The Centre for Australian Weather and Climate Resea rch A partnership between CSIRO and the Bureau of Meteo rology

THE INDOOR AIR PROJECT

PART 2: APPENDICES

A report to the Air Quality Section, Environment Standards Branch, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and

the Arts COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA

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Enquiries should be addressed to:

Ian Galbally CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research Private Bag 1, Aspendale Victoria 3195 Australia Phone +61 3 9239 4400 Facsimile +61-3-92394444 Ian.Galbally@csiro.au

This Report was prepared by: Min Cheng, Ian Galbally, Rob Gillett, Melita Keywood, Sarah Lawson, Suzie Molloy and Jennifer Powell.

Distribution list Robyn Gatehouse Project Manager DEWHA

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Judith Smith Librarian CSIRO 1

John Gras Stream Leader CSIRO 1

Copyright and Disclaimer © 2009 CSIRO To the extent permitted by law, all rights are reserved and no part of this publication covered by copyright may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means except with the written permission of CSIRO.

Important Disclaimer CSIRO advises that the information contained in this publication comprises general statements based on scientific research. The reader is advised and needs to be aware that such information may be incomplete or unable to be used in any specific situation. No reliance or actions must therefore be made on that information without seeking prior expert professional, scientific and technical advice. To the extent permitted by law, CSIRO (including its employees and consultants) excludes all liability to any person for any consequences, including but not limited to all losses, damages, costs, expenses and any other compensation, arising directly or indirectly from using this publication (in part or in whole) and any information or material contained in it.

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Contents

PART 2: APPENDICES

APPENDIX A - SELECTION OF DWELLINGS ............... ........................................... 99

A.1 Recruitment ................................................................................................................ 99

A.2 Statistics of Dwellings Sampled ................................................................................ 102

A.3 Results Obtained / Data Coverage for Study Period ................................................ 103

APPENDIX B – THE INSTRUMENTAL METHODS USED AND THEI R CHARACTERISTICS ................................... ................................................... 105

B.1 PM10......................................................................................................................... 106

B.2 PM2.5........................................................................................................................ 106

B.3 NO2 ........................................................................................................................... 107

B.4 O3 .............................................................................................................................. 108

B.5 Nicotine ..................................................................................................................... 108

B.6 Carbonyls .................................................................................................................. 109

B.7 VOCs ........................................................................................................................ 110

B.8 CO ............................................................................................................................ 111

B.9 CO2 ........................................................................................................................... 111

B.10 Temperature, Relative Humidity and Pressure ....................................................... 112

B.11 Fungi and Bacteria .................................................................................................. 112

APPENDIX C – VENTILATION MEASUREMENTS ............. .................................... 114

C.1 The Tracer Method of Measuring Ventilation ........................................................ 114

C.2 Selected Dwellings ................................................................................................ 114

C.3 Diaries and Surveys .............................................................................................. 115

C.4 Measurements ...................................................................................................... 116

C.5 Analysis ................................................................................................................. 118

C.6 Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 119

C.7 References ........................................................................................................... 119

APPENDIX D – EMISSION FACTORS ..................... ............................................... 120

D.1 Emission Factors for Materials ............................................................................. 120 BTEX, TVOC and Formaldehyde Emissions from Paints .................................................. 121 Formaldehyde, TVOC and BTEX Emissions from Wood-Based Panels and Furniture ..... 122 Formaldehyde and TVOC Emissions from Carpet ............................................................ 123 Formaldehyde, BTEX, TVOC, Carbon Monoxide and Respirable Particle Emissions from

Oven Insulation ................................................................................................. 123 Formaldehyde, TVOC, BTEX, Carbon Monoxide and Nitrogen Dioxide Emissions from

Unflued Gas Heaters ........................................................................................ 125 Formaldehyde, TVOC, BTEX, Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide and Respirable Particles Emissions

from Photocopiers and Laser Printers .............................................................. 126

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TVOC and Formaldehyde Emission in Australia Building Products/ Materials from Commercial Testing .......................................................................................... 127

References ........................................................................................................................ 128 D.2 A Review of Emission Factors for Various Activities ............................................. 129

D.3 Ingredients of Common Household Chemicals .................................................... 135

APPENDIX E – ACTIVITY DIARY CATEGORIES ........... ........................................ 142

E.1 Definitions ................................................................................................................. 142

APPENDIX F - ACCOMPANYING DATA (ON CD) ............ ...................................... 146

CONTENTS OF THE DATA CD ..................................................................................... 146

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APPENDIX A - SELECTION OF DWELLINGS

A.1 Recruitment

Recruitment methods used were: • mail drops, both along busy roads (Near-Road) and in areas away from busy roads (Far-

Road)

• CSIRO media release “CSIRO Melbourne air quality survey volunteer call” picked up by Herald Sun and local newspapers, CSIRO staff interviewed in newspapers

• contact with community groups (Girl Guides)

• CSIRO, EPA Victoria and Victorian Public Service bulletin boards

• word of mouth.

Approximately 2000 letters were delivered to individual dwellings in the mail drops that targeted dwellings near and far from 15 busy roads in the study area. Maildrops were centred around the following roads (see Figure A-1): Nepean Hwy between White St and Lower Dandenong Rd, Parkdale Nepean Hwy and Station St between Beach Rd and Edithvale Rd, Aspendale Wells Rd between Governor and Edithvale Rd, Aspendale Gardens Centre Rd between Jasper and East Boundary Rd, Bentleigh Wellington Rd between Springvale and Jacksons Rd, Mulgrave Warrigal Rd between Centre Rd and Dandenong Rd, Oakleigh South, Oakleigh and Hughesdale Williams Rd between Dandenong Rd and Malvern Rd, Armadale Denmark St/Power St between Barkers Rd and Chandler Hwy, Kew Dandenong Rd between Hawthorn Rd and Denbigh Rd, Armadale Murrumbeena Rd between Neerem Rd and Dandenong Rd, Murrumbeena Belgrave Rd between Dandenong Rd and Waverley Rd, Malvern East Dandenong Rd between Poath Rd and Koornang Rd, Murrumbeena/Malvern East Warrigal Rd between High Street Rd and Riversdale Rd, Burwood/Camberwell Princess Hwy between Huntingdale Rd and Ferntree Gully Rd, Oakleigh East Stevensons Rd between Waverley Rd and High Street Rd, Mount Waverley Blackburn Rd between High Street Rd and Highbury Rd, Mount Waverley Springvale Rd between High Street Rd and Highbury Rd, Glen Waverley Springvale Rd between Ferntree Gully Rd and Waverley Rd, Glen Waverley Ferntree Gully Rd between Springvale Rd and Jells Rd, Wheelers Hill As a combined result of the recruitment methods, around 100 people expressed interest in participating in the study by asking for an information pack and selection questionnaire. Approximately 90 people returned the completed selection questionnaire, and from this group 47 volunteers were excluded based on location, main selection criteria or other considerations. A total of 42 volunteers were included in the study.

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Figure A-1 Map of inner and south eastern Melbourne with roads maildropped highlighted

The basis for the initial inclusion/exclusion of dwellings in the data set were: • Likelihood of participant remaining in the same dwelling for the study period

• ability of participant to fill in the English Language questionnaire and diary

• renovations, painting or other maintenance and construction, either within the home or in the near vicinity

• secure location for outdoor equipment

• presence of pets that may interfere with equipment e.g. dogs that may chew cables

• residence within selection region (the region sampled covered approximately 40 x 20 km of Melbourne, was selected to cover a range of socio economic groups, family units and occupancy rates, and was bounded by ambient air quality sites at Aspendale, Richmond, Alphington, Box Hill, Brighton and Dandenong and a meteorological measurement site at Moorabbin).

The selection procedure aimed to provide a sample of dwellings with characteristics as close as possible to that of the Australian population. The first criterion in selection of dwellings was that half the dwellings should be near busy roads (Near-Road dwellings) and half away from busy roads (Far-Road dwellings), to ensure statistical robustness between Near-Road and Far-Road cohorts. Busy roads were classed as greater than or equal to 30,000 vehicles per day (mid week). This traffic volume data for Melbourne roads was obtained from Vic Roads (Department of Transport and VicRoads), and a classification of 30,000 vehicles per day represented the highest traffic volume bracket. Near-Road dwellings were classified as having the boundary of the property, typically the front or back fence, within 150 m from the edge of a busy road. Near-Road dwellings were

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preferentially chosen if the property border was within 100 m of a busy road, as studies have indicated that the impact of the road on pollutant concentrations decreases rapidly when the residential setting is beyond 100-150 m from the road (Roorda-Knape et al 1998, Zhu et al 2002) and some studies show pollutant levels drop quickly within 20-50 m from the roadside (EPA 2006, Laxen et al 2002) For this reason, when sampling Near-Road dwellings the outdoor monitoring equipment was located on the side of the house which was closest to the busy road. However in many cases the front of the property was closest to the busy road but was not considered a secure location due to lack of fencing and openness to the street – in these cases the equipment was located in the backyard. This meant that the actual distance between the edge of the busy road and the outdoor sampling unit was often a greater distance than the distance from the property boundary to the edge of the road. Actual distances from the outdoor sampling equipment and property boundary to the nearest busy road for each house are given in Table A.1. These distances are approximate to ± 5 m.

In this study, Far-Road is classified as greater than 300m from a busy road, as the effects of busy roads on nearby pollutant levels have shown to be negligible at this distance. Dwellings located between these Near-Road (<150 m) and Far-Road limits (>300 m) were excluded from the selection where possible.

Figure A-2 shows the distance between the edge of the nearest busy road and the outdoor sampling equipment for each of the dwellings that were sampled in this study. 22 dwellings are classified as Near –Road and have sampling equipment within 150 m of the nearby road. Of these Near-Road dwellings, 15 have the monitoring equipment located within 50 m of a busy road. 21 dwellings are classified as Far-Road being >300 m away from the busy road.

