part-i1 major essential oil constituents in zingiberaceae

PART-I1

MAJOR ESSENTIAL OIL

CONSTITUENTS IN

ZINGIBERACEAE

LNTRODUCTION

Contemporq interest in the chemical constituents of plants is now turning

towards various biological topics such as chemotaxonomy, enzyme studies,

pharmacognosy and chemical ecology (Chase and Olmstead, 1988; Harborne,

1982, Harborne and turner, 1984; Mann, 1987; Singh and Varma, 1987;

Umadevi, et al. 1988). The Zingiberaceae family has held a place of importance

for hundreds of years because the infusions and the tinctures of numerous

aromatic species have been, and are still used as components of herbal treatments

for a variety of ailments. There are evidences of plant related aromatic

compounds being used by almost all ancient civilizations-the Indian, the

Egyptian, the Babylonian, the Persian, the Jewish, the Chinese and even the

Greek and the Roman civilizations (Bakhru, 1992).

The essential oils which belong to the so-called natural products of commerce are

heterogeneous groups of complex mixtures of organic substances (Hegnauer,

1963; 1969 7; 1982). There is barely any group of naturally occurring substances

where the number of possible components is as great as the essential oil

constituents. One finds here the most varied chemical components;

hydrocarbons, and AI kinds of oxygen containing compounds like aldehydes,

ketones, alcohols, esters, ethers, lactones, oxides and peroxides (Svendsen and

Scheffer, 1986)

The term 'essential oil' is open to wide interpretation and may include products

obtained by traditional methods of distillation, and those obtained by very

selective solvent extraction or mechanical expression. These include concretes,

absolutes, resinoids, and various extracts, most of which are applicable to the

field of perfumery than to flavorings and seasonings (Meyer -Warnod, 1984).

Essential oil containing taxa is found not only on different levels of angiosperms

but also in a relation to its whole range of l1 lfamilies (Gildemeister and

Hofhan, 1958-1961). Essential oils, the odoriferous volatile materials of plant

origin found in intimate association with resins as well as gums are synthesized in

special secretory structures. The presence of characteristic secretory structures are

an important salient feature of botanical families, well known for essential oil

production (Heath, 1986). In Zingiberaceae many members are aromatic oming

to essential oils that are located in highly specialized secretory structures known

as translucent globules in cortical cells or oleoresin containing idioblasts present

in rhizomes and glandular trichomes in leaves.

Essential oil contains numerous aromatic chemicals, the relative proportions of

which are usually characteristic of a given genus but may vary significantly

depending on the plant species, it's geographical source and the environmental

conditions of it's growth, harvesting and predistillation handling (Gerhardt, 1972;

Green ef al. 1980). The essential oils give protection for the plant from microbial

attack, help pollination by attracting insects, or act as insect repellents (Daniel,

1991). Thus the essential oils are not directly involved in growth and

reproduction but in replenishing life. In other words secondary metabolites are

more involved in the ecology than in the physiology of plants (Hegnauer, 1982).

Of the different plant constituents, secondary metabolites have been shown to

perform vital roles in plant-plant, plant-herbivore and plant-insect interactions

which finally ensure the continued survival of a particular plant species. The

secondary metabolites are perhaps as much indispensable to the plants as any

other metabolic product (Bell, 1981; Harimme, 1982; Halsam1985; Vickery and

Vickery, 1981). The analysis of these compounds is also of special interest in the

study of evolution. The elucidation of the structure and configuration of natural

compounds will always remain a matter of great importance but it is true that, the

main interest in natural product research is now gradually changing from

problems of a purely chemical character to those of a biochemical and biological

one.

Economically many memben of Zingiberaceae are of outstanding importance

since their volatile oils form indispensable ingrediailt of perfumery, flavour,

fragrance and pharmaceutical industries. The family is of great ethnobotanical

value being employed in many indigenous medical systems. Many members of

Zingiberaceae are used in Ayurvedic, Unani, and Homoeopathic systems of

medicine. The most ancient Indian books on medicines namely 'Carakasamhita'

and 'Susmta Samhita'describe the ivonderful curative properties of memben of

Zingiberaceae especially Z~ngiber and Curcuma due to their chemical principles.

Moreover,the medicinal and aromatic qualilties of Indian Zingiberaceae members

are very well described in Materia Indica (Ainslie, 1826). The discovery of

biologically active compounds in the Zingiberaceae such as diterpenes open up a

new realm of medical investigation (Itokawa, et al. 1988 a; Morita and Itokawa,

1988; Aclarz and Rios, 1991). Recently some members are successfully

employed in aromatherapy, a branch of herbal medicine, which exploits the

therapeutic properties of herbs and herbal oils to cure many ailments.

In India- about 20% of the 4000 tonnes of chemicals, estimated to be used

annually in perfumes and flavours, is obtained from essential oils which form an

important class of indigenously developed starting material for perfumery and

flavour industry. Some of them are used in pharmaceutical and other industries

as well. The importance of aromachemicals and essential oils in microbiology as

antimicrobial agents is also well established (Kabara, 1984). Although more than

2000 varieties of medicinal and essential oil bearing plants are grown in our

country, only a few of them have become prominent on a commercial scale. The

medicinal, aromatic and various other values added properties attributed to the

presently investigated taxa of Zingiberaceae are listed elsehere in the

dissertation. Howevsr many of these activities are not commonly utilized at

present. This may probably be due to the gradual change over from hehals to

synthetic drugs during the last century (Binding, 1972). The gradual substitution

of natural aromatic oils with synthetics derived from petrochemicals is very much

clear (Wagh, 1980; Zutshi, 1980).

Systematic investigations have been carried out by various scientists, with the

intention of characterizing the large groups of plants coming under

Zingiberaceae, by means of their pattern of chemical constituents. Being end

products of plant cell metabolism they can be used as good markers in

chemokx~onomical studies, The role of chemical constituents of plants in

phytotaxonomy is well accepted (Harbome and Turner, 1984;.Stace, 1980).

Some of the chemotaxonomical classifications attempted on Zingiberaceae were

made on the basis of distribution of essential oils (Mandi and Sharma, 1994) and

flavanoids (Varma et U/ . 1991 ,Mandi and Sharma, 1994).Remarliably, very few

studies deal with the essential oils from the point of chemotaxonomy. The

difficulty of using essential oil in chemotaxonomy studies is that not all products

become volatile under steam pressure or hydrodistillation. Therefore, the

selection of products of plants whose boiling points are between 150°C and

350°C as keys to identification is very arbitrary. In 1973 Flake and Turner

evaluated the utility and potential value of various volatile constituents as

taxonomic characters and concluded that terpenes were ideal characters for

systematic purposes especially, at and below the generic level. By using terpenes

considerable insight can be obtained about speciation and adaptational processes

occurring within a given taxon Terpenoids are of great importance as taxonomic

markers at the subfam~lial and intrageneric level (Cole, 1992).

Eventhough a considerable amount of work has been done among the various

members of Zingiberacme on the chemistry of essential oils they have focussed

only on a few economically or commercially valuable species. The screening of a

large number of lesser oil-yielding plants of great medicinal importance, has not

been attempted so far. It appaus from the previous literature that only less than

five percentage of the total number of the species of the family Zingiberaceae has

so far been phytochemically screened. The data on the chemistry of essential oils

of Zingibemceae too'are very meager. Most of the previous studies were based

on the extracts from rhizomes and seeds of a few important species. As things

stand now,knowledge on the chemistry of essential oils of Zingiberaceae and

allied taxa is very uneven and inadequate for a serious comparative discussion.

Considering the richness of this family in the vegetation of India, particularly in

Western Ghats and the various uses of its members, it has been thought that a

systematic work with regard to its essential oil constituents and their significance

may lead to a better understanding of these plants.

Thus the present investigation was carried out with the intention of characterizing

the large group of aromatic plants coming under South Indian Zingiberaceae by

means of their major essential oil constituents. An attempt is also made to

discuss the chemota?tonomical aspects and ecological chemistry of terpenoids of

the various essential oil possessing species. The various taxa are class~tied under

distinct chemotypes in order to understand the interspecific variation patterns in

defining species relationships. It is with this objective that the data of major

essential oil constituents of the species of the family Zingiberaceae have been

presented here. It also analyses their uses, their possible role in evolution ,and

their relationships and affinities.

Materials and Methods

Plant materials

For the extraction of essential oils, the raw materials were collected from all the

aromatic members, which were grown in the experimental botanical garden under

similar agro-climatic conditions. Some of the species represented in the first part

of the work were noticed as non-aromatic and in some cases those species whose

plant part was not available in sufficient quantity to contact the extraction works

are not included in this study. Various taxa are represented in Table-48. The

rluzomes, leaves, flowers and seeds were collected since they contained higher

concentration of essential oil (Vokou and Margaris, 1984). In the case of

scarcely aromatic members the whole plant body was collected to get maximum

yield of oil.

The collection was made at different time of the year depending on the plant

species and plant parts selected for extraction purpose. In the case of perennials

the mature rhizomes were collected during December-February. In the case of

Elertaria the seeds were collected during October November. But in many other

plants the mature leaves or rhizomes were collected during the flowering time.

Moreover, the plant materials were collected from the garden during early

afternoon, because maximum content of volatile oil occur at the period (Clark

and Menary, 1980 ).

The plant materials collected were cleaned thoroughly. The fleshy rhizomatous,

materials were dried in a solar tunnel 'drier (Esper and Muhlbauer, 1996)

implemented in our institute. The rhizomes used for drying were unpealed,

because the essential oil glandular cells are located below the epidermal layer.

The leaves, flowers etc were shade dried at room temperature, because shade

@ng reduces the weight of the herb to one third of the fresh weight and

maximises oil yield without affecting the quality of the essential oil (Hazra et al.

1990).

Isolation of essential oil

Separation of the volatile oils from the dried flaked and powdered plant tissue

was conducted by hydrodistillation in a Clevenger apparatus (Clevenger, 1928)

for 4-5 hours as prolonged extraction normally Increases the yield (Gildemeister

and Hof ian , 1961). Extraction was carried out at ambient temperature to

necessitate economy (Guenther, 1949). The percentage of essential oil is

calculated on a dry weight basis to avoid faulty estimations that may arise due to

different water content of the tissue analysed each time. (Von Rudloff, 1972).

The isolated oil is then dried over unhydrous sodium sulphate and stored at 4 - 6%.

The essential pils are then examined for various physical constants as per the

methods of Indian sbdards (1978). The odour profiles were determined after

Jellinek (1959) and the flavour profiles, after Heath (1978).

Qualitative and quantitative analysis

Qualitative estimation of the essential oils are done by Gas Chromatography. For

each plant GC analysis was performed by using a Perkin Elmer Austosysem gas

chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector (FID) and connected to

a P.E. Nelson 1022 GC plus integrator. The GC was carried out on an OV - 17

column. Nitrogen was used as camer gas at 10 psi (inlet pressure) with a flow

rate of 30 mllminute. Temperature progamming in oven was performed from

70% to 220°c at the rate of 5% per minute.

Major components are identified by retention time (RT) analysis (Finar, 1978)

and peak enrichment by CO-injection with authentic standards (Jeffery et al. 1989)

and by comparison with literature data. In GC, the quantification of the peak

areas were done by the P.E. Nelson 1022 GC plus integrator having a built-in

computer. The quantitative data, obtained thereby are based on computer

integrated peak area calculations.

Cbemotaxonomic evaluations

The data obtained kom the qualitative analysis of various essential oil yielding

taxa were subjected to numerical analysis to understand the possible chemical

affinities of pairs of species by arriving at a numerical constant, the coefficient of

similitude (vide Table-52) using the following formula based on Sokall and

Sneath (1963)

Coefficient of similitude (CS) = No. of similar components xlOO

Total number of components

Evaluation of ecological role of terpenoids *

The role of terpenoids in the ecology of different plant is evaluated based on the

field survey and observations noted during the collection of plants from original

localities and cultivation of the different plants in the botanical garden. The

available literature data is also being used to correlate these information to

discuss the role of these chemical components in the well being of these plants.

OBSERVATIONS

In the present study, it is found that some species are aromatic while few others

are non aromatic. Essential oils extracted from he thirty aromatic taxa of South

Indian Zingiberaceae exhibit wide variation in their yield. The percentage of

essential oil ranges from 0.28 to 11.31 in various species. From this study it is

revealed that the highest amount of oil is found with Eletturiu cardamotn CV.

Vazhukka and the least amount with Alpinia malaccensis. The essential oil in

each plant was found to possess specific physico chemico properties. The

physical examination was done according to the availability of essential oil. The

physical and chemical characterization made on thirty taxa are listed here,

supported by the gas chromatogram representing qualitative analysis and pie

chart representing quantitative estimation of essential oils. As regards the

chemical exploration the principal components mainly fall under monoterpenoids

sesquiteepennoids and phenols. The taxa with a percentage yield of 1 and above

are considered as oil rich. The chemotypes of different plants were determined

on the basis of their major component. The name of the major component is

given for those chemical races, when the component occupies in a significant

amount in the total composition. Others were designated as mixed chemotypes.

Those taxa, which show codomineae of two or three components, were also

considered as mixed chemotypes.

The terpenoids were proved to be utmost importance in plant chemotoxonomy.

The members of subfamily Costoideae and tribe Globbeae of the sub family

Zingiberoideae are not possessing any essential oil yielding taxa. Also certain

species, especially some exotic plants of even some aromatic genera are found to

be non aromatic. All the South Indian species of Amomom are non aromatic.

