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PART 1
AN OUTLINE OF THE GO A'S WESTERN GHATS" VEGETATION
20 1.1 AREAS BOTANICALLY SURVEYED.
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Vegetation ecology has recently gained scientific importance. it
has, also become more important in problem solving. Thie impetus is
related to the general realization that the solving of environment
questions is so essential to life on this planet. Today, vegetation
still forms the immediate environment of man and his domesticated
stock over large areas of the earth's surface. Vegetation is usually
the most readily recognised component of ecosystems.
An exact knowledge of the structure and composition of plant
communities, 'is therefore, important for an understanding of trophic
relationships.
Disturbances of the biological balance through foreign plant or
direct, interference by man are often readily recognized by changes in
the physiognomy, structure and species composition of the vegetation
(Mueller-Dombois, 1974).
The Western Ghats is a narrow strip, stretching, approximately
from Bombay city in the North to Trivandrum in the South. (Range 8' N
to 20° N. approximately)
The entire Western Ghats harbours different vegetation types like
the moist deciduous forests, montane grasslands, sholas, and more
importantly the precious tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen
forests.
Out of the 15,000 flowering plant species found in the country,
4,500 species are located on the Western Ghats (Shetty, 1994).
Numerous endemic, rare, endangered, economically important and wild
relatives of cultivated plant species are found here.
The Goa's Western Ghats relatively lies on the central Western
Ghats region (Range 12' N to 14° 40' N. approximately). Equally the
Western Ghats through Goa is blessed with such a rich flora
21
constituting some of the most useful plant species in the world today.
Yet knowing this, little efforts have been made to study one of the
few remaining tropioal forest ecosystems in the world.
There are in total 11 talukas in Goa having about 239 villages
out of them 48 villages were botanically surveyed for forest as
landcover and ground truth data collected especially on the
distribution of wild edible, medicinal and threatened plant species.
The villages surveyed were Caranzol, Caudal, Zaranim, Pendral,
Carambolim, Nandrem, Honda, Algote, Mollem, Melauli, Cotorem,
Vaguriem, Pale, Valpoi, Naneli, Nanuz, Birondem in Sattari taluka,
Dudhsagar, Oxel, Uguem, Potrem, Darbandora, Surla Sanguem, Curpem,
Curdi, Collem, Calera, Sigao, Dongor and Netorli in Sanguem taluka,
Siddhanath, Borim and Bondla in Ponda taluka, Guirdolim, Curtorim,
Rachol and Cuncolim in Salcette taluka, Nerul and Candolim in Bardez
taluka. Canacona, Agonda, Palolem, Cola, Cotigao, Poinguinim and
Loliem villages in Canacona taluka and Balle in Quepem taluka.
The distribution extent of the wild edible, medicinal and
threatened plant species was carried out in all the 11 talukas in the
entire area. This was done with an intention of preparing distribution
maps.
1.1.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
A general botanical survey was done on the entire Goa's Western
Ghats by making frequent trips to the study areas. Official
topographic maps of Goa were used to identify the areas. The average
distance covered was determined by using a pedometer.
After making a thorough survey on the Vegetation, unit sketch
maps were made in the field with a scale 1 cm on map = 150,000 cm on
ground. Various boundaries of vegetation types, depressions,
elevations, drainage patterns and emphasis put on permanent objects
like crops and large trees, large buildings, bridges, towers, forts
22
were noted down i.e. physiographic and topographic features.
The degree of slope/elevation was determined by Abney level and a
clinometer. Relative humidity was determined using a whirling
psychrometer, atmospherio temperature was measured with a maximum and
minimum thermometer. Wind velocity was determined by anemometer.
The ground truth data on distribution of plant species on the
villages surveyed was recorded. The survey was carried out from the
north west to . the south east along the Western Ghats. The information
collected at various villages was prepared in sketch maps prepared in
the field. Continuous seasonal monitoring was carried out for several
years. Colleotion of plant samples for herbarium specimens. The
economically important plants especially wild edible and medicinal
were photographed and samples collected.
Where possible, important fruits, seeds, rhizomes and roots of
some plants of botanical interest were collected. Plant specimens were
processed and placed in herbarium as per Lawrence (1951) methods, and
stored in the Botany Department, S.P. Chowgule College, Margao, for
future references.
The methods used in the description of vegetation are as those of
Ellenburg and Mueller-Dombois (1969) in the tentative physiognomic-
ecological classification of plant communities.