0

500

1000

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Figure A-2. The approximate distance of the sampling equipment from the nearest Busy road for each house sampled in this study

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The secondary criteria for selection of dwellings were: - structure: separate house or semi-detached/flat - construction materials: double brick, brick veneer, wood - age of residence (years): <5, 5-19, 20-49,50+

The tertiary selection criteria were:

- fuel used for stove: gas, electric - smoking habits - attached garage with connecting door - type of heating/cooling e.g. wood heater, ducted, gas etc.

Some weighting was given to dwellings with electric stoves due to the low proportion of Victorian homes that use electric stoves compared with the proportion across Australia. Some weighting was given to dwellings with attached garages and connecting doors, as it was believed this could be a significant contributor of pollutants into the residence. Of the 89 selection questionnaires returned, 3 households stated that smoking regularly occurred in the home (3% of households). 15 households stated that there was regular smoking outdoors on the property by residents or visitors (17% of households). Seven households were chosen that stated smoking occurred outdoors regularly (this represented 17% of total 42 households). Out of these 41 households selected, smoking outdoors was reported by 7 dwellings in winter (17%) and 4 dwellings in summer (10%). One household was chosen that stated smoking occurred inside regularly out of a possible 3. One was not chosen as they returned their selection questionnaire at a time when we had selected enough households to satisfy the primary and secondary selection criteria that the house fitted in to (50+ Near-Road brick veneer). The other was not chosen because the dwelling type (bedsitter) did not fit into our ‘typical’ Australian categories. Houses that were known to double as a place of business e.g. dental or medical clinics were avoided. This was not always known prior to selection. One house included in the study also doubles as a massage/aromatherapy business as well as a private residence. Due to time restrictions on the conduct of the study and the limited number of volunteers to participate in the study, it was not possible to wait for all people to respond to the surveys, and select dwellings from a large pool of respondents. As completed surveys were returned, dwellings were assessed for their suitability and where they met the study requirements, appointments were made.

A.2 Statistics of Dwellings Sampled

Table A1 shows details of dwellings sampled in this study, including unique participant identification number, distance of the outdoor measurement equipment and property boundary from a Busy Road, and Near/Far-Road classification for each dwelling. Dwellings are sorted according to distance of outdoor measurement equipment to Busy Road.

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Table A.1. Details of Participant dwellings, including distance from outdoor measurement equipment and property boundary from busy road, nearest busy road and Near/Far-Road classification.

Participant number

Distance outdoor measurement unit to

busy road (m) Approx

Distance property boundary to busy road (m) Approx

Nearest busy roadNear/Far

Road

H34 12 11 Ferntree Gully Road NearP16 12 10 Murrumbeena Rd NearU21 15 5 Warrigal Rd NearX24 20 20 Wells road NearW23 25 15 Ferntree Gully Road NearE31 30 30 Murrumbeena Rd NearR18 30 30 Wells Rd NearV22 30 5 Nepean Highway NearQ17 35 5 Warrigal Rd NearA27 38 15 Wells Rd NearD30 50 12 Dandenong Rd NearG33 50 20 Springvale NearJ10 50 35 Princess Highway NearL12 50 47 Kingston Road NearT20 50 15 Dandenong Rd NearZ26 65 45 Nepean Highway NearO15 80 80 Dandenong Rd NearS19 80 90 Princess Hwy NearG07 100 80 Nepean Highway NearN14 110 80 Dandenong Rd NearF06 115 85 Wells Road NearC03 150 90 Nepean Highway NearP42 175 170 Nepean Highway FarK11 185 150 Nepean Highway FarE05 200 175 Ferntree Gully Road FarL38 200 200 Princess Highway FarD04 225 220 Stephensons Road FarJ36 250 240 Ferntree Gully Road FarF32 265 255 Bridge Rd FarI35 285 280 Maroondah highway FarK37 300 300 Grange Rd FarC29 330 330 Huntingdale Rd FarM39 350 335 Grange Rd FarM13 360 350 Warrigal Rd FarB02 400 400 Nepean Highway FarI09 415 400 Jasper Road FarY25 470 450 Grange Rd FarN40 500 495 Bay st FarB28 600 590 Middleborough Rd FarO41 720 690 Nepean Highway FarA01 1000 1000 Frankston-Dandenong Road FarH08 2500 2500 Nepean Highway Far

A.3 Results Obtained / Data Coverage for Study Peri od

Table A.2 shows details of measurements successfully made at each of the dwellings in Summer/Autumn and Winter/Spring. Dwelling F06 did not have any measurements made because the participant asked for the equipment to be removed after one night. Dwelling L12 only has measurements in winter because the participant withdrew before the summer sampling. Dwelling P42 did not have any measurements made in winter because this participant was recruited in the summer to replace dwelling L12.

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in out in out in out in out in out in out in out in out in out in out in out in out in out in out in out in outA01 Y N NY N Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YB02 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YC03 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YD04 Y N NY N Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YE05 N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YF06 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/AG07 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YH08 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YI09 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YJ10 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YK11 N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YL12 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/AM13 Y Y Y Y Y Y ? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YN14 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YO15 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YP16 Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YQ17 Y Y Y Y Y Y ? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YR18 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YS19 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YT20 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YU21 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YV22 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YW23 Y N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YX24 N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YY25 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YZ26 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YA27 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YB28 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YC29 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YD30 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YE31 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YF32 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YG33 Y N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YH34 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YI35 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YJ36 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YK37 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YL38 Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YM39 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YN40 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YO41 Y N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YP42 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

PM10 PM2.5

summer

Carbonyl VOCNO2, O3, Nicotine

Mould bacteria

Mould bacteria

winter

CO CO2CO PM10 PM2.5 CO2 Carbonyl VOCNO2, O3, Nicotine

Table A.2. Details of measurements obtained at each dwelling in summer and winter. Y indicates a successful measurement was made, N indicates it was not, and N/A indicates that the measurement was not attempted because the dwelling was not sampled in that particular part of the study.

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APPENDIX B – THE INSTRUMENTAL METHODS USED AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

The measurement system consists of a single integrated instrument bundle with continuous measurements of CO2, CO, Temperature, absolute humidity, air pressure and aerosol loading of PM2.5. There are also weekly integrated measurements of O3, NO2 and Nicotine by passive sampling and PM10, formaldehyde, other carbonyls, TVOCs and speciated VOCs by active sampling. Fungi and bacteria are measured by a single spot sample. An inside and an outside sampler are shown in the following photos.

Figure B.1. An indoor air sampler in a dwelling during the study

Figure B.2. An outdoor air sampler outside a dwelling during the study

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Each of the measurement techniques are described in the following sections.

B.1 PM10

Particle mass less than 10 µm in diameter (PM10) is measured by gravimetric mass determination. PM10 samples are collected using the Micro-Vol which draws air at a constant flow rate (3 L min-1 ) through a PM10 size-selective inlet (which removes particles greater than 10 µm in diameter) and onto a 47 mm stretched Teflon filter (Pall R2PJ047, 2 µm pore size) on which particles less than 10 µm diameter are trapped. Each filter is weighed before and after sampling to determine the mass of particles collected. Gravimetric mass measurements are performed using a Mettler UMTA2 microbalance at 30-50 % relative humidity. Electrostatic charging is reduced by the presence of static discharge sources within the balance chamber. The resolution of the balance is 0.0001 mg (0.1 µg). Each 47 mm Teflon filter is weighed repeatedly, both before and after sampling, until three weights within 0.001 mg are obtained. The detection limit was calculated from the standard deviation of 14 blanks collected during Winter/Spring and Summer/Autumn (ISO, 1994). The precisions were calculated separately during Winter/Spring and Summer/Autumn, as the % relative standard deviation, when kits were co-located at CMAR, and sampling was carried out for 7 days.

Detection limit: <0.1 µg m-3 Precision: 4.6 % and 1.9 % for summer and winter respectively Resolution: N/A Accuracy: N/A Reference Methods

AS/NZS 3580.9.9:2006 Methods for sampling and analysis of ambient air - Determination of suspended particulate matter – PM10 low volume sampler - Gravimetric method.

ISO Standard 9168:1994(E), Air Quality – Determination of performance characteristics of measurement methods, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 18 pp, 1994.

B.2 PM2.5

Particle mass less than 2.5 µm in diameter (PM2.5) is determined by the light scattering behaviour of the particles using an E-Sampler. This method allows a real-time measurement of particle concentrations. However, light scattering behaviour of particles is dependent on the chemical composition and size of the particles. Hence in order to convert light scattering to a gravimetric mass metric, the light scattering data must be calibrated against a gravimetric mass measurement. This is achieved in the E-Sampler by collecting a sample of PM2.5 on a filter at the same time as the light scattering measurements are in progress and determining the gravimetric mass concentration using the methodology described for PM10 above. The gravimetric mass concentration is used with the light scattering data integrated over the

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sampling period to determine a calibration factor that is applied to the time-resolved light scattering data.

Detection limit: 1 µg m-3 Precision: 0.003 µg m-3 or 2 % Resolution: N/A Accuracy: 8 % of NIOSH 0600

Reference Methods

AS/NZS 3580.9.10:2006 Methods for sampling and analysis of ambient air - Determination of suspended particulate matter – PM2.5 low volume sampler - Gravimetric method.