Thus a clear delimitation between the various species on the account of presence

or absence of essential oil is noticed. Moreover, the taxonomic doubts in the

identity of few species of very complicated genera like Cuarcuma (viz., c". ucrugiso.~~, C. caesia, and Malafurica) have been cleared in the present study.

The affinity between the various aromatic taxa on the basis of terpenoid patterns

\.as studied. The similarity coefficient CS between each species is represented in

the Table 52. Various species are found to be inter-related chemically. Also

among the various genera few Inter intra generic and specltic relar~onsh~ps

hetwren species habe been obsrned

The ecolor~cal role of various tcrpenoid components is well noticed from the

fizld observations as \\ell as from li~erature data. Each and m e n component

present in a plant has their onn particular ecological role for the well being of

various plants. The t e r ~ n o l d molecules are found to he involved in many plant -

plant. plant-animal and plant-rn~cro organism interactions. The~r ecological role

such as ph~toalesius. inscct antifeedants, anti herhivoq, defenss agents

allelochemical, pollinator attraction. insecticidal and antirnlcrobial properties are

noticed in the present study.

Zingiber cernuum ( p-caryophyllene chemotype)

Plant part used : rhizomes

Percentage y~eld : 0 85

Physical properties

Colour colourless

Odour ,. mildly spicy, earthy, with a rooty topnote

Flavour tlat, bitter, dirty with unpleasantly harsh after taste

Solubility in 2 volume 804/ alcohol ensity

Density 0.8936

Refractive index : 1.3

Chemical components identified (Fig. 5e, 5 f j

a-penene (1.25x), sabinene (2.05O,0), limonene (1.16%), l ,l-cineole (1.66?0), camphor (3.4%), geraniol (5.9196), p-bisabolene (3.62%). P-canophyllene (29.9590). isoeugenol(593?0), hurnulene (5 .213)

Zingiber neesanum (Mixed chemotvpe)


Percentage yield : 0.82

Physical properties

Colour pale yellow

Odour warm, penetrating, pungent, mildly spicy, strongly

musty with eucalyptus topnote

Flavour bitter, barsh, slightly woody with a spicy after taste

Solubility in 3 volume of 80% alcohol

Density 0.8742


Chemical components identified (Fig. 6e, 6 0

a-pinene (6.79%), sabinene (20.84%), limonene (0.91%), 1,8-cinwle (2.06%), linalyl acetate (10.41%), ar-curcumene (3.15%), humulene (23.05%), cadinene (8.01%), zerumbone (2.46%)

Zingiber o/ficinule (Zingiberene chemotype)

Plant part used : rkomes

Percentage yeld : 1.39

Physical propertias

Colour pale yellow

Odour sweet, spicy, pungent with lemony topnote

Flavour pleasantly warm, bitter, slightly, irritating with a Fresh after taste

Solubility sparingly in 2 volume of 90% alcohol

Density 0.8738

Refractive index : 1.490 1

Chemical components identified (Fig. 7e, 7f)

a-pinene (1.65%), camphene (5.40%), sabinene (l.02%), limonene (2.87%), l,& cineole (3.52), linalool (l. l6%), bomw1 (1.93%) a-teepineol (0.9 l), zingiberene (39.12%), ar-curcumene (1 3.85%) and nerolidol(3.13%)

Zingiber purpureum (mixed chernotype)



Physical properties

Colour Pale yellow

Odour sweet, slightly flowery, middly spicy ~ i t h a fruity topnote

Flavour slightly bitter, terpeney with a spicy aAer m e


Chemical components identified (Fig. &, 8f)

a-pinene (1.89%), sainene (24.76%), camphene (2.47), limonene (1.63%), 1,8- cineole (4%). linalool (2.17%), terpineol (20.06%), p-caryophyllene (1.48%). p- bisabolene (2.25%), humulene (2.73%), zerumbone (l .51%)

Zingiber zem& (Zerumbone chemotype)


Percentage yield ,: 2.87

Physical properties

Colour wlourless

Odour warm, spicy, balsamic, slightly fruity with a

camphory topnote

Flavour bitter, warm, irritating, pungent and u n p l m t i y

harsh

Solubility in 4 vol. of 80% alcohol

Density 0.8965


Chemical components identified (Fig. IOe, 100

u-pinene (1.49%), camphene (7.21%). 1,8-cineole (3.97%), linalyl acetate (I.07%), camphor (7%), Bcaryophyllene (10.52%), huneulene ( 12.6%), cadinene (1.90%). zerumbone (34.71 %)

Curcuma aerugenosa (ar-turmeron chemotype)



Physical properties

Colour pale yellow

Odour fairly fresh green, camphoraceous and spicy wit5 a

woody note

Flavour bitter, W-, pungent with an unpleasant after taste


Density 0.8874


Chemical components identified (Fig. 1 le, 1 If)

a-pinene (1.09%), p-pinene (4.55%), linalyl acetate (1.77??), camphor (6.14%), germacrone-D ( 4 . 1 % ) ar-tunnerone (37.85%), curzerenone (6.58%), xanthorrhizole (8.68%)

- Curcuma amada (Ocimene chemotype)

Plant parts used : rhizomes


Physical properties

Colour pale yellow

Odour fresh, Slightly rosy with a fruity topnote of raw

mangos

Flavour sweet, mildly spicy, cooling , with the taste or raw

mango

Solubility 2.5 vol. Of 80% alcohol

Density 0.8925


Chemical components identified (Fig. 12e, 120

P-pinene (2.3S0,6), ocimene (41.260%). B-Phellandrene (1.59%), iinalool (3.73%), citronellal (3.02%). camphor (1.81%), terpineol (3.35%), Belemene (1.82%), curterenone (2.84%)

Cureumn aromalico (mixed chemotype)



Physical properties

Colour greenish brown

Odour pungent , warm, woody-rooty with a camphory topnote

Flavour bitter flat earthy and mildly spicy

Solubility 3 vol. of 90% alcohol

Density 0.9165

Refractivce index : 1.5085


a-pinene (3.77%), limonene (1.53%), 1,8cineole (9.93%), P-cymene (2.6%), terpenolene (2.23$), camphor (18.33%), bomeol (4.44%), zingiberene (1.89%), a-curcumene (2.55%), curzerene (5.32%), germacrone-D (2.8%), ar-twmerone (3.92%)

Curcuma eaesia (mixed chemotype)

Plant parts used rhizomes

Percentage yield 1.41%

Physical proporties

Colour colourless

Odour warm, mildly spicy, camphoraceous with a woody

topnote

Flavour slightly bitter, warm, with a spicy after taste

Solubility in 2 volume of 80% alcohol

Density 0.9265

Refractive index : l .4983

Chemical components identified (Fig, l4e, 149

ocimene (1.95%), 1.8-cineole (25.03%), camphor (9.6%) L-terpiniol (3.78%), borne01 (2.77%), curzxrenone (22.83%)

Curcuma decipiem (eugenol chemotype)


Percentage yield : 1.2%

Physical properties

Colour wlourless

Odour sweet lightly flowery, warm, smooth with eucalyptve

small.

Flavour slightly bitter, wann, spicy


Density 0.8874



a-pinene ( l .35%), l,&ineole (26.37%), camphor (2.44%), engenol(38.15%)

Curcuma longa (turmerone chemotype)



'Physical properties

Colour

Odour

Flavour

Solubility

Density

colourless

spicy, mildly earthy, smooth warm with a rooty

topnote.

pleasantly warm with a spicy after taste

in 4 vol. of 80% alcohol

0.9318

Refreactive index : 1.5116


sabinene (4.60%), 1,8-cineole (4.25%). zingiberene (3.93?/0), arcurcumene (2.59%), ar-turmerone (25.44?/0), p-tunnerone (l4.64O4)

Curcurno mnlabarica (Cineole cemobpe)



Physical properties

Colour pale greenish brown

Odour warm penetrating, Camphoallous, with a rooty

topnote

Flavour bitter, harsh, flat with a spicy after taste.

Solubility in 3.5 vol of 80% alcohol

Density 0.9124


Chemical compon'ents identified (Fig. 19e, 199

a-pinene ( l .43%), camphore (3.15%), p-pinene (3.14%), limonene (l .44%), 1.8- cineole (30.27%), camphor (17.86%) a-terpineol(2.42%), ar-turmerone (1 1.27%)

Curcumn raktacanta (mixed chemotype)



Physical properties

Colour pale brown colour

Odour camphoraceous, with earthy and woody topnote

Flavour bitter, irritating, punghtt, with a spicy after taste

Solubility in 2.5 v01 of 80.7% alcohol

Density 0.9327


Chemical components identified (Fig. ZOe, 200

P-pinene(3.185?6), limonene (0.8146), 1.8-cineole (l3.64%), camphor (17.98%), bomeol (1.25%), zingiberene (4.24%), curzerene (7.46363, germacrone-D ( 1.27%), curzerenone (7.93%)

Curcuma zedoaria (Curcumene chemotype)



Physical properties

Colour light yellow colour

Odour warm, penetrating plasant, campheraceous with a

flowery topnote

Flavour slightly bitter with a spicy after taste


Density 0.9786



camphone (2.22%), camphor (5.06%), Fbisabolene (2.22%). zingberene (3.71%), Curcumene (41.21%), cunerene (4.68%), germacrone-D (2.29%), curzerenone (5.79%), xanthorrhizol(12.60%)

Hedychium coronarium (diploid cytotype)

(1,8cineole chemotype)



Physical properties

Colour pale greenish yellow colour

Odour pungent, penetrating camphoreleris with a woody

topnote

Flavour warm bitter spicy with a fresh after taste

Solubility in 2.5 vol. of 80% alcohol

Density 0.843 1



a-pinene (6.09%) P-pinene (14.80%), limonene (3.07%), 1,8cineole (35.74%), linalyl acetate (2.85?/0), camphor (5.46%) a-terpineol (l 1.2196)

Hedychium corotcarium ( tnploid cy~otype)

(1,8 cineole chemobpe)



Physical properties

Colour pale yellow

Odour pungent, campharaleuus with a woody topnote

Flavour warm, spicy, but harsh and bitter

Solubility in 2.5 vol. of 80 alcohol

Density 0.8492

Refractive index ' : 1.4591


a-Pinene (8.83%), p-pinene (19.27%), limonene (3.68%) 1.8-cineole (27.57%), linalyl acetate (l .3 l%), camphor (5.56%), a-terpineol (l 0.17%).

Hedychiumflavesce (mixed chemotype)

Plant part used rhizomes

Percentage yield 0.4

Physical properties

Colour colourless

Odour smooth, warm with a piney topnote

Flavour bitter, slightly spicy, mildly bitter and fresh green

Solubility in 2 vol. of 8096 alcohol

Density 0.8612



a-pinene (6.68%), p-pinene (1 5.45%), limonene (2.09%), 1,s-cineole (15.46%), linalool (0.56%), linalylacetate (16.76%), camphor (5.86%), a-terpineol ( 1 1 .85%), famesal (3.8%)

Hedychium spicatum var. amminaturn ( l ,X-cineole chemotype)



Physical properties

Colour colourless

Odour pungent, Penetrating, warm with a medicinal topnote

Flavour warm, slightly biter with terpency after taste

Solubility in l .S vol. of 90% alcohol

Density 0.8923



a-pinene (0.71%), sabinene (1.07%), limonene (1.02%), l,&ineole (27.29??), terpinen4-01 (0.90/0), a-terpineol (1.44%) cinnamaldehyde (0.95%). B, bisabolene (1.26%), ethyl cinnamate (7.56%), pentadecane (3.52%), etbyl-p- methoxy cinnamate (l7.37%), cadinene ( l 1.3 1%)

Kaempferia galanga (Mixed chernotype)


Percentage yiled : 1.33

Physical properties

Colour

Odour

pale yellowish brown

pleasant carnphoralous and slightly \voody with a

medicinal topnote

Flavour warm, spicy, with a fresh after taste

Solubility in 3 vol. of 8096 alcohol

Density 0.8874

Refractive index : 1.483 1


a-pinene ( l .36%), sabinene ( l .99%), P-carene (9.87%), limonene ( l . 1 l%), 1,8, cineole (6.62%), camphor (3.48%) a-terpineol (0.85%). a-terpinylacetate (2.25%), ethyl cinnamate (22?4), pentadecane (15.04%), ethylo-p-methoxy cinnamate (17.30%)

Kaempfeh rotunda (ethyl-p-methoxy cinnamate chemotype)



Physical properties

Colour colourless

Odour camphoracerus, woody with and medicinal

Flavour fresh green, musty with a spciy after taste


Density 0.9 134



a-Pinene (1.46%). p-pinene (4.43%), A' -carene (6.67%), limonene (0.93%), 1,s-cineole (4.13%), camphor (5.89%) ethyl cinnamate ( 1 l.@%), pentadecane (12.44%), ethyl pmethoxy cinnamate (27.08%)

'4lpinia calcarata (mixed chemotype)

Plant part used

Percentage yield

Physical properties

Colour

whole plant

0.96

pale greenish yellow

135

Odour snect. strongly aromatic, herbaceous with medicinal

topmate

Flavour strongly spicy, warm, bitter with a fresh aftertaste


Density 0.9528

Refractive index . 1.4962


a-pinene (4.14%). carnphene (6.04%), P-pinene (8.99%), myrcene (2.94%), 1,8- cineole (19.79?/0), camphor (6.20%), myrcene (2.94%), borne01 (2.88%), methyl cinnamate (3.69%). engenol (5.82?6), bomyl acetate (2.90%), a-terpineol (2 I .20%)