1.1.3 OBSERVATIONS
The mature rainforest of the central Western Ghats with dense
canopy are of two types (Steeper elevation and Lower elevation) being
mainly distinguished from their degree of elevation or slope though
other factors may be operating. The forest phases are diverse with a
complex structure.
The steeper elevations which are more on the Sahyadri hill ranges
comprise a canopy of several layers with frequent large emergent tree
crowns like LaggistrUalk langsolata, Termjnalia bellirig41 Svzv
23 cumini Bombax ceiba, Garcinia talbotii, Pteroscermumdiversifolium and
Ficus talbotik.
The trees are characterised by their often plank buttresses (Fig.
5a) and the crown portion are coated with several epiphytes which are
often interlaced with lianas (Fig. 5b). Here, the rotting of fallen
logs, trees, branches and leaf litter coupled with moist atmosphere,
greatly enhances the availability of organic matter.
However, the situation is different on the lower elevation to the
lowland where less luxuriant growth is replaced by lowland forest
constituting of many ferns, during the monsoon, of wide genetic set-
up. The forests are of dense leaf canopy and abundant in tree species
which have little undergrowth except a few co-dominating herbaceous
flora like StroOilanthee CallOSms which appears conspicuous at Collem
- Sonauli forest.
i) Primary forests of Carantol, Caudal, Zaranim and Pendral Sattari
Taluka.
A common pattern of vegetation distribution is observed; the
slopes exhibit one type of Association whereas the plains show
another.
This region which is on the extreme north east of Goa bordering
the Karnataka state, is probably one of remaining areas in Goa having
a really dense primary vegetation which has had little disturbance for
several centuries.
These forests are identified as being primary from their nature
of Stratification; the gigantic plant species located here are found
to be moderate in other areas elsewhere.
a) Vegetation of Caranzol - Sattari taluka.
Generally the vegetation is less dense in this region as compared
to Caudal, Zaranim, Pendral due to the human population encroachment.
The plant Association is comprised of Schleichera oleop_s, ArtnnArnus_
EXPLANATION OF PL ATE
Photographs showing tho nodo charactoristic of tho semi-ovorgroon forosts of tho Goa s s Wostorn Ghats.
Fig 5a. RLUiossod -hunk of Holigarna arnottana which is a common foaturo in oUlor spocios round limbo liko /0.stonia scholaris & Artooarpus spp
Fig 5b. Prosonco of opiphytos t lianas and clinbors liko Photos soandos is a common charactoris•dc of thoso War--oels.
,?/
2 4
heteroPhYllus. Careya arborea. Hopea wightiana, Heterophrasma
ouadriloculare. Terminalia paniculataj_ Terminalka tomentosa.
The co-dominant plant species are Psychotria dalzellti. Ixora
coccinea. Desmodium trlouetrum. Mussaenda laxa. Mimosa pudic4 and Leea
indica on the more open areas.
b) Vegetation of Pendral, Zaranim and Caudal - Sattari Taluka.
The vegetation on flat areas is different from that found on hill
slopes. The slopy areas comprise more of mixed evergreen plant species
whereas the plains consist of light forest with deciduous elements
dominated by different species of Terminalia; Terminalia crenulata. T.
paniculata. tomentosa. Garcinia talbotii. I.Asserstroemia lanceolata,
Albizzia lebbeok. Schleichera oelosa, Carelea arborea, and Xylia
xylocarpa are the dominating Associates of plains along with co-
dominants such as Glocbidion hohenackari. Connarus wightii, Diileni4
pentasyna. SarcestiSma. kleinii, Xerompbis spinosa. Randia dumetoruM
and occasionally Calvcopteris florlbunda.
The plant species dominating on the hill slopes are Heterophragma
ouadriloculare. Xylia xylocarpa, 11191.91.21.LIMA diversifojium (a
gigantic tree in Caudal and Zaranim forests), Artocarpus gomezianufky
Machilus macrantha, Ancistrocl,adus heynesinus. Garcinia oambokia.
Diospyros ebenum and a/ pruriens. The lower tier is comprised of Litsea wiahtiana. Aptingdaohne pemebaroifolla. plea digaiLL,
Lophopetalum vightianum, and Myristica malabarioum. The lowest shrubby
layer is noticed by the overclamping of Psvohotria dalzollii, and
Murrava paniculata. GlYcoSmis pentaphylla and Ardisia solapacea are
the other co-dominants conspicuous plant species on the forest
margins.