B.3 NO2

Mean nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is determined for an exposure period of approximately 7 days using passive samplers. The NO2 passive samplers trap sample gas that diffuses into the cylindrical body of the sampler. This is driven by a concentration gradient of gas in the sampler that decreases from the ambient level to a very low level at the filter paper interface, where the gas reacts with a filter that is coated with a mixture of NaOH and NaI to form nitrite ion. At the end of sampling the coated filter is extracted in water and the nitrite ion concentration is then measured as a diazonium salt, which is produced from a reaction of nitrite ion with sulphanilamide, phosphoric acid and N-1-naphthyl ethylenediamine dihydrochloride (NEDA). The absorbance of the diazonium salt produced in the reaction is measured in a Shimadzu UV-2401PC UV/Vis spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 540 nm. The accuracy of the passive samplers (relative to real-time instruments) for one week samples is better than 3%. The precision of the NO2 passive samplers was measured as the difference between the sample pair as a percentage of the average of the sample pair. The detection limit of the technique was calculated, for a 7-day period, from the standard deviation of the blanks collected during the Summer/Autumn and Winter/Spring periods (ISO, 1994).

Detection limit: 0.1 ppb Precision: 3.9 % and 4.8 % for the outdoor and indoor samples respectively Resolution: N/A Accuracy: ±3%

Reference Methods

Ayers G.P., M.D. Keywood, R.W. Gillett, P.C. Manins, H. Malfroy and T. Bardsley (1998). Validation of passive diffusion samplers for SO2 and NO2 under Australian conditions. Atmos. Environ., 32, 3587-3592.

Ferm, M. (1991). A sensitive diffusional sampler. Report L91–172, IVL, Box 47086, 402 58 Goteborg, Sweden.

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Powell, J. P. 2006 CMAR Chemlab Wet Chemistry NATA Work Instructions. Version 1.1

ISO Standard 9168:1994(E), Air Quality – Determination of performance characteristics of measurement methods, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 18 pp, 1994.

B.4 O3

Mean O3 is determined for an exposure period of approximately 7 days using passive samplers. In the case of the O3 passive sampler, O3 reacts with the coating solution (a mixture of K2CO3 and NaNO2) on the filter paper to produce NaNO3. The concentration of nitrate ion is determined by ion chromatography using a Dionex DX500 gradient ion chromatograph with an AS17-c column and an ASRS ultra-suppressor and a gradient eluent of sodium hydroxide. The accuracy of the passive samplers (relative to real-time instruments) for one week samples is better than 10%. The precision of the O3 passive samplers was calculated as the difference between the sample pair as a percentage of the average of the sample pair. The detection limit was calculated for a 7-day period, from the standard deviation of 15 blanks collected during the study (ISO, 1994).

Detection limit: 0.2 ppb Precision: 9.2 % and 15.1 % during Winter/Spring and Summer/Autumn

respectively Resolution: N/A Accuracy: ±10% Reference Methods

Ferm, M. (1991). A sensitive diffusional sampler. Report L91–172, IVL, Box 47086, 402 58 Goteborg, Sweden.

Powell, J. P. 2006 CMAR Chemlab Wet Chemistry NATA Work Instructions. Version 1.1

ISO Standard 9168:1994(E), Air Quality – Determination of performance characteristics of measurement methods, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 18 pp, 1994.

B.5 Nicotine

The mean nicotine concentration was determined for an exposure period of approximately 7 days using passive samplers. In the nicotine passive sampler nicotine reacts with an acidic coating solution (NaHSO4) on the filter paper to produce nicotine sulfate. The concentration of nicotine ion is determined by ion chromatography using a Dionex DX500 gradient ion chromatograph with a Dionex OmniPac PCX-500 column preceded by a Dionex OmniPac guard PCX-500 column. The detection limit for a 7-day sampling period was estimated from the standard deviation of 7 injections of a 0.15 µm l-1 standard. The precision of the nicotine passive sampler was calculated as the difference between pairs of samplers as a fraction of the mean of the pairs.

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Detection limit: 0.01 ppb Precision: 8 % Resolution: N/A Accuracy: ± 10%

Reference Methods

Ayers G.P., Selleck P.W., Gillett R.W. and Keywood M.D., (1998) Determination of nicotine in water by gradient ion chromatography, Journal of Chromatography A, 824, 241-245.

Department of Natural Resources, Wisconsin, Laboratory Certification Program, Analytical Detection Limit Guidance & Laboratory Guide for Determining Method Detection Limits, 1996.

B.6 Carbonyls

Samples for the analysis of carbonyl compounds (including formaldehyde) are collected by drawing air through Supelco LpDNPH H10 air monitoring cartridges at a flow rate of 300 ml min-1 for approximately 7 days. Carbonyls are trapped on high purity silica adsorbent coated with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine(2,4-DNPH), where they are converted to the hydrazone derivatives. An ozone scrubber was placed in front of the LpDNPH cartridge. The derivatives are eluted from the cartridge in 4.5 ml of acetonitrile. The analysis of carbonyls is based on EPA Method TO11A.

The acetonitrile extractions are analysed by HPLC consisting of a Dionex GP40 gradient pump, a Waters 717 autosampler, a Shimadzu System controller SCL-10A VP, a Shimadzu diode array detector SPD-M10A VP, a Shimadzu Column Oven CTO-10AS VP and Shimadzu CLASS-VP chromatography software. The compound separation is performed with a Supelco Supelcsil LC-18 column, 5 µm, 4.6 mm ID x 250 mm in length, Part No 58298. The chromatographic conditions include a flow rate of 2.0 ml min-1 and an injection volume of 20 µl, and detector wavelength of 360 nm. The peaks were separated by gradient elution with a mobile phase of 60% acetonitrile and 40% Milli-Q water initial conditions to 100% acetonitrile at 17min, and column temperature of 30ºC. Standard solutions were prepared from Supelco Carb Method 1004 DNPH Mix 2, and the HPLC grade acetonitrile was purchased from Merck. The water used for analysis was 18.2 mΩ.cm grade produced from a Millipore Milli-Q Advantage 10 system.

The concentrations have been blank corrected. Where the mass of carbonyl on the DNPH tube is less than the blank, half the Limit of Detection has been substituted. The precision was estimated as the relative standard deviation over a 7-day period when eight kits were co-located at CMAR, Aspendale during summer 2009. The detection limit was calculated from the standard deviation of blanks collected during the study period (ISO, 1994).

Detection limit: 0.03 ppb Precision: 7.7 % Resolution: N/A

110

Accuracy: N/A

Reference Methods

EPA Method TO11A (US EPA Compendium Method TO-11A), Determination of Formaldehyde in Ambient Air Using Adsorbent Cartridge Followed by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) [Active Sampling Methodology]. (http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/files/ambient/airtox/to-11ar.pdf)

ISO Standard 9168:1994(E), Air Quality – Determination of performance characteristics of measurement methods, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 18 pp, 1994.

B.7 VOCs

VOC Samples were collected by drawing air through two Markes Carbograph 1TD / Carbopack X adsorbent tubes at a flow rate of 20 ml min-1 for 60 minutes, twice per day at varying times for 7 days, giving a typical volume of 16.8 L. The absorbent tubes were placed in sequence, with a back up tube being used to assess sample break-through. Sampling was conducted according to USEPA Compendium method TO-17 (USEPA TO-17). The sorbent tube desorption method is also in accordance with USEPA TO-17.

The method of ATD-VOC analysis in this study was compatible with ISO16017-1:2000 (ISO 2000). The tubes were analysed by a PerkinElmer TurboMatrix™ 650 ATD (Automated Thermal Desorber) and a Hewlett Packard 6890A gas chromatography (GC) equipped with a Flame Ionization Detector (FID) and a Mass Selective Detector (MSD). The ATD/GC/MS procedure was as follows: The tube was thermally desorbed at 250°C for 5 minutes while back-flushed into the GC/FID/MSD. Analysis was carried out on a DB5-MS capillary column (60 m × 0.32 mm internal diameter x 1.0 µm film thickness) using a GC program from 35–240°C. Compounds were identified by MS and quantified by FID. There were 6 working standard gases used for the calibration before each batch of samples. They are a TO-15/17, a BTEX, a VOC 42, a Carbonyl and an Alcohol mixture purchased from Scott Specialty Gases (San Bernadino, CA, USA) and a US EPA PAM gas standard from Spectra Gases (Branchburg, NJ, USA). All calibration and sample tubes were loaded with TO14a Internal Standard (Spectra Gases, Branchburg, NJ, USA) prior to thermal desorption.

Tubes were cleaned prior to transporting to the field site by heating the tubes with helium (ultra high purity grade) for 30 mins at 280°C and 45 mins at 250°C consecutively. Cleaned tubes were also analysed before shipping to the field to determine the blank levels of VOCs. The cleaned tubes were then capped with Swagelok fittings with PTFE ferrules and then stored in sealed containers in a refrigerator. One cleaned tube was transported with sampling tubes to each field site and returned unused. It was used as a field blank.

The detection limit was calculated from the standard deviation of blanks collected during the study period (ISO, 1994). The precision was calculated as the relative standard deviation of TVOC concentrations measured on 8 adsorbent tubes which were co-located at CMAR, over a 7-day sampling period. TVOC was measured as the sum of all FID peaks from early eluters

111

(such as C6 alkanes) to late eluters (such as pentadecane), expressed as a toluene-equivalent concentration.

Detection limit: 2.0 µg m-3 (TVOCs) Precision: 7.9 % (TVOCs) Resolution: N/A Reference Methods

USEPA Compendium method TO-17 (USEPA TO-17), Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds in Ambient Air Using Active Sampling Onto Sorbent Tubes. (http://www.epa.gov/ttnamti1/files/ambient/airtox/to-17r.pdf)

ISO16017-1:2000 (ISO 2000), Indoor, ambient and workplace air -- Sampling and analysis of volatile organic compounds by sorbent tube/thermal desorption/capillary gas chromatography -- Part 1: Pumped sampling, Switzerland, International Organization for Standardization, 2000.

ISO Standard 9168:1994(E), Air Quality – Determination of performance characteristics of measurement methods, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 18 pp, 1994.