Physical properties

Colour golden yellow

Odour mildly comphoraceons, sweet, warm, with a terpency

topnote

Flavour bitter, slightly harsh, earthy with a spicy after taste


Density 0.9672



a-pinene (5.19%), sabinene (2.2%), limonene (l.71%), l.8cineole (42.54%), L- terpineol (l.51%), eugenol (l0.36%), methyl cimamate (4.69%)

AIpinin malaccensis (mixed chemotype)

Plant part used : whole plant

Percentage yield : 0.28%

Physical properties

Colour

Odour

Flavour fresh

Solubility

Density

Refractive index :

pale yellow

warm, penetrating slightly woody with a medicinal

top note

slightly bitter, flat, fresh green with a pleasantly

aftertaste


0.8625

1.4816


a-Pinene (8.61°h), P-pinene (8.32%). sabinene (1 1.64%), mycene (3.14%), limonene (4.85%), 1,8cineole (21.14%), camphor (18.7%). a-terpineol (3.47%), methyl cimamate (2.79%)

Alpinia mgm (mixed chemotype)

Plant part used :

Percentage yield :

rhizomes

0.4%

Physical properties

Colour golden yellow

Odour warm, penetrating with the smell of eucalyptus with a

woody topnote

Flavour slightly spicy, bitter, warm and imtating


Density 0.9446


Chemical components identified (Fig.32e, 320

a-pinene (6.1 1 %), p-pinene (2.74%), carnphene (1 5.69%), mqrcene (14.6%), limonene (4.42%), 1,8-cineole (24.27%), linalyl acetate (2.42%). camphor (5.88%), a-terpineol (1.6%), citronellol (3.6%), methyl cimamate (2.52%), P- caryophyllene ( l 65%)

.4lpinia smithiae (eugenol chemotype)



Physical properties

Colour pale yellow

Odour grassy, slightly lemony, warm with a flower?; topnote

Flavour strongly spicy bitter with a fruity after taste


Density 0.8653



a-pinene (5.22%), camphene (1 4.44%), myrcene (14.36%) lirnonene (3.80%), 1,8-cineole (1 1.57%), linalyl acetate (2.15%), camphor (1.21%), a-terpineol (0.81%), engenol (29.98%), methyl cimarnate (7.87%), isobomyl acetate (2.04%)

Alpinia zerumbet (mixed chemotype) . Plant part used : flowers


Physical properties

Colour pale yellow

Odour mildly spicy, camphore ceous with a peppery topnote

Flavour warm, spicy, little earthy, triter harsh with an

impleasant after taste


Density 0.8871



a-pinene (3.03963, camphene (1.25?/0), sabinene ( I 2 1 1?/0), myrcene f 3.7%). limonene ( l .97?b), 1,8-cineole (19.75%), a-terpinene (7.29%), linalool (3.06?'0), P-cymcne (1.53%), linalyl acetate (1.71%), terpinenil-ol (3%), camphor (18.6296). engenol (l .7%), methyl cinnamate (1.24%)

Alpinia zerumbet var. varigata (Cineol chenotype)



Physical properties

Colour

Odour

Flavour lemony

Solubility

Density

Refractive index :

colourless

slightly spicy, pungent, camphoraceous with the

smell of eucalyptus

warm, bitter, harsh mildly herbaceours with a

aftertaste


0.8674

1.4318

Chemical componknts identified (Fig..36e, 36f)

a-pinene (4.52%), f.3-pinene (4.69%), limonene (3.%%), 1,s-cineole (35.62%), linalyl acetate (2.77%), camphor (14.86%), l-terpineol (4.01%), citronellyl acetate (2.52%), geraniol (2.21%), humulene (3.5 1%)

Elettaria cardamomurn C.V. Malabar (mixed chemotype.)

Plant part used : seed


Physical properties

Colour

Odour

colourless

strong penetrating musty cineolic with

comphoraceous, warm, spicy notes.

smooth, warm, spicy \nth a cooling and slightly

astringent aftertaste

l 39

Solubiliv in 3 vol. of 70% alcohol

Density 0.9308



a-pinene (3%), sabinene (6.82%), myrcene (3.12%), limonene (5%), 1.8-cineole (30.35%), linalool(l.l5%), linalyl acetate (l.03%), l-terpineol(3.72%), a-terpinyl acetate (3 1.6%)

Elettaria cardamomurn C.V. Mysore

Plant part used :

Percentage yield :

seeds

9.86

Physical properties

Colour colourless

Odour penetrating, spicy, sweetly aromatic with

campluralesus and wheolic ovemotes

Flavour warm, spicy with a cooling and slightly asmngment

after taste

Solubility 5 in 3 vol. of 70% alcohol

Density 0.9301



a-pinene (2.18%), sabinene (6.670/0), myrcene (2.65%) limonene (3.44%), 1,8- cineole (29.06%), linalool (1.38%) linalyl acetate (0.76%), a-terpineol (4.19%) a-terpinyl acetate (34.34%)

Elettaria cardamomurn C.V. Vazhukka (mixed chemotype)

Plant part used : seeds


Physical properties

Colour colourless

Odour spicy, sweetly aromatic, wholic with a a limphim

ceous note

Flavour warm, spicy with a cooling and slightly astringent

after taste


Density 0.9281



a-pinene (1.04%). sabinene (3.57%), myrcene (1.87%), limonene (3.88%), 1,8- cubeik (3074%), linalool (1.23%), linalyl acetate (0.97%). a-teepineol (3.88%), a-teepingl acetate (36.85%)