It is interesting to note, Memecylon malabaricum, a very rare
plant species in Goa, to be located here. Gnetum ula (the only
Gymnosperm 'on the Western Ghats of Goa) was found climbing to great
EXPLANATION 01P PLATE
Photographs showing tho throatonod plant spocios Cadmus psoudo-tonnuis in tho donso forost of Sonauli-Sanguom.
Fig 6n. Fruiting portion, (somo loavos & branch of Gnotim ula aro obsorvod in two background)
Fig 6b. Wholo plant.
-••••• •
'
C
6b
heights on gigantic trees along with the cane chair palm, Cplamus
pseudo-tennuis (Fig. 6a & b) which make some parts of the forests
impenetrable. Calamus pseudo-tennuis climbs up to the tops of gigantic
trees using its hooked spines to expose itself to light. Epiphytic
orchids were found to be rare even in the semi-evergreen forests.
Heavy epiphytic growth in shade forests may be made possible by
the homogeneous higher and whitish light intensity associated with
continuous overoast. If leaves are thin, then proportionately more of
the ambient light will come from light transmitted through than
reflected from leaves (Endler, 1993).
However, a place like Caudal, the dominance of evergreen tall
trees often cut down any light transmission thus the density of
epiphytes is greatly reduced.
The litter bio-degradation was high as the forest soil cover was
always wet moist almost throughout the year.
The slopes have well drained soils and rich in humus.
Approximately an acre of land in the dense semi - evergreen forests
of Goa harbour 85 to 120 medium to large individual tree species.
Since the forest trees have remained for many years without undergoing
any disturbances their relative stratification is high whereas medium
trees may range between 15-25 mts, large trees range between 25 to 60
mts in height. The canopy of the large trees de4elop little or no
branching below the canopy spread, and they are peculiarly, broadly
butressed. The understorey is often observed in spots having gaps,
here a number of small trees (in comparison with the gigantic large
trees) with stratification of 8 to 12 mts are more peculiar which
personal observation) tend to regenerate through root suckers
especially in species like ttirraya paniculata,. Perbk1114 111209 *
Dalbergia latifoj is and Cipnamomum macrocarpa.
.26
ii) Ve getation along the stream banks of Khandopar river at Zaranim
and Caudal - Satter! Taluka.
The stream is interrupted by many smooth granite rock outcrops,
offering scenic beauty and clean water.
The most conspicuous tree species met with are Crataeva religiose
var purvala. Mantifera indica (wild edible drupe with a tough thick
fibrous mesocarp), Garcinia Indtoa. Vatprik indica and Causerie
gscuienta which is extremely gigantic.
The dominant tree SpeOies found submerged especially after the
monsoon rains are Vitex leuooxvion and Syztsium heyneanum.
The co-dominant shrub is Hqmondia rioaria found almost
indiscriminately everywhere along the river bank.
Along with these riverine species are oocasionals like Imailm
cumini. Honea wight$ana l Strvohnos nux-vomioa. Pioterooarout indica,
and Pongamia pinnate. Lianas noticed are Combretum latifolium. Perris
soandens, Perris baker/. Ventilago maderaspatana, Gnetum Leucas
aspera and Mollugo pentaphytla as the most frequent annual herbs
growing on sandy patches along the banks.
iii) Vegetation of Carambolim, Edorem and Davom Areas.
The area is mainly flat with shallowly undulating hills with less
ground flora.
The major formation is comprised of Alstonia scholaris. Garcinia
indica, Syzygium cumini. Sterculia urens. Sepiup insegne. Terminalia
arJuna., paniculata and Bombax ceiba which are found on the upper
elevations. Lower elevations close to cultivated fields constitute a
different formation of mainly Thespesia pppulnea. Tamarindus indica.
Barringtonia racemosa. A mixture of Artocarpus heterophyllus and
Mangifera indica are observed which may have been cultivated.
There are two types of Associations noticed in these areas which
seem to be governed by moisture content and soil type amidst other
2? minor operating factors.
Association I
This Association is found on the open undulating shallow hills on
less humid and more latosol soil. Major Association is comprised of
Alstonia scholaris. . Buchanania lanzan. Bridolia scandens. Septum
insegne.
Lower tier is composed of Molarrhena antidysenterica,
CalycOpteris floribunda. Grewia microcos, MOlastoma malabathricum and
PogOstemon parviflorus.
Ground flora is comprised of Canscora decurrens. Euphorbia
notoptera. Justicia miorantha, Zornia gibbosa. Eriocaulon dianae.