B.8 CO

CO concentrations were determined using a TSI Q-Trak Indoor Air Monitor. Passive sampling across an electrochemical sensor is used to detect CO with a resolution of 0.1 ppm with a response time of approximately 1 minute. Data were logged every 2 minutes. The CO electrochemical sensor was calibrated before and after each installation using a zero air calibration and a 100 ppm CO calibration gas.

Detection limit: N/A Precision: N/A Resolution: 0.1 ppm Accuracy: ±3% of reading or 3ppm, which ever is greater Drift ±0.1 ppm per 7 days

B.9 CO2

CO2 concentrations were determined using a TSI Q-Trak Indoor Air Monitor. Passive sampling across a non-dispersive infra-red detector was used to detect CO2 with a resolution of 1 ppm and a response time of approximately 20 seconds. Data were logged every 2 minutes. The CO2 detector was measured before and after each installation against a zero air calibration gas, a 360 ppm ambient standard and 1000 ppm CO2 calibration gas standard.

Detection limit: N/A Precision: N/A Resolution: 1 ppm

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Accuracy: ±3% of reading or ±50ppm, which ever is greater Drift ±50 ppm per 7 days

B.10 Temperature, Relative Humidity and Pressure

Temperature, relative humidity and pressure were determined on the indoor and outdoor sampling racks using a TSI Q-Trak Indoor Air Monitor. Passive sampling across a thermistor was used to measure temperature with a resolution of 0.1 °C and a response time of 30 seconds. Passive sampling across a Thin-film capacitive detector was used to measure relative humidity with a resolution of 0.1%. Data were logged every 2 minutes. The accuracy of the thermistor is ± 0.6 °C and the relative humidity probe is ±3% relative humidity.

Temperature, relative humidity and pressure were also measured in the main bedroom of each home using a Hobo Pro V2 logger that includes a temperature sensor (resolution of 0.02 °C and response time of 40 minutes ) and an relative humidity sensors (resolution of 0.03% and response time of 10 minutes.). The accuracy of the thermistor is ± 0.2 °C and the relative humidity probe is ±2.5 % relative humidity.

Temperature Detection limit: N/A Precision: N/A Resolution: 0.1 % Accuracy: ± 3 % Relative Humidity Detection limit: N/A Precision: N/A Resolution: 0.1 °C Accuracy: ± 0.6 °C

B.11 Fungi and Bacteria

Viable fungi and bacteria samples in air were collected on malt extract agar (MEA) and tryptic soy agar (TSA) plates, respectively using a SKC BioStage Single-stage Viable Cascade Impactor with a SKC QuickTake 30 Sample Pump. Samples were collected for 2 and 5 minutes at a flow rate of 28.3 l min-1, using a SKC supplied rotameter. The agar plates were supplied by Integrated EnviroSciences Pty Ltd (IES, Baulkham Hills, NSW) and stored in a refrigerator before use. Before sampling, the SKC BioStage Single-stage Viable Cascade Impactor was cleaned according to SKC’s operation instructions. After sampling, the agar plates were sealed and stored in a refrigerator before being returned to IES in an esky for analysis within 1 to 2 days. Sampled agar plates were then incubated at the IES lab. Fungi and Bacteria were analysed on the exposed agar plates by IES SOP MM-1-8 Bioaerosol Sampling Methods for quantification and identification on both a genus and species level. Concentrations are reported in colony forming units, CFU m-3.

Reference Method

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IES (Integrated EnviroSciences) SOP (Standard Operating Procedure) MM-1-8 Bioaerosol Sampling Method for Bacteria & Fungi, Integrated EnviroSciences Pty Ltd, Baulkham Hills, NSW 2153

114

APPENDIX C – VENTILATION MEASUREMENTS

C.1 The Tracer Method of Measuring Ventilation

The method of assessing typical ventilation in dwellings was to make measurements of typical closed and open ventilation states on 15 dwellings that proportionally represent the Australian statistics of dwelling structure, age and material. Dwellings were tested in the ventilation states that were reported by the participants to be typical during occupation, rather than testing the minimum and maximum possible ventilation rates for the dwelling. Ventilation was measured using the carbon dioxide (CO2) tracer release method similar to that described by Dunne et al. (2006). In the first instance the external openings were configured in a typical ‘closed’ state. The air inside the dwelling under test was enriched with CO2 and QTrak CO2 monitors (TSI Inc.) were placed in areas inside and outside the dwelling to measure the change in CO2 concentration indoors and outdoors over time. Fans were used to mix the CO2 within the dwelling. Once all rooms were filled with approximately 5000 ppm of CO2, the fans were switched off and measurements were commenced. The dwelling was left unoccupied for 3 hours, with indoor and outdoor concentrations of CO2 being logged at 1-minute intervals. The experiment was repeated with the dwelling left in a typical ‘open’ state. The following information was recorded for each experiment:

• indoor and outdoor carbon dioxide, at 1-minute intervals; • indoor and outdoor temperature, pressure and relative humidity, at 1-minute intervals; • interior volume of the house (ignoring furniture); • area of external openings in doors and windows; • number of external doors and windows kept open; • age of dwelling; and • outdoor wind speeds measured at the closest Bureau of Meteorology observation

station. Whilst ventilation measurements were only performed at 15 of the 42 dwellings, the rest of the above information is recorded at all dwellings. Thus if significant relationships can be established with the above variables, then survey and diary information from dwellings can be used to estimate air exchange rates in dwellings where it was not directly measured.

C.2 Selected Dwellings

Dwellings listed in Table C.2 were selected for the ventilation measurements so that they proportionally represented secondary selection criteria of Australian statistics for dwelling structure, age and material. Near and Far-Road dwellings were included in all categories except for the brick veneer category, where only Far-Road dwellings were measured.

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Table C.2 The statistics of dwellings selected for ventilation measurements compared with the ABS statistics for dwelling structure, age and material.

Population % of dwellings from ABS statistics

Approx. no. required per 15 dwellings

Number sampled (Far-Road, Near-

Road)

Dwelling structure

Separate House 77.5 12 14 (12, 2)

Semi-detached or flat 22.5 3 1 (0, 1)

Other

Dwelling age

Less than 5 years 7.8 1 3 (2, 1)

5 - 19 years 31.9 5 2 (2, 0)

20-49 years 41.5 6 6 (5, 1)

50 or more years 18.9 3 4 (3, 1)

Dwelling material

Double brick 35.4 5 5 (3, 2)

Brick veneer 48.4 7 7 (7, 0)

Weatherboard 16.2 3 3 (2, 1)

Other

C.3 Diaries and Surveys

The following information collected in the diaries and surveys can be used to estimate typical ventilation rates in dwellings:

• time and number of external windows & doors opened during sampling period; • use of extraction fans (bathroom/toilet, kitchen); • typical number of windows and doors open in summer and winter during the day,

evening and overnight; • location of extraction fans and whether they are vented externally or internally; • materials and structure of the building, including whether there are fixed vents in each

room; • dimensions of the rooms; and • furnishings contained within the house.

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C.4 Measurements

Participants were asked to set up the ventilation in the dwelling to that typical for closed and open ventilation states. Air exchange rates for closed and open ventilation states were measured for 13 of the 15 dwellings. In 2 of the 15 dwellings, participants reported they typically maintained only a closed ventilation state, hence only closed-state air exchange measurements were performed in these dwellings. Tables C.4.1 and C.4.2 show air exchange rates measured in the dwellings in (1) closed; and (2) open ventilation states.

Table C.4.1 Measured air exchange rates and variables for dwellings in typical closed-ventilation states.

Dwelling ID

Dwelling age

(years)

Dwelling volume

(m3)

Area of openings

(m2)

Indoor-outdoor

temp. (oC)

Wind speed (ms-1)

Air exchange mean (range) (h-1)

1 13 408 0.00 4.4 4.2 0.44 (0.42, 0.46)

2 75 312 0.00 2.2 5.2 0.78 (0.77, 0.80)

3 3 567 0.01 3.9 4.7 0.20 (0.20, 0.21)

4 45 239 0.00 -5.5 11.1 0.55 (0.51, 0.58)

7 75 333 0.08 3.0 9.1 1.10 (1.06, 1.15)

9 75 316 0.00 -0.6 5.7 0.41 (N/A, N/A)

13 53 227 0.54 -2.2 5.5 0.88 (0.74, 1.21)

15 42 200 0.00 2.2 7.6 0.51 (0.49, 0.52)

28 45 291 0.00 -2.9 8.4 0.47 (0.46, 0.48)

29 45 207 0.00 1.7 7.2 0.64 (0.62, 0.66)

35 4 268 0.00 -0.7 9.1 0.36 (0.35, 0.37)

36 38 258 0.91 0.4 8.2 0.81 (0.75, 0.95)

37 14 392 0.00 -6.1 4.5 0.33 (0.32, 0.34)

41 32 484 0.02 0.5 4.2 0.44 (0.26, 0.80)

42 1 432 0.00 0.1 4.9 0.09 (0.09, 0.09)

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Table C.4.2 Measured air exchange rates and variables for dwellings in typical open-ventilation states.