~

m Caryophy llene m Others D Unidentiled .-p-pp----- - ~~

Sabinene Linatyl acetate Hurmlene

Cadinene Others Unkientiied p-

~~ ~~ ~~~~- ~-~ ----- ~~

zngiberene ar-Curcumne C] Others C] Unidentified-~ -pp- ~ ~ ~-p--

Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 5f. Zingiber cernuum, Fig.6fZingiber neesanum, Fig.7f. Zingiber oficinale

~~~~~. ~ -~~~ ---

m Sabinene m~er~enen-4-01 D & e r ~ D Mientified ~ ~ . --

-- - n k m l e n e Zerurrbone Others Ihldenbfied --

~p ~ ~ ~- p-

a ar-Turmrone aXanthorrh~ol m Others U Unidentified ~- ~ ~ - - -~ p---

Composition o f major essential oil components in : Fig. 8f. Zingiber purpureum Fig. 1 OfZingiber zerumbet, Fig. 1 1 f. Curcuma oerugenosa

If I: 5-501mt. lD-aPi ,wr~, I 1 .(lPimm. 35 .L~,II.IT.YY. 1 9 . camphor. 1 5 a .l.rpr-l. 31. curan* . W. Gnmrrs* D. 35. .I ~ u r m r o n t . 36 . CUNRWII.. I 7 - Ianthorrtll*..

11 1: S . S0lrnl . I I .,l. P,nonc. IO.O.im.nc. 12. P;nllandrane, ! l . Linolool. 18. Cilr.mll.l. IS. Camphor. Z O u . Rrplneol. 28 - Elemsne. 30 - Cunemnone.

~~ p----

Ocirnene Others ~nientified-~ . . .. - - - -p

~- -- pp - P - - l .S-Cineole m Canphor 0 Others Ulidenhfied

7 ~

~ ~.

-p p- -- m 1.8-Cineole m Canphor a Curzerenone

Others Ulidentified .- p-

Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 12f. Curcuma amada Fig. l3fCurcuma aromatics, Fig. 14f. Curcuma caesia

- - -- ---.- - -- - -- m 1,8-Cineole m Eugenol m Others a Unidentified

Fig. l8f p-~ P-.. ~

m ar-Turmerone m b-Turmerone a Others m Lhienti id ~ --

Others Unidentified - ----p ---- -

Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 16f. Curcuma decipiens Fig. l8f.Curcuma longa, Fig. 19f. Curcuma malabarica

I

20 I?: S - Solvbnt, 8 - p- Pi-, 11 - L i m o m , 12. I , w i m i e , 21 R: S - Solwnt. 6 -a-Pimne, b - Camphew, I S - Camphor. 19

16 - Cmmphor, 21 - Bormol, 23 - Lingib~na, 28 - c u a w e ~ - p- Bimabolen, 21 - Z ln~ikr- . 23 Curcumm. 24 - ( i f i o f b t r n w m u r e m } 30 - CormutowD, 32 - t u m n n o m .

Currumr (iaohrrbnogurnacrenr). 20 - CormutonD, 30 - Cunwanon, l3 - Xmthwrhirol.

22 c: S - h l w n l , 5 - 0-Pimno. 7 - p Pi-. 0 . iimonm, 10 . 23 c: S - SQIHnt. S - Pinon, 11 - p -Pinno, t 3 - L ~ m o m , ( 4 - t.@Cincok, (1 - Linmlyl rocate, l4 - Cam hot. l 5 -U -Terpiml, 19 Q 1.6-Cinaok. 16 - Linalyl ueuW, H) - Cbmphw. 21 -fw~iwol-

- Cerbnyl uatata.

24 c - S - hlwonl. 6 -U- P~nene, 8 -11-Ptnene, 10 - Lirnoncne, l t - 1.8-Clfleol0, l 2 - Linalool, 11 - Linalyl acelblm. 1 7 - Cmmphor, 10 4r. Tofp~nool, 34 - Fummal.

25 c: S - Solvent. 9 - Sbbinm, l 1 - Limo-. 11 - 1 ,a. CIWOI~. I 0 - T o r p o ~ - o l . 10 - U- T u p b n ~ ~ I , 25 - C~nn.m.ldehybr, 16 - ( \ - Biarbolerm, 30 - Ethyl Clnnambt., 31 - h n i a &cur. 33 a E ~ h v t P -

Flg- 2(k - 25. : chromblogrrmr o l varioun e8senlial oil yielding plrnts o l Zingikraceme. 2 b - Curruma n k f ~ c ~ n r 8 , 210 Cwrurna ~ C d o N i o , 220 . Udychium coronarium diploid plant. 230 - Mdychium coronanum tr~plotd plant. 34e - Hcdychtum Hawtcenr. 2% Hbdychium rpicatum vu. ~uminatum.

Curzerenone Others Midentified

................................. - - - ... -.

bRnene m l ,&Oneole 0 a-Terpineol Others H Ulidentifted ......... . . . . . . .

Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 20f. Curcuma raktacanta Fig.2 l f. Curcuma zedoaria, Fig.22f. Hedychium coronarium

a-Terpeniol Others Unidentified . . . . - . - -- - -- .- --

--p -P-

b- Anene l ,&Cineole g Linaly l acetate

a-Terpeniol Others UnaenMied

. . . . . - . . . . . - . . . . . - - ,- .... - - -.

l ,bCmeole Rhy l cinnamte

Bhyl pnethoxy cinnamte g Cadinene

Others Unidentified

Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 23f. Hedychium coronarium (3x) Fig.24f. Hedychiumflavescens, Fig.25 f. Hedychium spicatum var.acuminatum

26 L: S - Solwnl, 5 - a - Plnano, 6 - S . b i n O ~ , 9 - - Carem, 10 Limonans, 11 - 1,8-Cinaole. l8 - Camphor. 20 - - Terpiml . b6 - - Ter~inyl acetate, 26 - Ethyl Cinnamrte, 31 - Penm decrno, 43 -

r 28 t: S - Solwnl. 6 - (G Pinene. 7 - p- Pinene, I 0 - - Carene, 11 - Llmonene. 12 - 1,s - C~neols, 10 - Camphor, 27 - Elhyt Cinnamrte. 33 - Pantadserne. 45 - Ethyl - P - methory cinnamrte.

2 9 ~ : S-Solvcnt.13-~-Plmne,14-Camphsnc.l5-~-Pinene 30 8: S - Solwnt, 8 -a- Plnene. 10 - Sabinene, 13 - Lirnonene, 17 - Myrcmne, 1 B - 1.0 -Cineole. 24 - Cemphor, 25 - a -TerplneoI. 14 - 1.8 Clmole, l 6 - Linatml, 20 - Camphor, 21 a -Tarpincol. 20 - eormol, 33 - Methrl cinnamrte, 36 - Iso euganol, 39 - Bornyl 30 - Eugwtol. 31 - Mathyl cinnamrte. acelate.

10

31a: S - S g l u m t , 1 0 - a - P l m ~ , 1 1 P im,12-S .b inene , 11 - Uyrcene. 14 - Litnoner*. 15 - l .8-&mola. 12 - Cemphor. 23 - u - Yerpiml, 3S - Methyl cinnamrto.

l

32 &: S - Solmnt, 6 -a- Pinsno, 7 -p- Pimne. U - Camphene, 9 - Myrcene, l0 - llmonena, 11 1 ,&Clmob, 13 - Linmlyl acetate, 17 - Camphor, 18 -a - h r p i m l . 24 - Citronallml, 28 - Methyl cinnamata, 31 - P - Caryophvllam.

Fig. 260 - 326 : Car chrommlogramm 01 various esrential oit yloldlng plmnt. of Zlngibsrac6ee. 26s - K A ~ m p h f l ~ g8longa. 2Bc - Kmmpkria rotunda, 29. - AIplda c8lcuafa, 3 b - Alpinia galanga. 310 - Alpinia m.l.ccen#i& 320 - A l p m i ~ nigra.

- -- _-_ -. ---

m C3-Carene Ethyl cinnamte

kntadecane 0 Ethyl gmethoxy cinnamate

Others Unidentifed -. .- . . . - . . . -..-.-..._...--p-.p-.... -.

--I- -. -- -.-I_p--

¤ ahyl cinnamate kntadecane

0 Bhyl p-rnethoxy cinnamte g Others

Ulkientfkd t _ .. . - . _ - - . . - - -- - -

-p--- +--

m b P inene m l, &Cineole U a-Terpineol

0 Others Unidentified - - - - - - - - - -

Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 26f. Kaempferia galanga Fig.2 8 f.Kaempferia rotunda, Fig. 29f. Al'pinia calcarata

- ............. .... .-...-.-.. ..... .... - - - p

l ,&Clneole m hgenol Others Unidentified ........... -.. .......... P p v - --

--p -- p --p p - a -- m a- Rnene m b- Rnene Sabinene g l, SCjneole

Carrphor Others m Unidentified

.. . . . --

Canphene 1 Myrcene 0 1 ,&Oneale Others . hidentifled - , ----p- . ............. .

Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 30f. Abinia galanga Fig. 3 1 fsllpinia malaccensis, Fig. 3 2f. AIpinia nigra

34 c: S - Solvent, 0 - U - Pinene, 11 - Cunphsm, 12 - Myram, 13 - Limboneno, 14 - I ,B Gineolc. 16 - Linalyl .csmls. 21 - Cm. phor. 22 -U- Twpineol, 18 - Eugrnol, 31 - Mlthyl tinnamab, 35 - l10 Horny1 acetate.

36 m: S - Solwant, l 0 .U- Pinene. t l -B - Pinrm, 14 - Llmoncns. 15 - l.&Cinaole, l ? - Linalyl acetate, 21 . Camphor, 22 -U- Terpmeol. 28 - Citfonellyl acetate, 33 - Germiol, 37 - H u r n u k ~ ,

I - -- 35 B: S p Solvent, 8 a - Pinetwt. 10 - Camphsna. 11 - S l b i m , 12 Myrmn, 13 - Llmomne, 14 - 1,8Cinaofe, 15 - U .

Twpimno, 16 - L i n d d . 17 - P Cymm, l8 - Linrlyl acetate, 20 - Camphor. 21 - Torpinone 4 4 2 8 - Eug.nol. 32 - Methyl cimmmtm.

S 12 25

4 1 ~ S-%lvent.7+a.Plnme.Q-Slbinane, 10-Myrcem, 11 Limclnans, 12 . 1.8 Cimoh, 13 - Linrlool, 14 - Linslyi netmm. 20 -a- T@rpinsol, 25 .a- Tsrpinyl umu.

42 4: S - Solvent, 9 - U - Pinrnr, 11 . Sabincna, 12 - Myrcene, t3 - Lkmoncne, 14 - 1.8-Cineole, 15 - Linrlool. 16 - Linalyl acetate, 1 2 -U- Tarp~neol. 26 -U- Terprnyl acetate, 2 G - (;armiol.

1 -- -- 43t: S - Solvent. 6 -B- Pimnr. 8 - Sabinanr, 9 - Myrcene. !I . Limonene. I2 - 1,e lnmle. 13 - Linrlool, 14 - L~nalyl acetmte. 1(1 - a - Terpirmol, 25 u - Tupind rotate.

Fig. 340 - 43t : Gas chromstagrams a l various ersbnlibl oil yielding plants of Zingiberrceae. 34c - AIpin~. smithire. 3 k - Alpinia zerumbet. 36s - Alpinia mrumbst war. vmrigai4 410 - Elenrd& crrd.momum C". Malsbrr, 428 - Elcmanr crrdmnomum CV. Mywm, 4- - Ektiaria cardrmomum CV. Vnzhukk~

I~l,&Cineole .a-TerpinenegCanphor 1 ! I

i Others Unidentified

l ,&Cineole Canphor Others Unidentified '

Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 34f. Alpinia smithiae Fig.35f.Alpinia zerumbet, Fig.36f. AIpinia zerumbet var.varigata

. . . -. . . - . . . . . - .- p . . -

m l ,8-Cmeole m a-Terpinyl acetate C] Others U Unidentified

,.. -- -. .. . - A-- --

M l $8-Cmeole m a-Terpiny l acetate m Others 0 Ulidentified

m 1 .B-Cineole m a-Terpinyl acetate g Others g Unidentified

Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 41 f. Elettwia cardamomurn CV. Malabar, FigA2fEIettaria cardamomurn CV. Mysore, Fig.43 f Eleffariu cardornomum CV. Vazhukka

DISCUSSION

a. Essential oil quantification in the taxa investigated

In the present investigation the percentage yield of essential oil found to vary

considerably in thirty different taxa studied. Aromatic essential oi 1s are present

in most of the members. The sub family Costoideae possesses no aromatic oil

cell. Hence essential oil is not reported fiom this group. The tribe Globbeae

under the subfamily Zingiberoideae also does not possess any essential oil

components. Authentic reports are not available in the members of this tribe.

Out of the taxa investigated 53.3% m found to be oil rich and 46.7% are oil poor

taxa. In some genera both aromatic and; non aromatic species are also found.

Both oil richness and oil poor ness is prevalent in the members of the genus

Zingiber (vide Table-48 ). The species Zzerumbet shows the highest quantity of

essential oil (2.87%) whereas, Zneesam possesses least quantrty (0.82%). Z

oficinole and Z purpureum is moderately oil yielding plants. There are many

reports of the essential oil of Z oficinale from different localities wit h difference

in oil yield and components (vide Table-50). Thus it is rather clear that, in

Zzngiber the quanw and quality of essential oil may vary considerably even

within the same species (Guenther, 1952). The oil of Z of ic ide is commercially

valuable. Even though few other species are medicinally being used, the

essential oil of other species are not produced on a commercial scale.

Among the four taxa of Hedychium the triploid cytotype of H. coronmium

possesses only 0.31% of oil while in the diploid *type 0.67% of oil is present.

This indicates that an increase in ploidy level clearly reduced the oil percentage

in H. coronurium. This may be due to the genic rearrangement occurred in the

tri ploid taxa. In various species the triploid cytotype of H. coronarium possesses

the least quantity of oil while H. spicutum var. acuminuium has the maximum oil

yield ( 1 -76%). Only the oil of H. spicatum is being utilized commerc.ially and

from the other species no essential oil is produced on a commercial scale.

The various species under the genus (7urcu1nu are found to be more or less oil

rich taxa. Among these CI zedouriu is the highest oil yielding plant with 4.76%

oil. Whereas on C .muluburica only 0.86% of oil is present. C'. I q p is another

oil rich plant with3.6% of oil. Unlike the genus Hedychium in Curcuma, the

triploid species are comparatively more oil yielding plants. Thus C. uromufica,

CZ lango and C. zedouria which are triploid species are more oil yielding taxa.

Hence, in the genus Curcuma it is true that an increase in ploidy level clearly

favoured the increase in oil yield This might have probably been due to the

genic rearrangements in the hiploid taxa compri ng with their diploid ancestors.

The essential oils if only C. zedouria and C. longo produced on a commercial

scale.

In Kaempfeiu galunga 1 -33% of oil is found w?mas, in K. rotunda only 0.83%

of oil is detected. Even though these two species showed oil richness in K.

puichra no essential oil is detected. This species is an exotic species. Thus in

this genus both aromatic and non-aromatic plants are there. This may be due to

the geographical isolation, dere species emerged with or without aromaticity .

The oil both species is not being produced on a commercial scale.

In AIpinio all the s k i e s studied were show aromaticity except A. purpuratn. In

A. =erurnbet 1.17% of oil is detected in the flowers. While in A. galnngo the

dried rhizome possesses 0.78% of oil. In A. malc~ccensis least amount of oil

(0.28%) is present. In general most of the species ofAlpinia are oil poor plants.

However, these plants show high aromaticity. This inhcates that not the

percentage yield but the chemical components present control the aromaticity of a

plant. All these species are tropical plants. In the exotic members, A. zerumhet

var. vurigotu possesses essential oil whereas, in a A. purpuruta no essential oil

was found in hydrodistillation. None of the species of Alpinia are used for

essential oil production on a commercial scale.

In An~ornurn none of the species were possessing essential oils. Even though

Arnomum subulatum (Bengal cardamom or large cardamom) is a very good

essential oil yielding plant, the other species found in South India not possess any

essential oil. 143

In El~rturiu, the three cultivars of E. curdumomum studied show oil richness. E.

curdumomum is the best essential oil yielding plant among the various species of

Zingberaceae studied. Of the different cal tivars, cult ivar Mysore possesses least

amount of oil (9.86%). Whereas, cultivar Vazhukka possesses 1 1.3 1 % of oil.

Cultivar Malabar yields 1 0.34% of oi l . The oil is produced on a commercial scale

and is being used for many purposes (vide Table-5 1 ).

b. Physic+cbernical characterization of essential oils in the hxa investigated

Various characteristics of essential oils such as colour, odour, flavour etc. were

studied and it is clear that each oil sample has its own properties. The colour of

the samples varies depending on each taxa and the plant part used for distillation

purpose. Some samples are colourless. Most of the samples have a

camphoraceous odour while some are spicy or medicinal or strong aromatic with

different notes. The flavour also varies widely. Most of the samples are bitter,

o h warm with a spicy after taste. Various physical properties such as

solubility, density and refractive index of each sample checked for assessing the

purity of the sample.

The major essential oil components identified broadly belong to rnonoterpenoids,

sesquiterpenoids and few phenols. Various aromatic taxa possess oils that are

rich in odoriferous monoterpenoids linal ool , l inaly l acetate, camphor, K-terpiny l

aatate citronellyl acetate, geranjol etc. Few phenols and its derivatives such as,

-terpineol, eugenol and isoeugenol are also contribute towards the peculiar

aroma and flavour of various taxa. The flavour qualities of these compounds are