Amorphophalus campanulatus. Ariopsis peltata. Elephantopus scaber.
Cassia mimosoides and 1.0evidasathis prostrata.
Members of Poaceae are also co-dominant, in the post monsoon
period comprising of Ischaemum semisagittatum. Arundinella ciliatat
Panicum paludosum. Isohne meliacea. Aseilema laxum and Hstar000g2n
contortus.
Association II
Tho Association is confined to flat lowland moist fields
comprised of Tamarindus indica. ArtocaroUtt LOALLaLt4i1ULL Thoopevia
pobulnea. Parringtonia racemosa and Mangifera Indica.
Groundflora consists of Justicia micrantha. Geissaspis tenella.
Indlgofera uniflora.. glephantobus goabaT o Cassia tora, Emilia
sonctlifolia. Zornia gibbosw. ptriga lutes. akaaLLOLLRL IPTIRifg$1.1a.
Sopubia delphinito4110 Meonotis foetida, Grewia microcot, Poggstemon
parviflorus, Cassia mimosoideo, i.eea indica. Desmodium heterpcarogai_
Alysicarpus vaginalist Senecio graharni. Cyperus cyperoides. Malvastrtol
coromandelioum. Cyclea peltata and Fimbristylik bisumbellata.
28
iv) Vegetation of Surla, Algote, and Mollem areas:
There is a thick forest as one approaches Mollem by road which is
a government protected forest area.
The area is more or less flat with undisturbed open canopy of
e) species like Terminalia ariuna (the most dominant), Careya arborea,
Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Bridelia Fetusa and Xanthoxylum rhetsa.
Other frequent associations are Terminalia , bellirica, gmblica
pffioinalis which are found on more open terrains, Garuga pinnata,
Glycosmis mauritiana Gardenia latifolia. Ziziphus glaberrtma, Z.
oenoplia, Bombax ceibp. Terminalia paniculata, Syzygiuls apilLILA.
grvatamia , heyneana. Anoteissus latifolta.
Herbaceous flora consists of several thick root-stocked plants
often found at undershades of trees, Curcuma aeighelensis, Curculigo
orchioides. Hemidesmus indicus. Leea indica. Cyclea peltata.
Occasionally some areas are interrupted by large patches (50
80 sq.mts. of grassland.
v) Vegetation of Amboli Ghat:
The area though outside the Goa boundary was found to be of
particular importance. It appeared to be the transition point in terms
(upper Western Ghats and the lower Western Ghats) of the floral
composition. A good number of plant species wore found which are not
frequently located anywhere on passing through other areas of Goa's
Western Ghats.
The major species Association consist of Mallotus tetracoccus,
Lasiosiphon erioceohalus. Macaranga peltata. Callicarpa tomentosa.
Nothcnegia racemosa. Trema orientalis. ChloroxYlon swietenia. Ground
flora was frequently co-dominated by Leaidagathis spinosa.
Chlorophytum malabaricum. Ischne lisboae and Striga lutea.
29 vi) Vegetation of Dudhsagar area
The landscape offers a splendid scenery due to the Dudhsagar
water falls. The vegetation is almost a closed type especially spots
which are far reaching below, from the railway track. The formation is
that of semi-evergreen biome forest characterized by evergreen plant
species like 41stonia poholaris i SYZygium oumtpi.
Cinnamonum maorooaroo. Strychnos nux -Y9MiCa, Ixo;.a 4rborea. Caryota
urens along with deciduous species like S/erculia urens. Terminalia
paniculata, Careva arboreal. Bombax ceiba and Terminalia
The dominant species extend up to 20-25 mts. in height, giving a
large leaf canopy of nearly the same size as the height.
The formation shows a potentially evergreen type of physiognomy
with a more or less uniform floral composition.
In some areas in the lower valleys several streams intersect this
land, and the soils are found to be deep alluvial especially at
Caranzol, Dudhsagar, Boma, Oxel and Sonau14, Sanguem Taluka. Under
this kind of climatical influence the floral composition tend to vary
from the one on the hilly slopes. The upper stratum composition
consist of Hopea wightiana. Cinnamomum m?crocarpum, Glycosmis
oentaphylla, Flacourtia montanp, Actinodanhna semecacnifolia, Machilus
macrantha, Mimusops elengi, Holigarna arngttiana. Mangifera indica
Mesua fprrea and Mvristica fragrans as the evergreen elements along
with Terminalia paniculata, T. ariuna, T. crenulata, Careya arborea,
and Barringtonia racemosa as the deciduous elements.