Dwelling ID

Dwelling age

(years)

Dwelling volume

(m3)

Area of openings

(m2)

Indoor-outdoor

temp. (oC)

Wind speed (ms-1)

Air exchange mean (range) (h-1)

1 13 408 N/A N/A N/A N/A

2 75 312 2.48 -1.4 6.7 4.19 (3.87, 4.87)

3 3 567 3.45 2.6 3.9 3.64 (2.91, 6.03)

4 45 239 1.60 -6.9 11.3 2.58 (N/A, N/A)

7 75 333 2.12 0.3 10.8 11.5 (9.21, 13.5)

9 75 316 N/A N/A N/A N/A

13 53 227 4.66 -2.4 4.6 8.95 (8.52, 9.98)

15 42 200 3.01 1.5 7.5 7.32 (6.03, 7.95)

28 45 291 1.80 -2.1 10.0 2.69 (2.61, 2.74)

29 45 207 1.92 1.5 7.0 3.88 (3.61, 4.84)

35 4 268 4.91 -0.5 10.3 11.5 (11.3, 12.0)

36 38 258 6.02 1.0 8.0 9.82 (8.44, 10.7)

37 14 392 3.16 -4.7 4.1 3.43 (3.39, 3.52)

41 32 484 1.70 0.4 4.3 3.26 (3.22, 3.31)

42 1 432 3.97 0.5 4.9 1.91 (1.86, 1.96)

Table C.4.3 shows air exchange rates are typically about 0.53 air exchanges per hour when dwellings are “closed up” and have minimal windows (1) and doors (0) open to outside air. The air exchange rate increases by a factor of 10 to 5.8 air exchanges per hour when dwellings are opened up, typically having 5 windows and a door open to outside air.

Table C.4.3 Summary of air exchange rates for dwellings in closed and open ventilation states.

Ventilation State Average Dwelling

age (years)

Average number

windows open

Average number

doors open

Average opening

area (m2)

Average Air

exchange (h-1)

Closed average (standard deviation)

37 (26)

1 (1)

0 (0)

0.10 (0.26)

0.53 (0.27)

Open average (standard deviation)

36 (25)

5 (4)

1 (1)

3.1 (1.4)

5.8 (3.6)

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C.5 Analysis

The relationship between air exchange rate and each of the following variables was examined using correlation coefficients: 1. Dwelling age (years) as an indicator of leakiness 2. Ratio of external dwelling openings to interior unfurnished volume (m-1) 3. Indoor minus outdoor temperature (°C) as an indicator of thermal gradient 4. Outdoor wind speed (m/s) as an indicator of pressure gradients

Table C.5 Correlations between air exchange rate and dwelling age, degree of opening, temperature gradient and wind speed (pressure gradient). Correlations highlighted in bold are significant at 95% confidence.

Dwelling age (years)

Ratio dwelling opening/volume

(m-1)

Indoor-outdoor temperature

difference (oC)

Wind speed (ms-1)

Closed-state air exchange (h-1)

0.55 (p<0.05, n=15)

0.24 (p>0.05, n=15)

0.02 (p>0.05, n=15)

0.14 (p>0.05, n=15)

Open-state air exchange (h-1)

0.05 (p>0.05, n=13)

0.45 (p<0.05, n=13)

0.06 (p>0.05, n=13)

0.14 (p>0.05, n=13)

Open- and closed- state rates (h-1)

0.01 (p>0.05, n=28)

0.74 (p<0.05, n=28)

0.00 (p>0.05, n=28)

0.08 (p>0.05, n=28)

When dwellings are in a typical closed-up state, half the variance in air exchange rate is due to the age of the dwelling. Newer dwellings have lower air exchange rates than older dwellings. This is probably due to factors such as:

• newer building codes do not require fixed open ventilation; • as dwellings age, the envelope can become more leaky as foundations shift, and

materials deteriorate; and • modern building methods and materials can reduce the ‘leakiness’ of a house.

When dwellings are in a typical open state, one third of the variance in air exchange rate is due to the degree of openings in the building shell. The degree of openings is expressed as the area of openings in external windows and doors divided by the interior volume of the dwelling. When the air exchange rate is considered for dwellings in all ventilation states, degree of opening explains two thirds of the variance, shown in Figure C.5.

119

y = 449.17x + 0.60R2 = 0.74

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

0.00E+00 5.00E-03 1.00E-02 1.50E-02 2.00E-02 2.50E-02

Ratio external opening area to interior volume (m -1)

Clo

sed-

and

ope

n-st

ate

air

exch

ange

rat

es (

h-1

)

Figure C.5. Air exchange versus the degree of external openings in a dwelling. The degree of external openings is expressed as the area of external openings divided by the unfurnished interior volume.

C.6 Conclusions

Air exchange rates were measured for 15 dwellings that proportionally represent the Australian statistics of dwelling structure, age and material. Dwellings were tested in closed and open ventilation states that were reported by the participants to typically occur during occupation. When dwellings are in a closed ventilation state, with one window and no external doors open on average, the air exchange rate is 0.53 changes per hour. When dwellings are in a state of open ventilation the air exchange rate increases by a factor of 10 to 5.8 air exchanges per hour. Open ventilation state dwellings typically have 5 windows and one door open to outside air. When dwellings are in closed ventilation states, there is a significant relationship between house age and air exchange rate. In all ventilation states, there is a significant relationship between the number of external openings and air exchange rate.

C.7 References

Dunne E., Kirstine W.V., Galbally I.E., Powell J.C., Selleck P.W. & Lawson, S.J. 2006, A study of gaseous indoor air quality for a Melbourne home. Clean Air and Environmental Quality, 40:45-51.

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APPENDIX D – EMISSION FACTORS

D.1 Emission Factors for Materials

Many studies have found that most indoor air pollutants result from emissions from the building materials, contents and appliances, rather than from infiltration of outdoor air pollutants. Indoor air pollutant emissions from materials and appliances are usually measured in simulated building environments using a dynamic environmental chamber (e.g. Brown 1999a). Typical conditions in such chambers are temperatures of 23°C±0.5°C, relative humidity (RH) of 50% ± 5%, ventilation rates of 0.3 to 5 ± 0.05 air changes per hour (ACH) and air velocity of 0.2–0.3 ms-1. The chamber is usually constructed with non-emitting materials, such as glass and stainless steel, with little or no ‘sink’ effects for air pollutants. Purified air is generally supplied to the chamber to ensure that any pollutants measured in the chamber are produced only by the test material. As the air in the chamber is well mixed, the pollutant concentration in the chamber air (C µg m-3) is directly related to the pollutant emission rate of the material (R µg h-

1) by:

R = C.V.N (1)

where V is the chamber volume (m3); and N is the chamber ventilation rate (h–1). The emission factor (EF) of the material can then be estimated from R. In particular, the pollutant emission rate relative to the quantity of material is estimated, e.g. relative to area (µg m-2h-1) or item (µg h-1.workstation) or process operation such as gas combustion (ng J-1) or printing (µg copy-1). EF is defined as the mass of pollutant emitted per time from a unit area of the material and is derived from the equilibrium concentration of pollutant C in a space of known ventilation rate N (ACH) and material loading L.

EF = C.N/L (2)

where L is the ratio of the quantity of testing material used in the chamber to the chamber volume. It is similar to that which is typically used in buildings (e.g. flooring and floor coverings 0.4 m2m-3, paint 0.5 m2m-3). A wide range of materials, products and appliances in Australia have been studied on pollutant source emission using the CSIRO dynamic environmental chambers. They include interior paints (Brown 1998), wood-based panels (Brown 1999a), carpets (Brown 2001), office furniture and equipment such as photocopier and laser printers (Cheng et al., 2005 and Brown 1999b) and electric ovens (Brown et al., 2005) and gas appliances (Brown et al. 2004). EF for many pollutants may be constant for some products (e.g. office equipment, gas appliances) or vary rapidly over time, particularly for ‘wet’ products such as paints, adhesives and sealants. The Green Building Council of Australia (GBCA) uses the Product Certification Project (PCP) under the Green Star environmental rating system for buildings (Green Star) (GBCA 2009). For Low VOC Emissions products including interior fitout items such as walls, ceilings, floor coverings and furniture, etc., TVOC emission limit should be less than 0.5 mg m-2 hr-1 at 1, 3, 7

121

or 28 days after manufacture depending on the product. The Low Formaldehyde Emissions products with composite/engineered wood content should be in the range of <0.1 to <3.5 mg m-2 hr-1or <1 to <1.5mg L-1 at various days after manufacture for different testing methods.

BTEX, TVOC and Formaldehyde Emissions from Paints

Brown (1998) studied BTEX and Formaldehyde emissions from four types of interior paints, including conventional acrylic paints, solvent-based coatings, “natural” paints and low-or zero-VOC paints. The “natural” paints were manufactured by using plant-based or natural oils without “man-made” chemicals or free of solvents. The product loading ratio was 0.50 m2 of coating m-3 of chamber volume (51 L) at 23 ± 0.5°C, 45 ± 5% RH, 1.00±0.03 ACH, surface air velocity 0.3m s-1. Table D 1 lists the TVOC and formaldehyde emissions from these tests.

Table D 1. BTEX, TVOC and Formaldehyde emissions from four types of paints.

Paint VOC Concentration ((µg/m3) at

8h 1d 3d 14d

conventional acrylic Ethylbenzene <6 <4 <2 <0.5

m,p-Xylene 21 <6 <1 <0.5

TVOC 11000-

43000

1100-

16000

95-600 7-230

solvent-based Ethylbenzene 29-70 <9-26 <4-20 <1-13

o,m,p-Xylene 57-1300 <16-55 2-42 <1-28

Toluene <50 8 2 <1

TVOC 210-

420000

180-

39000

130-6600 90-1000

“natural” Formaldehyde 49 69 30 10(6days)

TVOC 28-2200 110-210 22-420 <10

low-or zero-VOC Ethylbenzene 2 <1 <1 <0.5

o,m,p-Xylene 31 10 <2 <1

TVOC 36-570 10-150 <10-81 <10

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Formaldehyde, TVOC and BTEX Emissions from Wood-Bas ed Panels and Furniture

Brown (1999a) tested emissions of formaldehyde, BTEX and TVOC from particleboard, medium density fibreboard (MDF), new office furniture with low emission (LEF) and conventional manufactured furniture (CMF) using both a small chamber (SC) with chamber volume of 51 L and room chamber (RC) with chamber volume of 33.6 m3 at the controlled environmental conditions of: 23±0.5°C, 45±5% relative humidity (RH), 1.00±0.03 ACH, surface air velocity 0.3m/s (SC) and 0.2m/s (RC). The chamber loading ratio is 0.41 and 0.5 m2/m3 for SC and RC, respectively. The results of these tests are reproduced in Table D 2, Table D 3 and Table D 4.