also well known (Shirokov et al 1 980). Fragrant rnonoterpenes,oxy genated

monoterpenes,monoterpene derivatives, phenols and related compounds are

probably more widely responsible for characteristic plant odours (Miller, 1 973).

However, some taxa are poor in these odoriferous compounds instead they

contain high amounts of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons like P-bisabolen, p- cargophy llene, a-humulene, curcurnene, and the oxygenated sesqui terpene

xumhot ie etc. Thus in Linglbrraceae there exists a clear-cut phytochemical

icarisr ni.

The genus is characterized by the occurrence of' a large number of different

terpenoid molecules. Previous chemical reports were found to be absent in some

tasa (vide Table-50). In Z cernzrum the bicyclic sesquiterpenoid P-caryophyllene

( 29.95%) is the major co~nponenent identified. Thus this species belongs to the

caqophel lene chemotype. The sesquitrrpenes predominate in the oil sample. In

the Z neesurlum essential oil contain nearly 50% of monoterpenoids and

monoterpene hydrocarbon sabinene (20.84%) i s one major component. The

chcrnotvpe of this species seems to be mixed type. The srsquiterpene

hydrocarbon, a-humulene (23.05%) is another major component identified. The

report on these two species seem to be novel. Previous chemical reports are not

met with in these species. The oil of Z oflcinole contains fifty percent or more

sesq ui terpene hydrocarbons. In addition to this sesquiterpene alcohols,

monoterpenoids and associated components are also present in the oil. The major

essential oil component identified is a sesquiterpene hydrocarbon Zingberene *

(39. l 2%). Another major component is ar-curcumene ( 13.85%). Zingberene is

a reputed chemical compound well known for its medicinal, aromatic and

flavouring properies (Merck Index , 1 989). The medicinal properties reported

(vide Table - 5 1 ) on this species owe to the presence of various essential oil

components. In 7- purpureum the chernotype is appear to be a mixed one. The

monoterpene hydrocarbon sabi nene (24.76%) and monoterpene tertiary alcohol

terpinen-4-01 (20.06%) are the major components identified. The oil of Z.

plrrpurc.um may be used as a source of terpinen-4-01, which is widely employed

in perfurnep and flavour compositions (Wealth of India, 1948-76). The chemical

components present in the oil might have been the major factor responsible for

the medicinal and other value added properties reported on this species (vide

Table - 5 1 ) as revealed from the study Z rerumhet belongs to the zerumbone

c hernotype. Here the sesquiterpene hydrocarbon, a-h urn ulene (, 1 2.6%) and the

monocyclic sesquiterpene ketone zerurnbone (34.71%) which is an oxygenated

humulene derivative, are the major components identified. Zerumbione is a

potential antimicrobial component (Kishore and Dwivedi, 1992). The various

value-added properties reported (vide Table-51) on different species of Zingiber,

owe it to their chemical constitution. Moreover, most of these have been reported

to possess, medicinal aromatic and flavouring qualities (Heath, 1 98 1 ; Lawrence,

1988).

The nine species studied under this genus show clear interspecific variations, as

regard the chemical constituents. The chemotype in C. aeruginosa is seem to be a

turnerone chemotype. More than fifty percent of the oil contains sesquiterpenes.

The major essential oil constituents identified are ar-turmerone (37.85%), a

sesquiterpene ketone curzemone (6.58%) and xanthorrhizole (8.68%) which is a

phenolic sesquiterpene. While in C. amado monoterpenoids show predominance

and monoterpene hydrocarbon ocimene (41.26%) is the major component. The

plant has thus an ocimene chemotype and this agrees with the previous literature

(vide Table-0). This hydrocarbon seems to be imparhng the rhizome tbe odour

and taste of raw mango (Rao et d. 1989). C. aromoticu on the other hand shows t

a mixed chemotype. Unlike the previous reports on plants of the same locality

(vide Table-SO) the present study reveals the presence of oxygenated

monoterpenes 1,8-cineole (9.93%) and camphor (18.33%) as the major

components. This may be due to the wrong identification of the correct plant by

earlier workers. The significant amount of camphor in the oil may explain why

the plant is considered ethnobotanical l y very important (vide Table-5 l ), probably

for the same reason as camphor is used in medicine (Merck Index, 1989). The oil

also possess few monoterpenes such as a-pinene (3.77%) pcymene (2.6%) and

borne01 (4.44%) and sesquiterpene curzerene (5.32%). In C. caesio also mixed

chemotype noticed the major components identified are l-8cineole (25.03%),

camphor (9.6%) and the sesquiterpene ketone cuzerenone (22.83%) .Whereas, in

C. deczpiens the chemotype is with eugenole, (38.15%), since it is the major

component. The other major component noticed is l,&cineole (26.37%). A

mixed chemotype is found with C longo. The essential oil conatins more

sesq uiterpenes than m onoterpenes. The major components iden ti fied are ar-

tunnerone (25.44'30) and p-turnerone ( 14.64%) sabinene and 1,8cineole are the

major monoterpenes present in significant amount. The medicinal properties,

arornaticity and other value added properties reported on this plant (vide Table-

5 l ) are attributed to the presence of these chemical constituents. The chemotype

in C mukuhunca belongs to i,8-cineole (30.27%) as it is the major constituent

along with substantial quantities of camphor (17.85%) and ar-turnerone

(1 1.27%). No previous reports are available on this taxa. More than fifty percent

of the oil consists of monoterpenes. In C. raktacanta mixed chemotype is noted.

1,8-Cineole ( 1 3. M%), capmphor (1 7.98%) and sequiterpene curzerene (7.46%)

and curzerenone (7.93%) are found to be present in significant amounts. The

presence of camphor in substantial amount gives the oil the peculiar odour. C.

~edourra belongs to curcumene chemotype. The monocyclic sesquiterpene

curcumene (41.2 1 %) present in the oil sample is actually a mixture of at least two

hydrocarbons, viz., arcurcumene and ~curcurnene (Catalan et al. 1989).

Sesquiterpenes dominate in the oil of C. zedoaria Camphor (5.06%), curzerene

(4.68%), cunerenone (5.79%) and xanthonhizol (12.%) are other major

components present. Of the various essential oils of Cwcuma, only C. arornatico,

C. longa, C. purpurea and C. zed- are prpduced on a commercial scale. In *

general the various species of Curcuma contain more sesquiterpenes than

rnonoterpenes (Ctalan et al. 1 989). The medicinal, and other economically usem

properties reported on the different species of Cwcuma might have been probably

due to the presence of both monoterpenoids and sequiterpenoids with reputed

qualities in their essential oils. The medicinal properties of these chemicals are

very well enumerated in literature (Guenther, 1949; 1952).

Of the three species of Hedychium investigated, two are characterized by 1,8-

c i neole chemotypes while H. jlovesence shows mixed chemotype. Eventhough

there is a difference in the oil yield between the diploid and triploid cytotype of

H. coronurium, no such variation is found in the chemical components of the oil.

Tne two cytotypes are 1,8-cineole chemotypes (35.74 & 27.57%). Other major

compounds identified are p-pinene ( 14.8 & 19.27%) and a-terpineol ( 1 1.2 1

8 10.1 7%). The oil is evidently rich in monoterpenoids. A mixed chemotype is

noted in H. jluve.ccence and monoterpenes predominate over sesquiterpenes in the

oil sample. P-Pinene ( 1 5.45%) 1,8cineole ( 15.46%), linalyl acetate ( l 6.76%) and

a-terpineole ( 1 1.85%) are the major components present. Previous chemical

reports were found to be absent in this taxa. Nevertheless, chemically the oil of

H. flavescence does not bear wide variations with other species of Hedechium.

All the identified major components are more or less same and the only

difference is in their percentage in the oil samples. Like H. coronurium, H.

spicatum var. ocuminotum is also characterized by a 1,gcineole chernotype. The

major components identified in their taxa are l,&cinwle (27.29 %), ethyl-p

methoxy cimamate (17.37%) an ester of cinnamic acid and sesquiterpene

cadinene (1 1.31%). Thus rnonoterpenoids are the major fraction of oil of various

tawa of Hydcchium and however there is a clear similarity between the species as

regards the chemical composition of essential oil.

The two species studied under the genus Kaempferia also show marked 3

similarity. K. gu/anga is characterized with a mixed chemotype. The identified

major components of the oil ~~-carene (9.87%), i,tcineol (6.627%), ethyl

cinnamate (22%), pentadecane (15.04%) and ehtyl-prnethoxy cinnamate

(1 7.30%). Whereas, in K. rotunda the chernotype belongs to ethyl-pmethoxy

chamate since it's the principle constituent (27.08%) of the essential oil, A~ - carene (6.67 %), 1,8 cineole (4.13 %), camphor (5.1 8 %), ethyl cinnamate ( l l .64

%), pentadecane (12.44%) etc. are the other components identified in substantial

amount. Ethyl p-methoxy cinnamate the ethyl ester of pmethoxy cinnamic acid,

is a potential medicinal component of these two tuca. The medicinal properties

and aromaticity reported on these plants (vide Table - 51) are attributed to the

major essential oil components. The chemical components like ethyl cinnamate,

camphor and ethyl p-rnethoxy cimarnate and are reputed medicinal principles

(Merck Index, 1989).

Out of the seven species of Alpinia studied four show mixed chemotypes. The

various taxa are characterized by the predominance of rnonoterpenes. In A.

culcurura which has a mixed chemotype, the major constituents identified are p - pinene (8.99 O h ) , l ,8-cineole (19.7 %), camphor (6.2 %), and a- terpineol (2 1.2

%) with significant amount of bomeol (2.88 %), methyl cinnarnate (3.69 %),

isoeugeenol (5.82 %), and bomyl acetate (2.9 %). Chemical components like

bomeol, methyl cinnamate, and isoeugenol are reputed medicinal principles

(Merck index, 1989) as well as perfumery compounds (Poucher, 1959). In A.

gakunga. the major component identified is 1,8 cineole (42.54 %). Hence the

plant falls under a cineole chemotype. Besides cineole a- pinene (5.19 %),

camphor (3.6 %), and methyl cinnamate (4.69 %) are also present in substantial

quantities. All these constituents are of potential medicinal and flavour

properties. This may be the reason why A. ~13lcaratro and A. g h n g a plants are

widely used in many traditional medicinal systems (vide Table - 51). In A.

rnalaccensis mixed chernotype is found. This oil poor taxa, however, possess

monoterpenoids as the major essential oil constituents. a-pinene (8.61 %), P- pinene (8.32 %), 1,8 -cineole (2 1.14 %),and camphor (18.7 %) are major

components identified. Like A. malaccensis, A. nzgra also exhibits a mixed

chemotype and monoterpenes possess the major portion of the oil. a-Pinene

(6.1 1 %), camphene (15.69 %), myrcene (14.6 %), and camphor (5.88 %), are the

major components identified. The species A. smithiae falls under a eugenol

chemotype, since this phenol accounts for a major constituent of the oil. The

major components identified are camphene (14.44 %), myrcene (14.36 %), 1.8 - cineole (1 1.57%), eugenol (29.98 %) and methyl cinnarnak (7.87 %). Previous

chemical repons are found to be absent in h s tawa. Because of the presence of

these potential mechcinal principles this plant can be used as an alternative for A.

calcaruta and A. gakunga. The report on this plant seems to be novel. Now t lus

plant is being used only by some tribal people.

The two varieties studied for the species A. zerumbet show variations in their

chemotypes and chemical components. In A. z e m h e t the major components

identified are sabinene (12.1 1 ?h), 1,8 cineole (19.75%), a-terpinene (7.29 %)

and camphor (18.62 96). But in .-l. :erun~b'l var. varigutu, the plant belongs to

the 1,8 -cineole chemotype. The major components identified in this plant are

1,8 -cineole (35.62%) and camphor (14.86 %). In theseplants certain

components such as linalool, terpinen-4-01, linalyl acetate, eugenol, cirtonellyl

acetate and geraniol are present in substantial amounts. The aromatic and

medicinal qualities (vide Table-5 1 ) attributed to these taxa may probably be due

to these chemical components as they coincide with those properties exhrbited by

their oti ginal compounds. Also the components like citronell yl acetate, terpinen-

4-01 and geraniol are reputed medicinal principles (Merck Index, 1989). Many

species of the genus Alpinia are being used medicinally and in pharmaceutical or

perfumery industries and for flavouring food items. Thus it is clear that the value

added properties reported (vide Table-51) on different species of Alpinia owe it

to their chemical composition.

All the three cultivars of EIel~aria cardamomurn studied show mixed

chemotypes. 1,8- Cineole and a- terpenyl acetate are the major components 3

identified in these taxa. U- Terpenyl acetate is the characteristic corn ponent which

contribute towards the aroma of cardamom. Previous reports (vide TableSO)

quote i.8- cineole and a- terpenyl acetate as the major components in this

species. The three cultivars show only minute differences in their chemical

composition. In the present study the cultivar Vazhukka has got the highest

amount (36.85%) of a- terpenyl acetate whereas in cultivar Malabar the least

amount (3 1.6 %) was noticed Cardamom oil is used in flavouring beverages

curries and other food products. Various value added products are listed in the

Table-51). It is quite sure that cardamom owes its aroma and therapeutic

properties to the volatile oil components in the seeds (Guenther, 1 949; 1 952).

Table 48 - List of van'ous taxa investigated for their oil yeild, major essential oil mmponents and chemotypes

SI.No Taxa investigated %yield of oil Major components identified Chemotype

1 Zingiber cernuum 0.85 p. Caryophyllene (3. Caryophyl lene

2 2. neesanum 0.82 Sabinene Linalyl acetate Humulene Cadinene

Mixed

1 -39 Zingiberene ar - Curcumene

Zingiberene

1 -26 Sabinene Terpenen - 461 Mixed

2.87 Humulene Zerumbone

6 Curcuma aerugemsa 0.94 ar - Turnetone Xanthorrhizole

7 C. amada 1.53 Ocimene Ocimene

8 C. aromi3tica 1.93 1,8 - Cineole Camphor

