (who is sometimes himself carrying statuettes of the gods), and leading his young son into an unknown future

The end of the Aeneid

DidoQueen of CarthageObstacle to the destiny of AeneasSympathetic figure, overwhelmed by forces outside her controlDido’s curse against Aeneas; foreshadowing the Punic Wars

Other characters in the AeneidKing EvanderJunoAllectoTurnus, a victim of destiny like DidoNisus and Euryalus and their tragic deathCamilla, the warrior maidenMezentius, impious to the gods and a foil to Aeneas’ pietas

The death of AeneasAfter Vergil’s Aeneid ends:

Aeneas marries LaviniaFounding of LaviniumDeath and transformation into a god, Indiges

Roman Mythology

Anna and Anna PerennaOvid’s FastiTradition of the flight of Anna, Dido’s sisterConnection with Anna Perenna, goddess of the New Year

Romulus and the Earliest Legends of RomeRomulus and Remus

Amulius, the last king of Alba LongaNumitor, rightful kingRhea Silvia (or Ilia), daughter of NumitorRomulus and Remus, sons of Rhea Silvia and MarsExposure of the infantsThe she-wolfFaustulus, a shepherd who finds the twins, and Acca Larentia, his wifeDeath of Amulius; the restoration of NumitorRomulus and Remus to found their own cityFraternal rivalry and the death of Remus

Romulus and the SabinesAsylum on the CapitolineThe abduction of the Sabine womenA series of conflicts with the SabinesThe origin of the spolia opimaThe treachery of TarpeiaThe story of Marcus CurtiusQuirites, name for Roman citizensDisappearance of RomulusApotheosis as the god Quirinus

Roman Mythology

Other characters in the legend of RomulusFaustulus, connected with FaunusAcca Larentia connected with mater Larum (“mother of the Lares”)Hersilia, the wife of Romulus became Hora Quirini (hora, “the power” or “the

will” of Quirinus Tarpeia and the Tarpeian Rock

Legends of the Regal PeriodThe Horatii

Tullus HostiliusThe destruction of Alba LongaThe Curiatii and the HoratiiHoratius and the death of his sisterRitual of purification and the tigillum sororium

The Tarquins and Servius TulliusThe last three kings of Rome: Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius

SuperbusServius, second only to Romulus as founder and organizer of Roman institutions

Lucretia and the end of the MonarchyThe siege of ArdeaTarquinius Collatinus and Sextus Tarquinius, son of King Tarquinius SuperbusLucretia, wife of Tarquinius CollatinusThe rape of Lucretia by Sextus and her suicideThe expulsion of the last king, Tarquinius Superbus, and the institution of the

Roman Republic