Table D 2. Formaldehyde Emissions from Wood-Based Panels.

Wood-Based Panel Formaldehyde Emission factor (µg m-2h-1) on

1day 7day 14day day

MDF (SC) 365 330 299 184 (312day)

MDF(RC) 320 320 320 237(260day)

Particleboard (SC) 442 362 287 84(214day)

Particleboard(RC) 415 354 293 148(160day)

Table D 3. TVOC Emissions from Wood-Based Panels.

Wood-Based Panel TVOC Concentration (µg m-3) on

1day 7day 14day day

Particleboard (SC) 129 52 27 <10(214day)

Particleboard(RC) 400 170 57 <10(160day)

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Table D 4. Formaldehyde, BTEX and TVOC emissions from low emission (LEF) and conventional manufactured furniture (CMF).

Furniture VOC Concentration (µg m-3) at 4h 24h

LEF Formaldehyde 10 14 m,p-Xylene - - TVOC 257 126

CMF Formaldehyde 190 230 m,p-Xylene 59 48 TVOC 970 820

Formaldehyde and TVOC Emissions from Carpet

Brown (2001) measured TVOC emissions from two new 100% wool carpets within a week of manufacture. The chamber loading ratio was 0.36-0.5 m2/m3 and conditions were 23oC, 45-47 %RH and 1.00 ACH. The results of these tests are listed in Table D 5.

Table D 5. TVOC Emissions from new carpets.

Carpet TVOC Concentration (µg m-3) on

3-4hr 18-26hr 73-90hr 169-199hr 237-240hr 314-334hr

A(SC) 750 220 500 380 360 390

B(SC) 980 400 200 190 140 -

B(RC) 570 310 89 26 37 79

Formaldehyde, BTEX, TVOC, Carbon Monoxide and Respi rable Particle Emissions from Oven Insulation

Brown et al. (2005) studied BTEX, TVOC, CO and respirable particle emissions from three types of oven insulations. These include:

• Insulation A – rockwool insulation with a phenol formaldehyde binder resin which was originally formulated with ~10% free formaldehyde, subsequently reacted with ammonia to bind the formaldehyde;

• Insulation B – identical (same batch of product) to insulation A, to assess whether oven components other than insulation (e.g. residual oil on the metal surfaces, wiring/switches) may have contributed to emissions when testing insulation A; and

• Insulation C – rockwool insulation with an acrylic binder.

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The chamber was controlled to 25 ± 1oC and 50 ± 2% RH, and 1.0 ACH of a nominal ventilation rate. Table D 6 and Table D 7 reproduce the results of these tests.

Table D 6. Formaldehyde, BTEX and TVOC Emissions from oven insulations.

Oven

insulation

VOC Concentration (µg m-3)

0.5h 1hr 2hr 4hr 1day 2day

A Formaldehyde 1600 2400 1800 850 110 37

Benzene 20 30 24 13 1 1

Toluene 16 12 17 6 <1 <1

TVOC 1900 5300 4200 1800 160 97

B Formaldehyde 1200 1900 1300 700 - -

Benzene 25 49 10 12 - -

Toluene 9 14 6 2 - -

TVOC 3000 5700 3800 1600 - -

C Formaldehyde <10 <120 <10 380 - -

Benzene 110 - 110 59 - -

Toluene 37 45 10 <10 - -

TVOC 2400 3800 2300 1100 - -

125

Table D 7. Emissions of Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Respirable Particles (RP) from oven insulations.

Oven

insulation

Pollutant Concentration (µg m-3)

0.5h 1hr 2hr 4hr 1day 2day

A CO 9160 9160 4580 0 1145 0

RP 7900 17000 13000 5900 700 300

B CO 5725 6870 4580 0 - -

RP 900 300 4200 2700 - -

C CO 13740 17175 12595 3435 - -

RP 2000 4700 5100 2600 - -

Formaldehyde, TVOC, BTEX, Carbon Monoxide and Nitro gen Dioxide Emissions from Unflued Gas Heaters

Brown et al. (2005) tested emissions of formaldehyde, TVOC, BTEX, CO, and NO2 from five heaters. These included:

• Heaters A1, A2 and A3 were brand new natural gas unflued heaters of 17 MJ h-1 capacity and nominally identical. They were tested at the heating rate of 6.2, 5.3 and 4.0 MJ h-1 and after 1200, 1400 and 1400 hours of use, respectively.

• Heater B1 was a brand new natural gas heater of 18 MJ h-1 capacity. It was tested at the heating rate of 6.9 MJ h-1and after 1400 hours of use.

• Heater B2 was a 9-year-old liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) heater of 17 MJ h-1 capacity and tested at 8.7 MJ h-1 heating rate.

The chamber was controlled to 23oC and 50% RH, and 2.0 ACH of a nominal ventilation rate. The chamber blank pollutant concentrations are: NO2 < 5 µg m-3; formaldehyde < 10 µg m-3; respirable particles < 3 µg m-3; CO < 1 ppm and TVOC 40–80 µg m-3. Table D8 reproduces the results of these tests.

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Table D 8. Pollutant emissions from unflued gas heaters. Pollutant Heater Concentration

(µg m-3) Emission rate

(ng J-1)

NO2 A1 A2 A3 B1 B2

270 190 230 530 810

3.1 2.5 4.1 5.3 6.6

CO A1 A2 A3 B2

4 ppm 2 ppm 1 ppm 4ppm

40 30 20 42

Formaldehyde A1 A2 A3 B1 B2

180 97 130 <10 57

1.9 1.3 2.5

<0.1 0.5

Benzene A1 A2 A3 B1 B2

- -

<1 <1 <2

TVOC A1 A2 A3 B1 B2

- -

11 33 25

Formaldehyde, TVOC, BTEX, Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide a nd Respirable Particles Emissions from Photocopiers and Laser Pri nters

Cheng et al. (2005) and Brown (1999b) measured the emissions of formaldehyde, TVOC, BTEX, Ozone, NO2 and respirable particles from one new photocopier and four laser desk-top printers (two new, two old used for 5-10 years) . Pollutant concentrations were measured in different modes of copier operation: copier-off (no power), copier-idle (copier powered but not operating) and copier operating (producing copies at 10 sheets per minute, double-sided). The chamber was controlled to 25 ± 0.5oC and 50 ± 5% RH, and 2.0 ± 0.05 ACH of a nominal ventilation rate. Table D9 and Table D 10 reproduce the results of these tests.

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Table D 9. BTEX, TVOC and Respirable particle average concentrations (µg m-3) from new photocopiers.

VOC Concentration (µg m-3) Chamber blank

Copier-off Copier-idle Copier-operate

Benzene <2 <2 <2 <2 Ethylbenzene <0.2 2.0±0.4 4.1±0.9 608 m,p-Xylene 0.4 2.3±0.6 4.5±0.9 515 Styrene/o-Xylene <0.2 1.4±0.4 3.1±0.7 390 TVOC 24 28±2 49±10 1900 Respirable particle 21-28 27-39 46-50

Table D 10. Pollutant emission rates for laser printers.

Printer Ventilation rate ACH

Copy Rate /min

Emission rates (µg copy-1) of pollutants

O3 NO2 Formaldehyde Respirable particle

TVOC

OP1a OP2 OP2 OP2 OP2 NP1a NP1 NP2 NP2

0 0

1.0 2.0 2.0 0

2.0 0

2.0

3 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1

2.7 53-60 63-69 57-75

50 2.0 <6 <1 <3

3.4 5.0

3.8-4.2 5.4-5.5

4.4 0.8

<2-1.5 <1 <1

<1 -

<3 <3 -

<1 <3 - -

1.1 10

5.0-8.1 8.1-9.9

- -

2.7-6.8 1.2 8.7

- 38

35-66 12-32

26 31

27-70 68 90

aOP1 = Old Printer 1, OP2 = Old Printer 2, NP1 = New Printer 1, NP2 = New Printer 2

TVOC and Formaldehyde Emission in Australia Buildin g Products/ Materials from Commercial Testing

The emissions of TVOC and formaldehyde from Australian building products and materials have been tested by Yerramilli (2009). In these tests chamber test conditions were temperature 23 ± 0.5oC, RH 50 ± 5% and product loading ratio 0.5-1.0 m-2 m-3. The tests were carried out for a specified period e.g. for 1 day, 7, 14 and 28 days. The results are shown in Table D 11.