Mixed

1.41 1,8 - Cineole Camphor Cwzeremne

Mixed

1.2 1,8 - Cineole Eugenol

0.86 1,8 - Cineole Camphor ar - Turnerone

C imle

Mixed

Curcumene

1.36 1,8 - Cineole Carnphor,Curzerene Curzerenone

14 C. zedoaria 4.76 Curcumene Xamthorrh izol

1 5 Hedychium coronanun 0.67 P-pinene (diploid plant) 1,8 - Cineol

a-{erpi neat

Cineole

0-pinene a -p tnene 1,8-Cineole a-terpineol

P-pinene, l ,8-Cineole Linaiyl acetate, U-terpineol

Mixed

Cineole 18 H, spicatum var. acuminatum

1 ,&Cineote Ethyl unnamate Ethyl p-methoxycinnamate

2 9 Kaempferia galanga A3 arene Ethyl cinnarnate Pentadecane Ethyl p-rnethoxycinnamate

Mixed

Ethyl unnamate PentadaXne Ethyl pmethoxycinnarnate

20 K. rotunda 0.83 ,

Mixed

22 A. galanga 0.78

23 A. malamnsis 0.28 a-Pinene Mixed P-Pinene, Sabinene, l ,&Cineole, Camphor

24 A. nigra

l 1 7 1,8-Cineole, a-Terpinene Mixed Camphor

27 A-rerumbet var. 0.42 l ,&Cineole, Camphor van'gata

Cineole

28 Eleitarial cardamomurn CV Malabar 10.34 1,8-Cineole

U-terpiniyl acetate Mixed

29 E. cardamomurn 9.86 1,8-Cineole CV. Mysore a-Terpinyl acetate

Mixed

30 E. cardamomurn 1 1 -31 a-TerpinyI acetate Mixed cv.Vazhukka

Table 49 - D~str~bution of essential oil components in the taxa investgated

LirrPsne Lnakol caKmek4 Camphor T w p c n e n - 4 Bornd chndkd Clib0ceQtl-t- a-TerWny(- W- Geranrd W- T-

-- I

- : Not wecw p--

tr : Traces +:Preserrt ++ . Akmdent -

Table 50: Previous repocts on mjur essential oil constihrentJ in Zi-

S1 No. Name of the taxa Previous u w i m R- 1 angiber ofi~nale a-pinene, camphene, b-pinene, Karrrit et&. 1972

sabinene, mytesne, p- plwhdrene, 1 ,-,

GeranyIamMe, A3carene, a-terpim, Sakamura et al. 1 978 a-terpmeoi, W, l,&moIe, neral, gefand, Angibmm

C m d (1 W), bald (3%), neral 1(26%) S m i i h a n d R m , seraniai (m), -w-q== h- 1981 -1 3%

a-Pinene, sabbem, camphor, bphm4d Tamemet&. 1991

L e c h a t - v m et al. 1993

t-f umulene (27%), zerumbone (37.5%), WeatthoBIndia, 1948t0 a-pinene, p-pinene, A3 carene, hmonene, 1976 aneole and campher camphene

4 Curcuma amada p-pinene (0.62%), adehydrocimene 91 4.22%), Rao et al. 1 989 trans-di hydroocimene (1 4.9%), myn;ene (1 4.9%). linalool(13.37%), nonan-2- (5.38%). a-terpineol(1.3846). p-elemene 91 .a%)

5 C. aromabca camphene (0.91 %), camphor (3.91 %), Catalan et al. 1988 p-arcurnene (28.44), ar-arrcumene (23.35%) ringiberene (3.7%), currerene (4.55%) germacrone (3.63), wmnene(7.25%) xanthorrhizol(8.01%)

u m d parcumenes (65.5%), monocydic terbary sesquiterptne akohols (22%), d-camhor (2.5%), camphene (0.8%)

l ,Mnede (9.06%), ocimene (1 5.66%), dempher (1 8.88%), linalool(20.42%), d-born- (7%), and zingiberol (12.6%),

d-campher (76.6%). mpkm and bomylene Weafth of India, 1948 -76 (8.2%), sesquiterpmes (1 0.5%)

a-ghdlandrene (l %), sabinene (90.6%) Wealth of India tineole (WO), b o w (0.5%), zingibemne (25%) turmerone (58%)

kmonene, cinede, atnxrmene, angibeme, Gopalam and Ratnambal, brsabdene, p - phehdrene, ar-turmerwre. 1987 tumemne

8 C. zedoaria a-- 91.5%0, dcamphene (3.5%) Wealth of India cineoe19.6%), camphor (1 0.1 %) sesquiterpene alcohol (48%)

9 H. mmnarium p-plnene (24.8%), l ,8-cineole (40.2%) Lechat-Vahirua et al. 1993

10 N. spicatum ethyl-p-methoxy cinnamate (67.85), Wealth of India ethyl annarnate (10.2%), d-sabinene (4.2%) ?,4crnede (6%), cadininene (5.5%)

l l K. galanga a-thujene, a-pinene, carnphene, benzaldehyde, Ding et al. 1985 sabinine, b-pinene, a-phellandrene, A3-earene, Fymene, limonene i ,hneole, b-phellandrene pmethoxy styrene, bomeol, terpin-4-01 a-terpind, eucarvone, anisaldehyde, bornylacetate, hymol, a-terpinyi acetate, as-ethyldnnamate, b-selinene, trans-ethyl cinnamate, pentadecane, a-cadinene, cispmethoxy%~oxy cinnamate

Rui et al. 1982

Wir et al. 1 98 1

Charles et a1 19920

Purohit et al. 1976

1 ,-, acebxy CMVW acetate, linaloor, Mori et al. 1995 acetate, eugenoi, c h a U Bcetate,

a h d y l acetate methyl eugenol

14 A. rerumbet tqheM=d, 1,8&wole, sabinene, a-terpinene Pooter et al. 1995 (A- speai;osa)

u ~ , amphem, p+hem, cineole, camphor G b r t o et al. 19?7 kme&

~ c h a n p h , d-cmphene, dnede, chmmic ester

Weafth of India

15 El~riacarrlammumaplnene(1.2%),&plneneandsabim(2.7Y0) CiccioandFranctsco, Guademah mymm (1.4%), dhmonene and 1,84neok 1977

(43.3%), linaW(5. l), linabl acetate (2.6%) rMerpineol(2.7%), a-terpineol(2.8%) a4qmyi acetate (32.9%)

a--l {44.84%), myrcene (27.14%), Shaban et al. 1987 Heptem, u-pinene, sabinene, bplnene,fimonene l ,&chde, p-pfPe#andrane, menthone

Cbreole, ?erpiW, terpinene, limonene, Wealth of India, 1948 to sabinene 1976

AB a ntimutagent

Antiinflammatory, anslgrslc, antlpyrstlc, rntimlcrobisf and hy poglycemic rctlvrty

Antifungrl

lnsecticldal property 4

Antlrrhinovlral property

The raw ginger ir acrid, thennogenic,, camin~ ive , laxative and digestive, wful in anorexlr, vitiated condttions of vata and kapha, dysp@prie, pharyngoprthy rnd inflammatlonr. The dry ginger In =rid therrnogenlc, emollient, appetiuer, lmtlve, stomach,s~mulant, mbefaclsnt, anodyne, rphrodislrc, expetorant, rnthdrnlntlc and crrminat i~ . It is useful in dropsy, oblglr, caphalotgin asthma,cough,colic diarrhoea, flatulence, anorak, vltlated condltionb of vrta @nd kapha, dyspeprlr crrdlopMhy, pharyngopathy, cholera, nensea, varnitlng, dephantrlsrls and inflarnmatrons.

In flavouring food preparation; as stimulant and carminative; in diarrhoea and colic; using medicinally as a substituent for common ginger

Antihistamine property and antiasthmatic; in Thai traditional medicines

As Uterine relaxant

Antioxidant praperty

Rhlzome ractnct Nanir and Kodu (1W7) Shetty ot rl(1969) Endo et e! ( 1990)

Rhizome Varier ( l 990)

Rhizome Wealth of India ( 1848-76 )

Rhlzome Piromrat et d. (1966)

Rhizome Kanjanapothi d d. (1 987)

Rhttorne extnct JRoe el d. (1 092)

Antimflammstory activity

lnsectrcidal constituents

Employed medicinally for cough, stomachache, asthms, against worms, in leprosy and other skin dioeorss

Medicinal use in traditional system, ,

In card10 vascular diseases

Curcume eerugenoss Antiulcrl activity .d

Antioxidant

Gastro intestinal remedy and as a spice

Antivirsl activity

Hepateprotective elfects(pr0tecting liver injury)

Antifungal actlvlty

In culinary preperetions; therapeutical application as carminative and stomachic; topical use over contunlous and sprains

As grain protectants agalnst pests & insects

Antioxidant prperty

f he rhizomes are brttw, sweet, sour, aromatic cooling. eppetiser, ~rminative.digestive,stamechic, demulscent, vulnerary,febrituge,eIexeteric,aphrodiniac,~ax~ive diuretic,cutpectomnt,anti-innammatory,and antipyretic used In vitiated conditonc of prtte enerwk dyrpepsia, flatulence, colic,brui8bs,wounds,chranic ulcen,skln dhemtes, pruntus,Mr , conrtipation,strbngury, hlccough~,cough, bronchitis,sprain~,goal,hriitosls,otalgla end inflammations

Rhizome Mrsuda and Jtoo (1884)

Rhizome Bombang el d. (lQ96)

Rhizome

R h izome

R h izome

Rhizome axtract

Rhizome extract

R hlzomr

Rhizome axtrrct

Rhkoma sxtnd

Rhizome

Wealth of lndla (1946-76)

Duve ( 1980)

8iddiqui d al. (1 880)

Watanr be (1 988)

Jitae et d. (1Q92)

Icthro et et. (1995)

Tom et d. ( 1 905)

KoJi et al, (18Qe)

Qupta and Banorjea ( l 972)

Rhizome Rao et d. (1 989)

Rhizome Ahmad st at. (1981)

Rhizome mtrrd Jltoe et d (1 982)

The rhizomes are bitter,acrid,thermogenicI emoltlsnt, anody ne, enti-inflamrnetory, wlnsra~,depuretive,antiseptic,eppsti~rI carminetive,stomachic,anthdrnintic,lexative,diuraClc, expeclorant, harmetlnic,styptic,anti+odIc,attW, alexeteric, de4srgd,stimulant,~rlfuge,op~slm)c and tonlc, usefuf in vitiated conditions of kapha and pltte, lnflernmatlons, ulcers,wounds, iepmry,skin diseases, pruritus,allsrglc conditions, and discolouratlon of the skin,anorexla,dy?pep~ta,(IrtuI(~ce colic. helminthiasie,constipation,strengury,cough,s~thma, bronchitir, hiccough,cetarrh,anaemia, hamorrhrgsl, hmmoptysis, hepatomsgaly,oplenom~ely,fever,giddlnerr ,arathronhw, R hizorne Varier (1 884) elrphantlaslr.dropry, hysteria ,apilep~y, cffronlc otorrhoea, ringworm,gonorrh~a,rmsnorrhoee,jaundlm, conjuctlvltk, general debillty and diabetes.

Antifungal property Rhuomr Gupta and Bansrjes (1972)

Antifungal and cytotoxic activities Rhizome attract Saito d et. (l 979)

Anticancer components and cytotoxic activities against cancer cells Rhizome extract Hwang et d.(lQ8Q)

Antiulcer activity Rhioma extract Watanebe et d. (1908)

Antiturnor activity Rhizome extract Yokota et a/. (1 986)

As hepatic drugmetabolism inhibitor Rhizome Shin ef et. (1080)

As grain protectsnts against pests end insects Rhizome Ahmad et d. (fgQ7)

Hedychium coronerrum Used In Hawai as a remedy for foetid nostrlb used as e febrifuge;entirheumatic,tonic and encitant,used as gargle Rhizome Wealth of India ( 1948-76)

Antihypertensive and diuretic effect Rhizome Ribeiro (1 986)

H sp~caium As an article of commerce; corrninetive, stirnutent rtomechic Rhizome Wealth of India (l 048-76)

Antiinflammatory and analgesic activity Rhizome Srlrnal et al. (1084)

E 5

3

3

3

E"

E

z l!

O

E: .

,~

il

i

W a

W

Q

L

n

au

W

w

iz

Q

c. Chernotaxonornical aspects o f terpenoids in Zingiberaceae

Tackling taxonomic problems from several directions to find a solution is the

current trend in plant bio - systematic research, which may be traced back to an

earlier period of the later half of this century. Thus plant chemistry was also

found to be an important criterion that can be exploited for asserting the

systematic position of certain ambiguous taxa (Heghnauer, 1 963, 1 969; Sorensen,

1963; Ram, 1 983). The role of chemical constituents of p1 ants in phytotaxonomy

is well accepted today (Hambore and Tumer, 1984; Stace, 1980). investigations

into chemical variation of plant groups are applied mainly for two purposes.

Firstly, to provide taxonomic characters which may improve existing plant

classification, i.e strict taxonomic purpose, and secondly, to add to the knowledge

of phylogeny or evolutionary purposes Vaik, 1992). Structurally similar

compounds derived from difierent plant species with a common biological

pathway may serve as viable parameters for identifying affinity of broader and

smaller taxa. Such biogenetic correlation often indicates the degree of accuracy

of the classification of plants at the generic or familial level already accepted by

taxonomists. Biosynthetic pathways leading to particular w m p d are

expressions of genome just as are morphological features; indeed so called 9

morphological features are a1 l in some sense themselves expressions of

biosynthetic pathways.

Flake and Tumer (1973) evaluated the utility and potential value of various

volatile constituents as taxonomic characters and concluded that terpenes were

ideal characters. For systematic purposes especially at and below the generic

level. By using terpenes considerable insight can be obtained about speciation

and adaptational processes occurring within a given taxon. The dificulty of

essential oil chernotaxonomy rests on the fact that not all products become

volatile under steam or hydro distillation (MC Kern, 1965). In view of this one

must take into consideration, whether certain essential oil components may serve

as 'genuine taxonomic tracers'. Moreover, to conduct studies on essential oils

from the point of view of chemotaxonorny is often dificult; because to draw

taxonomic conclusions from the oqxrrence or non-occurrence of a single

compound in a single part of a plant is always found to be uncertain. Also

identical substances in different species may be developed lhrough entirely.

different biosynthetic routes and thus the formation but never the substance has

chemotaxonomic val ues (Tetenyi, 1 986). However, in the present work the

constituents identified in various taxa are mostly the terminal products of

biosynthetic pathways and they accumulate in the plant tissues gving a greater

chance for the reproducibility of these results. Hence a possible comparison

between different taxa of Zingiberaceae on account of major essential oil

constituents is being made.

The present discussion deals with the taxonomy of the family Zingiberaceae; its

taxonomic position and specific inter-relationships on the grounds of essential oil

chemical constitution of the various species. The members of the family are

classified broadly into aromatic and non-aromatic species. The aromatic plant

species are again grouped into distinct chemotypes (vide Table - 48). The

terpenoids are of great importance as taxonomic markers. They have a major role

in classifying the complicated genera like Cwcuma, AIpinia etc. Also in various

other genera and their respective species the presence or absence df essential oil,

the distribution of terpenoids, saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons etc. are

very much helpful for studying both inter and intrageneric and specific *

relationships within the family.

Under the order Scitamineae only the family Zingiberaceae possesses aromatic

members as a distinctive feature. Other families viz., Marantaceae, Cannaceae

and Musaceae have no aromatic members. Schumann (1904) mvided

Zingiberaceae into two sub farnil ies namely Zingiberoideae and Costoideae. The

sub family Costoideae does not possess aromatic oil cells and no aromatic species

are present in the family. But in the sub family Zingiberoideae the plants are

aromatic which is a common character in many members. Presence of absence of

essential oils regardless of their composition represents a very valuable

taxonomic character (Hegnauer, 1982). An examination of the present results

(Table-49 and 52 ) reveals that the earlier classification of various species can be

justified on the basis of chemical differences noted. Rurtt and Smith (1 972)

modified Schumann's (1904) classification of the family Zingiberaceae and

proposed a new infra familial classification of the family Zingiberaceae.

\G6

The absence of o lcoresin cotltinui ng ideoblasts and the presence of steroid

saponins (diosgenin and sapogenin) are strong additional arguments in favour of

proposed excl usion of Costoideae from Zingiberaceae (Hegnauer, 1 982).

According to Panchaksharappa ( l 962 ) morphologically the Costoideae is distinct

from Zingiberoideae and form a natural group that deserves the status of sub