The ground flora consists of Desmodium triauetrium, Plantanthera
susanae, Habenaria longiflorifermis, Osmupda LagAILE and Selaginella
pronifera.
Calamus paeudo-tennuis is found in the upper pockets of the ghats
and currently its extent is limited between Sonauli, Sigao, Caranzol
and Boma areas - Sanguem and Sattari talukas. 2 .1
30 vii) Vogotatian aopeot of Oxel, Uguem, Curdi and Curpem areao
The major species association consist of Bombak Ceiba. Ficus
benithalensis, BYzYgium cumini, Heterophragma ouadrtioculare.
Terminalia panioulata. bellirica, CareYa arborea and ].,apnea
coromandelica.
Though most of the areas are under cultivation, the uncultivated
lands constitute of secondary degraded scrub. A number of species are
found here which are co-dominating namely, Phyllanthus retioulatus.
Calvcopteris floribunda, Adhatoda vasica. Jatropha curcas planted
along the roadsides. Occasionally SYZYgiUM umbellatum and S.
zeylanicum are observed on field hedges.
The ground flora is essentially composed of Cleome chqltdonii.
Curcuma neilzherrensis and Phyllanthus fraternus.
The excavation of the root system means the destruction of the
entire tree which poses a great threat to the species survival.
viii) Vegetation of Bondla, Melauli, Cotorem, Ambeli and Assodem areas
Vegetation at Melauli and Cotorem areas is mainly of scrub forest
while the vegetation at'Bondla is of a thick forest canopy type which
is semi-deciduous, potentially evergreen.
The major association consist of Careva , arborea. Dillenia
pentazvna, Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Terminalia paniculata and
bellirica as the thickly crowned species. The co-dominants especially
to the open plateau are composed of Memecvlon wightii, Holarrhena
antidvsenterica. The major portion of Melauli and Cotorem areas are
under cultivation especially in cashew nut tree, Anacardium
occidenIale and human settlements.
Vegetation at Bondla hill was surveyed and was found to be
interesting as there appeared to be changes as one moved from the hill
base to top. The lower elevation constitutes of dominants like L,annea
coromandelica. 1„agerstroemia lanceolata and TerMinalia bellirica.
31 The co-dominants are Pavetta SLOILLISAILL11.1 Holarrhena
antidysenterica and Tylophora indica a twining undershrub which is
potentially valued as a medicinal plant in this locality.
The massive invasion of the weed ouggalum pdorata is noticed
at slopes of angle 10-1B'. Muona pruripne is found to be very much
abundant climbing on AnacarOium occidentple specios. The floral
composition start to vary at higher elevations towards the middle of
the hill. Anacarslium occidentale dominates at this point along with
Buchanania lanzan, Careya arborea. Lagerstroemia lanceolate. Dillenia
pentasyna and occasionally Terminalia bellirica. The oo-dominants are
Xeromphis spinosa. grvatamia heyneana, Calycopteris floribunda and
Hemidesmus indicus.
The top most elevation forms a dense forest with light canopy.
The floral components dominating this point are Emblica officinalis (=
Phyllanthus emblioa), Putraniiva roxburghii, Terminalia tomentosa and
Careya arborea.
The extreme top (which is flat) is dominated by Xylia xylocarpa a
very conspiouous species which is rarely found in secondary degraded
forests. Other less abundant species are Careya arborea, Mallotus
lkup„ Xeromphis spinosa, Ervatamia heyneana.
Degraded scrub forests close to residential areas often consist
of fruit trees like Artocarpus heterophyllus, Emblica officinalis.
Tamarindus indica and Psidium guaiava which are indications of human
activity and habituation.
ix) Vegetation of Sanguem, Birondem, Surla, Darbandora, Siddhanath and
Borim areas
These areas are characterized by a Semi-Evergreen biome forest
with evergreen elements like Alstonia scholaris, Mangifera indica,
Artocarpus heterophyllus, Holigarna arnottiana and deciduous elements
like Bombax ceiba.
32 The vegetation of these areas is comprised of four associations
which are marked out mainly due to changes in altitude though other
factors may bo in operation. This is oonspiouous especially in areas
close to Siddhanath hill.