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Table D 11. Typical TVOC emission from Australia building products/ materials. Application Material TVOC Emission

factor (mg m-2h-1) Formaldehyde Emission

factor (mg m-2h-1)

Flooring Carpet Vinyl

Rubber Cork

0.1-0.3 0.05-0.2

0.5-2 0.1-0.4

- 2.5 4.1 5.3

Fit-Out Plasterboard MDF

Plywood Particleboard

High Pressure Laminate Cement Sheet Ceiling Tile

Bamboo

0.05-0.2 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.3 <0.05

0.02-0.1 0.1-0.4 <0.05

<0.02 - - - -

0.01-0.04 <0.01-0.05

0.1

Insulation Fibreglass Polyester Rubber

0.05-0.2 <0.05 0.1-0.5

<0.03 <0.01

- Furniture Solvent-based Glue

Water-based Glue Natural Wood Coated Wood

Foam Upholstery Fabric

Plastic (PP,PE,ABS & PVC) Steel/Aluminium

Stone/Marble

5 <0.05 0.2-0.5 <0.1

0.1-0.6 0.05-0.02 <0.05-0.2

<0.01 <0.01

- - - - - - - - -

References

1. Brown, S.K. (1998), VOC emissions from interior coatings – measurements and mechanisms, Proceedings of. RACI Symposium. on Advances in Polymers V ‘Coatings’, 2 October 1998, CSIRO Molecular Science, Clayton, Victoria, Australia. 2. Brown, S.K. (1999a), Chamber assessment of formaldehyde and VOC emissions from wood-based panels, Indoor Air, 9, 209–215. 3. Brown, S.K. (1999b), Assessment of pollutant emissions from dry-process photocopiers, Indoor Air, 9, 259–267. 4. Brown, S.K. (2001), Emissions of volatile organic pollutants from building materials: impact on indoor air quality, PhD thesis, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. 5. Brown, S.K., Mahoney K. J. and Cheng, M. (2004), Room chamber assessment of the pollutant emission properties of (nominally) low-emission unflued gas heaters, Indoor Air, 14, (Suppl 8): 84–91. 6. Brown, S. K. and Cheng, M (2005) Pollutant emissions from new electric ovens, 10th Int. Conf. on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Int. Soc. of Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Beijing, China.

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7. Cheng, M. and Brown, S. K. (2005) IAQ Control and solutions CSIRO chamber technology, 10th Int. Conf. on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Int. Soc. of Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Beijing, China. 8. Green Building Council of Australia (2009), the Product Certification Project (PCP) - Part I - Criteria for Evaluating Product Certification Schemes 9. Yerramilli S., Schiller R., Downie R. and Garnys Y. (2009), Measurement of Chemical Emissions from Building Products, EcoForum 2009, 28 - 30 April, Australian Technology Park, Sydney NSW, Australia.

D.2 A Review of Emission Factors for Various Acti vities

Table D 12 summarises Emission Factors of PM2.5, PM10, CO, CO2, TVOCs and NO2 from common household activities.

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Table D 12. Emission factors for activities

Activity PM2.5 PM10 CO CO2 VOC NO2 Cooking 0.11± 0.99 mg min-1

(He et al., 2004) 1.7 ± 0.6 mg min-1

(Wallace, 1996) 0.05± 0.002 mg min-1

(Powell, 2001) 1.14 ±0.75 mg min-1

(Powell, 2001) 1.22 ± 1.09 mg min-1

(Powell, 2001) 1.59 mg min-1 (He et al., 2004)

4.1 ± 1.6 mg min-1 (Özkaynak et al., 1996) 0.30± 0.03 mg min-1 (Abt et al., 2000b)

Cooking (burned food)

470 mg min-1(Olson and Burke, 2006)

Frying (gas) 2.68± 2.18 mg min-1

(He et al., 2004) 1.2 – 2.8 mg min-1 (chips in oil) (Buonanno et al., 2009) 60 mg min-1(Olson and Burke, 2006)

0.36 ± 0.34 mg min-1 (Abt et al., 2000a)

192 ± 35 mg min-1 (Dennekamp et al., 2001)

Frying (electric) 0.031 – 0.2 mg min-1 (chips in oil) (Buonanno et al., 2009)

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Activity PM2.5 PM10 CO CO2 VOC NO2 Grilling 2.78 ±17.8 mg min-1

(He et al., 2004) 0.52 ±0.002 – 13 ± 0.5 mg min-1

(Buonanno et al., 2009) (bacon, low and high gas power) 173 mg min-1(Olson and Burke, 2006)

BBQ 0.24 ± 0.27 mg min-1 (Abt et al., 2000a)

Kettle 0.03 ± 0.31 mg min-1 (He et al., 2004)

Microwave 0.03 ±0.11 mg min-1

(He et al., 2004) 11 mg min-1(Olson and Burke, 2006)

Oven 0.03 ±0.03 mg min-1

(He et al., 2004)

10 mg min-1(Olson and Burke, 2006)

0.15 ± 0.09 mg min-1 (Abt et al., 2000a)

Bake cake 424 ±24 mg min-1 Roast meat 546 ±96 mg min-1 Bake potatoes 688± 129 mg min-1 1 gas ring 805 ±404 mg min-1 ±256 mg min-1 (Dennekamp et al., 2001)

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Activity PM2.5 PM10 CO CO2 VOC NO2 Stove 0.24± 1.29 mg min-1

(He et al., 2004) 17 mg min-1(Olson and Burke, 2006)

5.48± 4.68 mg min-1 (Abt et al., 2000a) (Sauteing)

170 ± 9 mg m-1 (Dennekamp et al., 2001) Stir fry

Toasting 0.11± 0.37 mg min-1

(He et al., 2004) 51 mg min-1(Olson and Burke, 2006)

0.16± 0.07 mg min-1 (Abt et al., 2000a)

Smoking 0.99± 0.81 mg min-1

(He et al., 2004) 1.67 mg m-1 (Brauer et al., 2000) 1.7 mg m-1 (Ferro et al., 2004)

23-140 mg min-1 (Klepeis et al., 1999) (cigar)

Sweeping floor 0.05± 0.01 mg min-1

(He et al., 2004)

Vacuuming 0.07± 0.04 mg min-1

(He et al., 2004) 0.48 mg m-1 (Ferro et al., 2004) 0.028 – 176 ug min-1

(Lioy et al., 1999) 0.04 ± 0.03 µg m-1 (Powell, 2001)

Washing 0.04± 0.04 mg min-1

(He et al., 2004)

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Activity PM2.5 PM10 CO CO2 VOC NO2 Dusting 0.09 mg min-1 (He et

al., 2004) 0.30 mg min-1 (Ferro et al., 2004)

Unflued Gas Heater 6722 – 13444 mg min-1 (Brown et al., 2004)

HCHO 40 –725 mg min-1 (Brown et al., 2004) TVOC 44 – 173 mg min-1 (Brown et al., 2004)

766 3266 mg min-1

(Brown et al., 2004)

Fan heater 0.05 mg min-1 (He et al., 2004)

Hair dryer 0.04 mg min-1 (He et al., 2004)

Shower 0.04 mg min-1 (He et al., 2004)

Washing Machine 0.12 mg min-1 (He et al., 2004)

Candle 0.91 mg min-1 (He et al., 2004) # 0.055 – 0.443 mg m-1 (Fine et al., 1999)

0.22± 0.12 mg min-1 (Fan and Junfeng, 2001) 0.006± 0.0004 min-1 steady burn 0.13 ±0.04 min-1 unsteady burn 0.004± 0.001 mg min-1 smouldering(Sun et al., 2006)

0.08 ± 0.05 mg min-1 (Fan and Junfeng, 2001)*

91.7 ±11.7 mg min-1 (Fan et al)*

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Activity PM2.5 PM10 CO CO2 VOC NO2 Mosquito coil 43.4 – 109.8 mg h-1

(Lee and Wang, 2006)

32.0 – 112.1 mg h-1 (Lee et al., 2001)

2.5 –3.7 mg min-1 (Lee and Wang, 2006)

0.1 – 13.3. mg h-1 (Lee and Wang, 2006) Burning (ug m-h-1) Methylene chloride: 28.8 – 64.5 Chloroform ND – 5.5 Benzene: 7.2 – 25.6 Toluene: 7.6 – 40.1 Ethylbenzene: ND – 8.2 M, p-xylene: ND – 4.5 Styrene: ND O-xylene: 0.9 – 1.7

0.003 – 0.02 mg min-1 (Lee 2006) NOx

Incense 6 – 202 mg h-1

(Jetter et al., 2002)

Walking (resuspending particles)

0.4 mg min-12 persons walking (Ferro et al., 2004) 0.1 mg min-1 I person walking (Ferro et al., 2004)

Human breathing 0.5 g min-1

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D.3 Ingredients of Common Household Chemicals

A large range of household products with various brands are sold in Australia each year. The products used in each dwelling during the sampling programs were recorded via the activity diary. Products were classified according to their use as shown on the horizontal axis of Figure D 1.

Figure D 1. Percentage of dwellings using different groups of products containing chemicals. (Stored internally is stored in the dwelling, stored externally is stored outside of the dwelling e.g. in a shed or garage).

Figure D 1 shows the percentage of houses that recorded the use of the different classes of products. Over 90% of houses used oral care, dishwashing and laundry care products. Of these Colgate toothpaste was the predominate oral care product used, Morning Fresh dishwashing liquid and Finish were the most used dishwashing liquid and dishwasher powder, respectively. Omo, NapiSan and Biozet were the major brands of laundry care products.

Deodorant, hair care and skin care products were used in over 80% of the dwellings with Rexona (liquid) being the dominant deodorant brand. No particular brand of hair care or skin care product dominated however.

Surface cleaners were used in over 60% of dwellings and Spray and Wipe was the dominant surface cleaner used. Fragrance was used in over 50% of the dwellings (with no particular brand dominating) and disinfectant was used in over 40% of dwellings (Pinoclean and Domestos were the dominant disinfectants used). Pesticides and air fresheners were used in

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Oral c

are

Dishwas

hing

Laun

dry c

are

Deodo

rant

Skin

care

Hair ca

re

Surfac

e clea

ner

Frag

ranc

e

Disinfe

ctant

Pestic

ide

Air fre

shen

er

Nail ca

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Other

(stor

ed in

terna

lly)

Other (

store

d exte

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y)

Texta

s Fu

el

Fabri

c/Cap

et c

leane

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Paint (s

tored

exte

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)Glue

Biocide

(stor

ed ex

terna

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Cleane

r (sto

red e

xtern

ally)

Solven

t (sto

red e

xtern

ally)

Wax

/Poli

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Vet/Pet

Adhes

ive

Paint (s

tored

inter

nally

)

Perc

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ge o

f dw

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gs u

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pro

duct

136

over 20% of dwellings, with Mortein fly spray being pesticide and no particular air freshener being dominant (Glen 20, Ambipure and Orange Power being equally used).