family. But Tom linson ( 1 956), based on the deviating characters exhibited by

('ostus, suggested that the group Costoideae may possibly be raised to a family

rank. Such data on other genera of Costoideae are lacking. Ilence in order to

decide such an issue, it is necessary to study the features of all other genera of

Costoideae instead of depending on the results obtained only from Costur.

The tribe Globbeae of the sub family. Zingiberoideae also does not possess any

aromatic plants. This tribe under the sub family Zingiberoideae thus stands as a

distinctive group of non-aromatic plants.

The monogeneric tribe Zingibereae possesses aromatic species of Zingiber. In

the present study five species were analysed for their essential oil constituents. Z

neesunum and Z purpureum possess mixed chernotypes. A Bcaryophyl lene 9

chemotoype is identified in Z cenruum; Z oficinole and Z zerumber possess

zingiberene and zerumbone chernotypes respectively. Eventhough the

chernotypes are different, fiorn the Table-52 it is clear that Zcernuum, Z

purpureum and Z zerumbet show an increased affinity. Also 2. ncesuntm and 7-

zerumbet show a close interspecific chemical relationship. The least resemblance

is noticed between Z cernuum and Z ofticinale. The species Z neesunum and

Alpinid zerumbet show some sort of intergeneric chemical similarities.

Regarding the very complicated genus C'urcumu an examination of the present

results reveals that the various species studied are distinct by the presence or

absence of one or two groups of the constituents (vide Table49). The various

species of the genus were quite distinct with regard to their constitution

expounded by virtue of their terpenoid patterns. The distinctions of even the

related species were also quite visible in their chemical profiles. An examination

of the coefficients of similitude (vide Table-52) reveals that the species C'.

gerugcnosu, ( '. ruktacuntu and C. zedoariu are more or less related in someway.

The coefficient of similitude varied between 367.36 to 37.50 (' caesia and C.:

ruk~ucanfa also show some sort of chemical resemblance. The coefficient of

similitude is 37.5. However, all these species relationships are not strong enough

to consider them as varieties of a single species. The taxonomically complication

between the species C uerugenosa Roxb., Ccuesia Roxb. and C. malaburicu

Velay., Arnal & Murali., has been cleared in the present study. Sabu (199 1)

treated C. malaburica as same plant for C aerugenosa. Later Mangaly and Sabu

(1993) treated C: rnalobnrica as C caeasio considering that the former same as

the later. But fiom the present study it is obviously clear that these three species

are quite distinct chemically in their terpenoid composition. In C oerugenosa the

chemotype is an ar-tunerone and in C. caesia a mixed chemotye is noted. In C.

malaharica the chernoty pe is with 1,8 cineole. Hence these species can be

considered as separate species and the classification made by Velayudhan et d

(1990) also gains support from the present study.

From the Table-52 it is clear that the affinity between the two cytotypes of H.

coromrium is very strong. The coefficient of similitude is 85.7 1. Also the two

cytotypes of H. co~omriurn show strong resemblance with H. jlavescens. The

coefficient of similitude varies from 75 to 87.5. However, H. spicatum var. is

quite distinct fiom the above two species and show the least chemical affinity.

The coefficient of similitude varies from 8.33 to 10. The species H. coronnrium

and H. fravescens show a probable intergeneric chemical resemblance with

A Iipina malaccemis and Al'pinio =er urnbet var. var igata.

The two species of Kaempferia studied show high affinity between them. The

coefficient of similitude is 75. Also these two species are quite distinct From

other species of various genera in having ethyl p-methoxy cinnamate as a major

constituent of the essential oil. The exotic species K. pulchm studied in the first

part of dissertation does not possess essential oil.

Of the seven species of Alpinia studied the pairs A.culcurato Rosc., - A-ndccensis (Burman) Rosc., and A. malaccensis-A. nigru (Gaertn. ) Nburtt.,

show more chemical relationships than other species. The various species are

however more or less related in their chemical patterns. Among the species four

show mixed chemotypes. A. galunga and A. zerunbef var. varigata show a

cineole chemotype and eugenol chemotype is identified with A. srnitlziae. AS

discussed above a few species reveal a kind of resemblance with the species of

He&chium. This may probably be due to the parallel evolution of various taxa or

may be due to a distant chance for the members of the tribe Hedychieae to take

their orgins from the more primitive tribe Alpinieae. As discussed in the tint part

of the dissertation the tribe Hedychieae is more advanced than tribe Alpinieae.

From the karyomorphologcal study also some evidences can be found in this

regard. The basic chromosome number of most of the members of the tribe

Alpinieade is X= 1 2 whereas in various members of the tribe Hedychieae the basic

chromosme number is found to be x=12, 13, 14, 17, 21 and 25 which were

considered to be originated from the primary number x=12 condition. The species

A. purpurata which is an exotic species is found to be a non-aromatic plant.

The various species of A m o m m studied karyomophologically are not aromatic

species. Thus these species stand apart from other aromatic genera and their

species. In Amomm the North Indian species A. subalatum is an aromatic piant.

However all the ~ d u t h Indian species are not aromatic.

The three cultivars of E h r t a show high affinity between each otheg The

coefficient of similitude is varylng from 71 -42 to 100. cr-Terpinyl acetate is a

major component in these taxa and they are quite distinct from other member of

the family in this regard.

It is dificult to comment on the relationship of this family on the basis of the

c hernial data available today. Nevertheless, it has been observed earlier (Gibbs,

1974; Williarns and Ilarbome, 1977) that the p u p has fairly distinct chemical

patterns. Morphologically the order Zingiberales (Sensu Huchinson, 1959) is

well-defined group, the relationships of which with other plant groups have been

much debated. After a detailed study of various secondary rnetabolites Pugialli

( 1996) pointed out certain evidences demonstrating chemical relationships

between the super orders Zingiberi florae and Magnoliflorae. of Dahlgren (1 980)

and su~gested the existence of a common ancestor for Monocotyledoneae and

primitive Dicotyledoneae. The order is associated with the Bromeliales and;or

the Commelinales (Takhtajan, 1 969; Thome 1 992; Clarke et al. 1 993). Cronquist

(1988) placed these pants within his Commelinik while Takhtajan (1969)

considered Zingiberales to belong to his Liliideae. The phytochemical data on

this group however, do not support the relationshi p with Commelinales, since its

members are not aromatic. By the flavanoid analysis of Zingiberaceae (Harborne

and Williams, 1976; Williams and Hahrne, 1977) it has been found hat a

possible taxonomic affinity between Zingiberales, Fluviales and Bromel iales.

I-lowever, the conclusions on the affinity of the Zingiberaceae on the basis of

photochemical grounds are rather tentative. A thorough investigation on the

chemical constituents of these plants is necessary to arrive at any valid

conclusion to explain affinity of this family with other groups.

To sum up, in the present work thirty taxa were studied for their essential oil

constituents. The study was limited to identify only the major essential oil

constituents of each taxa. These essential oils contain principally mom, and

seq ui terpenoi ds. Their taxonomic relevance is already discussed. Even though a

detailed chemotaxonomic study of these taxa is not possible without a

substanceous knodedge on the biochemical pathways for each component and

the role of minor components, a possible comparison on 8ccount of major

essential oil constituents is conducted In the various genera some taxa are not

aromatic. The members of the tribe Globbeae are not possessing essential oil.

The exotic species of Kaempferia (R. pulchra) and Alpinia (A. purpurau,, and

South Indian species of Amomum (A. cannicaotpum, A. hypoeunun. A.

muricatum and A. pterocarpum) are quite distinct from other manben of the

same genera in not having any aroma constituents. Thus it seems that the theory

of continental drift is reflected in the mode of appearance of essential oil

constituents in plants now growing in different continents (Fujita, 1967). And

also an important part of the theory of Vavilov (1920) on gene centers and

geographical isolation can be well explained. During the course of evolution

such species turned to produce or not to synthesize such secondary rnetabolites

by phy s io lo~c accumulation of plants to different climatic biologtcal and

geographical conditions. Also some of the species which show close

169

resemblance are in homologous line of evolution. Later Nilove ( 1 937) extended

ihe theory of Vavilov to the biochemical characters of the related species on the

basis of their similarity in chemism and the homologous lines in evolution were

well established. This also can be explained by viewing certain parallelism in

essential oil production as in many cases of Zingberaceae plants and different

ways of chemically homologous lines.

ZP LL ZP L1 001 C2 QL OC 9L OE Q18b WQC %B(: DC W'OL €C CC EEC€ U ZP 1E

OB'QL BL OE 01 OC SQZP LS8t ='BE OP W 00 QIW ODIt fmLt SCOP

ZZZZOC OC LOCZWWW CES09

B€PL LC QZ LS BZ E€'= LS'QL H'tt OS HI'S @L OC

BOB W L OQL zv LZ GC PC 98'0 ZP LZ LO'U LC'U a 89oL 88'8L =CL W'QL 99'0 CCCL 8t'tL 9b'Ub O'tL QL

b11LW8 808 PLL OF'Q W'L VIL BQ-L 0) 99'0 CILEOE OE a'€@ LOEZ OOQZ OS 99-fi l& 12 Ll'E LOEE ='PC CC'O C'LC pc W PP'W m LL'LL QZ IW oem s.cc mart oc SE or cr CECE W OP CU OE CCCC OQ QC OO'CC 06 OP'BL bD'8 b9'18 LL'90

0 0 a cc9 EEQ rn'9 BL'LL W'S 99'9 LL'Lb 988 99'9 0 CO CLL 90'0 01 CC9 €E-@ LO'CZ W'OL Pb'L OC LZ'U OC E)'lZ DE: BL'QL Ob AZ'U fCEE QC @'W zt ZZ OOC 01 C€ CS BC 81 ='EL QEC QC'OC Pt 00'Lb OC 8L'@L OC Ot OG t)'W #€'G1 ZtZE BCQL BLBL tIf LBQL VbL Q99 BC's1 OC Qt'O CGQ 60'8 OL @'L 80'6 CC9 sC'PI W 02 L08C EZ~ CZL BL'BL u'a oz ore1 oz wrr ~0.o~ GC QZ uzvr ZZ-U ~9.e~ QZ ao.8 LP-oz CCES otvt Q2 02 Ot Ot U'tt BOL OCSiL 1Z'U U'= SCE6 02 OC Lb'bb OE P'LC ='CC 99'01 D'LC ELC Ob CCW

PC'L CCFI CE'GL 818) OZ: PL'LL 619C ELBL Q EE'U OZVL CE'PL tL'L UZ Bo'U GO'= LB'W QZ BE'= WC2 OL'OC Et 608 CC B EE8 62 Pb 69'4 0 L09 BC1.Sb 0 m'CL CS0 0 0 W'OL U'ZL OL-QL U'L Ot 02 0 0 G2 0 0 0 0 BG'SL 01 0 BtCL I-9L 00'8 a'CL Bb'Ol SC.8 0 #LIC OZ sl'QL ='S E'LE CC'Ea 608 1C-L) Ua lOEt Ob'@b

LC'LC m'e me U-LZ ot a LZ'U scsb oz a'u eror or sr-9, ot erw esor ot ET-EE m'u e0.6 LE'C oz o W'6 LZZt OBgb OOSL POOL Ot OC QEEL BZ'tL W'Qt UL'IC 99.0 -'Q m CZ'Q 0) ?&'L OtPL EE'Q Ob'Ob #)'@L LL'LL WY QZ'0 d0'6 0 OC az BL.OL QC'BL oz oc ~'QL OE LO'U m-9~ a13 a-tr cro wr cr-rc ~eoc oc or.oc cetc ecw p Q-zc 0) VL'L o o PL'DL OLQL

OE'SL &C-L2 ZC C2 LC'W QLW 02 G2 OO-Dt WCG 99'9) OEFL O& OC'OL l4'a SLOT OL'CI ='CC QE'PL MSC 0L'UL D0-01 # 0 99.9 09-W BLOC UZ*L BL'GL V'SC WC1 LF-BZ CiZ ='B ='CC LV'CZ U'U QA'BC W'Ob LO'CZ WO do'= et8L 99BL EE'CC W'Qb 99'9L W'OL U'a @b'OL 9'Ci 0 @-l OV O? @'L LLQC

d. Chemical ecology of terpenoids in Zingiberaceae

Chemically terpenoids are usually unsaturated hydrocarbons, with varying

degrees of oxygenation in the substituent groups (alcohol, aldehyde, lactone etc.)

attached to the basic skeleton. The terpenoids are known to have as diverse

functions as their chemical structures. They have specific role in many of the

p1 ant-animal, plant-pl ant and p1 ant-micro organism interactions as p hytoalexins,

insect anti feedants, defence agents, pheromones, a1 lelochem ical S, signal

molecules and so on. Some are highly toxic to animal systems while others have

the ability to interfere hormonally with insect metamorphosis and with animal

growth and reproduction (Harbome, 1991). My attempt here is to discuss the

role of terpenoids in the chemical ecology of plants of Zingiberaceae, and to link

the present findings with the earlier works in this field

The various species coming under the family the Zingiberaceae show different

levels of chemical adapfations to their environment. Most of the members of this

family are aromatic and there should be a clear function for these secondary

metabolites in the well being of these plants in their surrounding environment.

Nature has been the biggest architect of heterogeneous c hernicals especial l y in

case of pjant kingdom where they have been used to ward off unwanted insects,

pests, rodents, predators or to defend against various diseases, herbivory or even

to attract polli nators. The various terpenoid molecules identified in the essential

oil samples of respective taxa are listed (vide Table-49).

One of the noted features of various aromatic species is that, they show

antiherbivory and this may be due to the terpenes present in the leafy and shoot

portions. Herbivorous animals are not often eating plants of Alpinia, Curcum,

Zingiber etc. In fact, gracing animals find these species unpalatable and

normally avoid them. Among the tribal people, it is a common belief that snakes

\Fill not come to the place where Curcuma longu plants are grown. Various

species of AIpiniu are very resistant to many diseases. They are not even affected

by many bacterial, viral and fungal diseases. The leaves and shoot portions of

most of these plants are richly blended with terpenoids. This may effectively

give them such a high defence against microbial attack. The essential oil of

Alpmia zerumhet has strong antibacterial properties (Yu et ul. 1993). The

chemical corn ponents isothymol, th ymol and eugenol of A. zerumbet possess

strong antifungal activity against plant pathogenic fungi (Taira et al. 1995) and

gerani ol and isothymol possess strong antimicrobial activity against plant

pathogenic bacteria (Taira et al. 1994). But in Alpiniapurpuru~u, which is not an

aromatic plant, the flowers are often infested with ants, banana aphids, cotton

aphids and cardamom t hrips (Hata et al. 1995). Rats and rabbits seldom attack

the plants with even fleshy rhizomes like Kaempferia, Zingiber, Curcurnu etc. in

which all these rhizomes are rich in terpenes. Blast disease due to &ridaria

zingiberi Nishikado occurs on ginger plants but not on plants such as Indian shell

flower (Alpiniajuponicu Miq.) and turmeric (Cwcuma l o n p Linn.) which grow

around ginger fields (Kotani, 1994). In this case it is clear that the leaves of

gtnger plants are not aromatic while the leaves of Alpinia and Curcuma are

aromatic and the terpenes present in them may be the reason for protecting these

plants from blast disease. A species of trypanosoma is reported to be caused the

decay of Alpinto purpumta rhizomes (Muller et al. 1995) which is a non-

aromatic species. The other aromatic species are often found to be resistant

It is quite remarkable that juice sucking insects such as mosquitos are rare in

plants like Zingiber ~erumbet and various AIpinza species. Plants like A[pinia

galango, Curcum amado. Curcuma zedooria and Curcurno longa proved for

heir insecticidal antiovipsitional and ovicidal properties against certain beetle

species (Ahamed and Ahrned, 1992). The chemical components such as

carnphene, cineole, eugenol, geraniol, limonene, linalool, B - phe~~andrene and a-

pinene have been reported for their insecticidal and ovicidal actions (Sharrna and

Saxena, 1 974). Some of the sweet smelling terpenoids are attractants to insects

for oviposition on the one hand and ovicidal on the other hand. Some terpenoids

attract the scavengers who f e d on plant eating insects. a-Pinene which is

present in many members show high repellent activity agains certain insects

while gennacrene-D, a sesquiterpene hydrocarbon is reported to be a male sex

stimulant for certain cockroaches (Satoshi et al. 1 975). Limonene and a-pinene

has the property to mimic, alarm or alter pheromones of certain termites (Moore,

1971). Geraniol is found to be very useful intermediates for the synthesis o fc l7

juvenile hormones. Dutta er al. ( 1985) reported that the Andaman aborigines use

.41~1omum muleaturn for tmquilising the gant rock bees Apis dorsu~u and harvest

honey from their hives without protective apparel, while the bees remain daile.

It is sure that the terpenoids present in this plant undoubtedly attract the bees in

someway or other. In the present observations it has been seen that many insects

and ants are acting as pollinators in various species of AIpinia and Kuempfieriu.

In Alpinia smithiae pollination is by insects and ants mainly by weaver ants

Oecuphylla smaradina F. They make nests on this plant by weaving together its

leaves during the flowering seasons. They help in pollination and leave the piant

when the flowering is over. . In Alpinia zerumbet and Akiniu galango the

pollination is by bees and wasps. Whereas in Alpinio culcura~a and Kaempfiria

gulungu it is by the insects of the order Diptera-In these cases the flowers do not

possess any nectar glands. Hence it can be assumed that different terpewids

present in these plants and their flowers are attracting the insects and ants for

their pollination purpose.

The underground rhizornatous portion of many Zingiberaceae plants, seen to be

closely associated ' with the vesicular arbuscular rnycorrhizal fungi. This

associated fungal species alter the host metabolism in such a way that the plants

develop defense mechanisms by the enhanced production of secondary

metabolites like essential oils (Sharma et al. 1996). Hence it is worth noting that

the increase in essential oil components in rhizomes will naturally provide a

resistance against various microbial diseases

Monoterpenes occur widely in Zingberaceae plants. Their ecological role as

pollinator attraction i s clearly proved (Bergstrorn, 1991). These tepenes also

accwnulate in quantity in leaves and stems. Most of these components have a

defensive role against hehivory. They are either toxic or deterrent to a range of

herbivores and represent a real bamer to feeding. Limonene (Wada and

Munakata, 1971) and camphor (Sinclair et 01. 1988) possess strong feeding

inhibitory activity. P-cymene, terpinen - 4-01 and u-terpineol often exert great

antifeedant effect by contact amon (Gombus and Gasko, 1977). The production

of these terpenoids in the leafy shoot region protects plant tissues from herbivory

and the concentration of these components increases in response to hehivory. In

many Zingiberaceae plants especial1 y in Alpinia and Curcumu the leaves possess

significantly these components particularly camphor. This may protect these

plants against herbivory and insect grazing. There is little doubt, therefore, that

cornphor together with other secondary constituents provide competitive

advantage to thee species in nature by limiting their consumption by large

herbivores. It is also worth remembering that rnonoterpenes are toxic to

microorganisms and have a lle lopat hic effects on plant tissues (Fischer et al.

1988). The various species of Alpiniu are found to be allelopathic to many of the

surrounding undershurbs. The monoterpeoes present in the leaves of such plants

may be released into the environment and exert an allelopathic influence on other

plant species preventing their growth. Cineole and camphor are particularly

effective in this regard (Mandi and Shama, 1994). The distribution of these two

monoterpenes in different species of Curcurno and AIpinia are represented in the

Fig.55 and Fig. 56.

Sesquiterpenes also have a common occurrence in the essential oil of

Zingiberaceae members. The sesquiterpene lactones have a wide range of

demonstrated biol Agical activities such as cytotoxic compounds, vertebrate

pi sons, insect feeding deterrents, sc hi stosumicidal substances and al l ergic

agents (Rodriyz et al. 1976). The biolopic8I activities associated with

sesquiterpenes are many and varied, from plant growth regulation (abscisic acid)

to interference with insect metamorphosis. Eventhough, there is much indirect

evidence that sequiterpene lactones cause insect herbivores to avoid plants

containing such components, ecological data confirming the defensive role of

these lactones in the plants are still relatively limited. The rhizomes of Zingiber

purpureum exhibit strong fungtoxic action. The antifidingal component is

identified as zerumbone-a sequiterpene (Kishor and Dwivedi, 1992) and this

esygenated hurnulene derivative substance is also the major component of

Zingibrr zerumbet rhizomes. And, it has been well evident that both these

Zingiber species are highly resistant against fungi Pythium and Fusoriurn species

which cause rhizome rot disease in Zingiher ofticinale, in which zerumbone is

totally absent. Sesquiterpenoid like caryophyllene protects plants From insect

attack because of thei r anti micorbial properties. Caryophy llene is repel lent to

certain leaf-cutting ants. The ants reject the leaves because this sequiteqxne

damages the fungus upon which they depend for their food (Hubbel et al 1983,

Howard et ul. 1989). In Zingiher cernuum and Z =erurnhet caryophyllene is

found to be a major component.

Very little is known regarding the role of diterpenoids and triterpenoids and in

the present study none of them is identified as their occurrence is in trace

amounts. A number of diterpenoids that the earlier workers (Harborne, 1986 a;

1986; 1991 ; Rao et al. 1989). Most of the hterpenes are notable for their irritant

and co-carcinogenic properties. Various ecologcal functions of the diterpenes in

the plant kingdom such as, defense against herbivory (Eisner et al. 1974),

hormonal interference in insects (Elliger et al. 1976) antifeedant activity (Kubo

et al. 1976), phytoallexin defense (Harborne, 1986 a), antifungal defense

(Harborne, 1986 b Roa et al. 1 989) etc. are reported. The plant growth regulator

gibberellic acid is still not reported in the plants of Zingiberaceae. An antifungal

di terpene was isolated fiom Alpinia gaIlinga (Har8&uchi et al. 1 996). Galanals A

and B, the cembrane diterpenes, galanolactone and other labdane derivatives

from Alpinin. galanga show strong anti fungal properties (Mori ta and Ito kawa,

1 988). From ~edy>hium coronar ium c ytotoxic labdane diterpenes coronari n A,

B and C have been isolated and they show antineoplastic activity against Chinese

hamster V-79 cells (Itokawa et d. 1988) There are no reports available so far on

the triperpenoids among these plants.

In conclusion, the natural purpose of the synthesis and accumulation of

terpenoids in the plant kingdom still possess a considerable question mark to

phytochemists .As discussed above, they have some role in plant growth

regulation. In pollination biology, in various interactions with other plants,

animals or insects, in defense against diseases and in other attacks, However, the

studies on the chemical defensive mechanisms of terpenoids is still at an early

stage. Ilence, it is high time to collect sufficient data and to emphasis duly the

ecological role of terpoenoids as primarily defensive agents against over grazing.

This topic therefore, offers ample scope for future research programmes.

The thirty different aromotic taxa were analysed chemically for their essential oil

components. Members of Zingiberaceae varying considerably as regard the

percentage yield of essential oils. Most of the members are lesser oil yielding

plants. Some of the members are not even aromatic. The genus Zingiber exhibits

oil richness and oil poorness among the various species studied. The quantity of

essential oil ranges from 0.82% to 2.87% in various species. Similarly both oil

poor and oil rich taxa were found in the genera Curcurnu, Hedychium and

Kaemderia. The percentage of oil yield among these genera, ranges from 0.86 to

4.76, 0.31 to 1.76 and 0.83 to 1.33 respectively . The genus AIpinia is

comparatively oil poor and the percentage of oil varies from 0.28 to 1.17 among

various species. EZeifaria curdurnomum is the best oil yielding plant in this

family. The yield varies from 9.86 to 1 1 .3 1 ./o in various cultivan.

Various physical properties of the essential oils distilled from different taxa were

checked for assessing the purity of the samples. Colour, odour, flavour, density,

solubility and refractive index of oil samples are studied and each sample has a

specific character. The various aromatic taxa posses oil that are rich in

odoriferous monoterpenoids like a and P-pinene, sabinew, 1 -8, cineole,

oci mene, myrcene, ci tral, lirnonene, linalool, camphor, terpinen - 441 1, a-terpinyl

acetate, geraniole etc. Phenols and their derivatives, which contribute towards

the aroma of the various tax% are eugenol, methyl cimamate, ethyl cinnamate,

isoeugenol etc. The sesquiterpcnoids like gemacrene-D, zerumbone, p- bisabolene, zingiberene, ar-curcumene, p-curcumene etc. are found to impart

strong odour to some taxa.

The various taxa of the family Zingiberaceae are characterized by wide variations

in their chemotypes. Majority of them shows a mixed chemotype. Out of the

five species investigated in Zingiher two species show mixed chemotype whereas

the other three represent, zcrurn bone, Pcaryoph y l l ene and zingrberene

chemotypes. In Curcuma mixed chemotype is found with three species. The

major chemical components recognised in the different chemotypes of Curcumn

are u - pinenc, P-pinrne, sabinene, ocimene, limonene, camphor, 1,8 - cineole,

ar-curcumenc, p-curc umene, ar-turnerone, xanthonhizol, camphene,

gerrnacrone-l) etc. In Kaemp/ccriu the two sjxcies show mixed chemotypes with

n- pentadecane, ethyl-p-methoxy cinnamate, ethyl cimarnate, A3-carene,

camphene, 1 ,g-cineole, camphor etc. as major components. In He4chium three

tasa are cineole chemotypes and the other one is mixed chemotype. In Abinia

out of the eight species studied, mixed chemotypes are in clear majority with

cam phene, pinene, methyl cinnamate, camphor, geraniol, citronel lyl acetate, fl - caryophyllene, cincole etc. as major components. In all the cultivars of

Cardomum mixed chemotype is found with 1,8-cineole and U-terpinyl acetate as

major components.

The members of the family are classified broadly into aromatic and non-aromatic.

The aromatic plant species are awn grouped into distinct chemotypes. The

terpenoids are of great importance as taxonomic markers- They have a major role

in classifying the complicated genus like Curcuma Also in various other genera

and their respective species the presence or absence of essential oil, the

distribution of terpenoids, saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons etc. are very

much helpful for studying both inter and intra generic and specific relationships

within the family. However, to conduct studies on essential oils from the point of

view of chemotaxonomy is often difficult; because to draw taxonomic

conclusions from the occurrence or nonmcurrence of a single compound in a

single part of the plant is always found to be uncertain. Also identical substances

in different species may be developed through entirely different biosynthetic

routes and thus the formation but never the substance has chemotaxonomic value.

Nevertheless, a possible comparison between different taxa on account of major

essential oil constituents is being made.

P1 ant terpenoids have dominated the subject of chemical ecology. The terpenoid

molecules have been implicated in almost every possible plant-animal, plant-

plant and plant-microorganism interactions. The various terpenoid molecules

present in Zingiberaceae members have clear ecological role such as

phytoalexins, insect antifeadants, antiherhivary, defence agents, pheromones,

a l leloc hemicals, poll i nator attraction, insecticidal and antimicrobial properties.

Some terpenoids are highly toxic to animal systems and feeding insects. The

sesquiterpenoid abscisic acid has a plant growth regulation role. The role of

many of them is yet to be defined. These substances are often caught up in plant-

animal interactions.Thcir major purpose in those plants are investigated and

proved to be as a defensive one; which protects tissues from both herbivory and

microbial infection. However, we are still at an early stage in gathering clear

evidences for such an ecological role.

Documents

part-i1 major essential oil constituents in zingiberaceae