The ingredient lists for some of the most widely used products during the sampling periods are shown in Table D 1. These lists are taken from available material safety data sheets (MSDS) from the manufactures. The information available in MSDS’s varies, in some instances for example the proportions of chemicals considered to be non hazardous are not reported; in other instances a MSDS is not available (e.g. Rexona deodorant). The paucity and variable in the quality of information about the chemical constituents that make up many consumer products commonly used in the home highlight the need for further study in this area, ultimately leading to the development and production of a readily available data base with this information. Such a data base exists for US consumer products (http://hpd.nlm.nih.gov/index.htm).

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Table D 1 Chemical constituents for Colgate toothpaste, Napisan laundry powder, Morning Fresh dishwashing liquid.

Colgate toothpaste chemical constituents (proportion varied with different types of the toothpaste)

Chemical Name CAS No

Sorbitol 000050-70-4

Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) 000151-21-3

Sodium fluoride 007681-49-4

Calcium hydrogen 007789-77-7

Sodium hydroxide 001310-73-2

Mannitol 000069-65-8

Tetrasodium pyrophosphate (TSPP) 007722-88-5

Water 007732-18-5

PEG-12 006769-09-6

Glycerin 000056-81-5

Potassium citrate 000866-84-2

Sodium monofluorophosphate 007631-97-2

Hydrated silica (Silica gel) 112926-00-8

Ingredients determined not to be hazardous Not required

138

NapiSan (Vanish) OxiAction Intelligence

Chemical Name CAS No Proportion (%W/V )

Sodium carbonate 497-49-18 30-60

Sodium percarbonate 15630-89-4 30-60

Surfactants 68081-81-2/68137-39-5 <10

Sodium disilicate 1344-09-8 <10

Protease enzyme (Subtilisin) 9014-01-1 <0.1

Alpha-amylase 9000-90-2 <0.1

Mannanase 37288-54-3 <0.1

Lipase 9001-62-1 <0.1

Other ingredients classified as non hazardous according to NOHSC to 100

Morning Fresh dishwashing liquid

Chemical Name CAS No Proportion (%W/V )

Organic Surfactant Non Hazardous <5%

Palm Oil Extract Non Hazardous <20%

Preservative Non Hazardous Trace

Perfume Non Hazardous Trace

Colour Non Hazardous Trace

Water Non Hazardous Remainder

139

Finish 2in1 Powder

Chemical Name CAS No Proportion (%w/w )

Sodium Silicate (amorphous non-crystalline)

1344-09-5 1 - <5

Tetrasodium pyrophosphate 7722-88-5 0.1 - <1

Sodium tripolyphosphate 7758-29-4 10 - <30

Disodium carbonate 497-19-8 30 - 60

Sodium carbonate peroxyhydrate

15630-89-4 1 - <5

Protease 9014-01-1 0.1 - <1

Alpha-amylase 9000-90-2 <0.1

Benzotriazole 95-14-7 0.1 - <1

The other ingredients to 100%w/w are classified as not hazardous according to NOHSC (Australia)

Mortein NaturGard Fly Control Spray

Chemical Name CAS No Proportion (%w/w )

Hydrocarbon propellant1 106-97-8/74-98-6 30 - 60

Hydrocarbon solvent 64771-72-8 <10

Butylated hydroxytoluene 128-37-0 <1

Piperonyl butoxide 51-03-6 1.61 (16.1g/kg)

Pyrethrins 8003-34-7 0.35 (3.5g/kg)

non hazardous according to NOHSC

to 100

1 Our supplier of butane has provided documentation stating that the butane component contains less than 0.1%w/w 1,3-butadiene.

140

Ajax Spray N Wipe chemical constituents (proportion varied with different flavors)

Chemical Name CAS No

Propylene glycol 5131-66-8

n-butyl ether ethanol 64-17-5

Sodium hydroxide 1310-73-2

Triethanolamine 102-71-6

Ethanol 64-17-5

2-Bromo-2-nitropropane-1,3-diol 52-51-7

5-Chloro-2-methyl-2H-isothiazol-3-one 26172-55-4

2-Methyl-2H-isothiazol-3-one 2682-20-4

Paraffinic wax 8002-74-2

Sodium carbonate 497-19-8

Ingredients determined not to be hazardous

Pine O Cleen 4 in 1 Multi Purpose Cleaner

Chemical Name CAS No Proportion (%w/w )

Sodium secondary C13-17 alkyl sulphonate

75534-59-7 <10

Citric acid 77-92-9 <10

C9-11 fatty alcohol ethoxylated

68439-46-3 <10

non hazardous according to NOHSC

to 100

141

Orange Power Multi Purpose Cleaner*

Chemical Name Proportion (%w/w )

Water >85%

Anionic Surfactant (Plant derived) <5%

Orange Oil (from Peel) <5%

D-Limonene (from Peel) <5%

Water Softener <5%

Alcohol (Sugar derived) <5%

* CAS No not specified by the manufacture

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APPENDIX E – ACTIVITY DIARY CATEGORIES

E.1 Definitions

Correlations were calculated for the following variables derived from the activity diaries, with the correlations calculated from weekly means for each house.

1). No. Occupants

The number of occupants is the equivalent number of adult humans calculated from the number of people and pets indoors. The number of people living in the residence was recorded in the house surveys, with people divided into five age categories (0-4 years, 5-14 years, 15-25 years, 26-59 years, and 60+ years). For the purpose of calculating the number of occupants, people from the age of 15 upwards were considered to be adults and their weight estimated as 75kg. Children aged 5-14 years were given an estimated weight of 35kg, and children 0-4 years were given an estimated weight of 12kg. Dogs and cats were included in the calculation of number of occupants, with the estimated weight of a dog given as 17kg and a cat as 5kg.

Taking these weights, the average weight of a human in the house was calculated as the sum of all estimated weights divided by the number of people living in the house. The average proportion of an adult human was calculated by dividing this number by the estimated weight of an adult human i.e. 75kg. Pets were included in a similar way by calculating the average weight of the pets in the house, then converting this to a proportion of the weight of an adult human. The number of occupants in each half hourly interval was calculated by taking the number of people and pets indoors, weighted by the appropriate average proportion of an adult human.

This method assumes that any visiting people or animals to the house have the same average proportion as those who live in the residence.

2). Level of ventilation

This is calculated from the total number of windows and doors open to the outside in each half hourly block.

3). Occupant density

This value is calculated from the number of occupants / volume of the house, where the number of occupants is the equivalent number of adult humans as described in (1) above. The unit value is the number of adult humans per metre3.

4). Particles – chemical

This variable records the number of incidents during the week of activities that are likely to produce particles through chemical means, i.e. VOCs production. It includes the following activities:

143

- use of wood heaters

- smoking

- burning incense

- burning candles

- grilling

- frying

- baking

- toasting

6). Particles – cooking

Particles produced chemically are broken into two main categories, one of those being particles produced chemically through cooking activities. The following activities are included in this group:

- grilling

- frying

- baking

- toasting

7). Particles – burning

The second main group of chemically produced particles are those due to burning. This includes the following activities:

- use of wood heaters

- smoking

- burning incense

- burning candles

8). Particles – mechanical

This variable records the number of incidents during the week of activities that are likely to produce particles through mechanical means. It includes the following activities:

- vacuuming

- sweeping

- dusting

144

5). Combustion events

These were divided into two categories: all combustion and unflued combustion events. The unflued combustion events are a sub-set of combustion events, and exclude events such as use of gas heaters, as all gas heaters are by law in Victoria required to be flued in order to reduce the emissions of some pollutants.

All Combustion events include the following activities where burning is involved:

- use of wood heaters

- use of wall gas heaters

- smoking

- burning incense

- burning candles

- grilling on gas stoves

- frying on gas stoves

- baking in gas ovens

- any other use of gas stovetops

Unflued Combustion events include the following activities where burning is involved and the emissions are released within the dwelling:

- smoking

- burning incense

- burning candles

- grilling on gas stoves

- frying on gas stoves

- baking in gas ovens

- any other use of gas stovetops

9). Solvent use

The followings products which were used and recorded during the week are classified as solvents or odorous products.

- deodorant

- fragrance

- skin care products

- hair care products

- oral care products

- nail care products

145

- textas

- glue

- paint

- dishwashing products

- air freshener

- cleaners

- laundry care products

- fabric/carpet cleaners

- pesticides

- disinfectants

- adhesives

- sealants

- wax/polish

Weekly averages of these variables were calculated for each house, and correlations calculated between the weekly average and all other variables measured during the week and collected through the surveys e.g. distance from busy road.

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APPENDIX F - ACCOMPANYING DATA (ON CD)

CONTENTS OF THE DATA CD

This data CD contains additional information to supplement the ‘INDOOR AIR PROJECT PART 1: MAIN REPORT’, prepared by CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, as commissioned by the Air Quality Section, Environment Standards Branch of the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia.

The contents of the CD are divided into folders, described below. For further information, see the full report: ‘INDOOR AIR PROJECT PART 1: MAIN REPORT’.

Data Sets

Continuous and integrated data sets for each species. Separated into Summer/Autumn and Winter/Spring sets, and further into indoor and outdoor.

Activity Diaries

Activity diaries as recorded by the participants during Summer/Autumn and Winter/Spring sampling periods.

Plots

Plots of indoor and outdoor continuous data, separated into Summer/Autumn and Winter/Spring sampling periods, for each house.

Frequency plots (histograms) of weekly mean values.

Half-hourly quantile plots of continuous data.

147