Association 1: is comprised of Tamarindus indica. Pombax ceiba,
/krithocephalus }cadamba, MitragYna Terminalja ariuna.
panioulata. Garglea arboyca, and $A,ryctInos nux-vomica. There are as many
consociations as there are dominants. The lower tier constitutes
gregarious shrubs like holarrhena antidYsenterica. Calotroohis
gisantea. Callecooteris floribunda, Vitex negundo and Clerodendrum
serratum. The latter two species ate . indicators of a depleted
secondary vegetation.
The ground flora consists of Cassia tor*. Justicia Micrantha.
Justicia procumbens. Ludwgia parviflora, k, linifolia, along with
perennial herbs with starchy corms like Colocasla esculenta and
Amorphoohallus campanulatus and Dioscorea bulbifera which thick leafy
bushes in the monsoon rains.
Between Fonda and Borim is a large monocultured gucalyptus hybrid
plantation. The growth of this species appears to impart stress to the
ground storey flora since very scant herbs and shrubs are observed in
and around the plantation.
Association 2: lies close to the moist fields near bank streams.
It is comprised of Holigarna arnottiana, Glochidion zeylanicum.
fkrtocarpus heteroehyllus and Lannea coromandelica. The lower tier
consists of Ficus hispida. Mussaenda laxa on the forest margins.
Scandent climbers most co-dominant are Derris scanclens. Dioscorea
bulbifera, hiseida, Mucuna pruriens and Smilax zeylanica. loomoes
digitata is found occasional closer to the steepe'r areas of the river
banks.
33
Association 3: is composed of Terminalia chebula. Macaranga 1
peltata. Mallptus , phillPense. Puchanania lanzan, Bridelia retusa.
Lower tier consist of aamtgaa arundinacea. Papium insegne. ' Bridelia
scandens, Phyllanthus reticulatus, Ziziphus glabeyrima, oenoplia,
Vangueria spinosa. Randia dumetorum. Ixora, coccinea and Gjoriosa
superba. Thorny shrubs are co-dominating in this tier. The same
species appear common on the middle portion of Sidhanath hill.
Association 4: is observed on the upper most of Siddhanath which
shows more luxuriant vegetation compared to any of the four
associations. Dominants are Terminalia bellirica. MYdnocarpus
laurifolia, CarYota wrens and Bridelia retusa as an occasional. The
lower tier is conspicuous with Ziziphus glaberrima and Ziziphus
oenoplia.
Groundflora is co-dominated by Boehmeria platyphylla a delicate
fruticose herb found on wet shaddy areas, with stinging hairs, it is
more confined to the edges of the dense humid forest. Several other
shade loving plants common in this Association are Leea edgeworthii
and rarely Leea macrophYlla.
A large number of pteridophytes are observed here like Pteris
vittata. Pterispellrycida. Schizoloma heterophyllum. Cheilanthes
tenue, Selaginella tenera. Co-dominant poaceae members found here are
Disitaria lonsiflora and Setaria pumila.
Some rare species are located at this zone, namely: 1.,asiosiphon
eriocephalus. (quite abundant here at this spot though rarely noticed
on the Western Ghats), Cie=os discolour„., atlxia bobbinea.
incospicua s Adelockrywo coelpetinum, Habenaria marginata, Habenaria
multicaudata and Habenaria heyneana.
A permanent water spring is located close to a temple which
harbour several hydrophytes like lailisnetta spjralis and
Hydrilla verticjllata.
x) Vegetation of Canaoona and the surrounding villages; Cuncolim,
Bali, Agonda, Palolem and Cotigao
The areas around Cuncolim, Bali and Agonda which lie just before
the higher elevation of the Western Ghats are sparse in vegetation.
The probable reason being, high human population encroachment and
further intensification to cultivation. The major plant association
consists of Bombax Ceiba. Alstonia scholaris and Careya arbotea.
The lower lifts of Canacona is encountered at about an altitude
of 250 mts above M.S.L. The vegetation showed a change in the species
dominancy oonsisting of Terminalia paniculata, and Bombax ceiba. The
lower tier consist of HOIarrhena antidvsenterioa. Phvlianthus
reticulatus. Pongamia pinnata and Ageratum conyzoides as the
herbaceous co-dominant on flat terrains.
Close to Bali area is a large plantation of Tectona grand's and
Eucalyptus hybrid (about 30 years old) which marks the end of the
Eastern hill slopes.
Vegetation around Canacona hillsides is mainly dominated by
Bambusa arundinacea which appears to be in the protected forest zone
category - occasionally with Anacardium occidentale. Terminalia
crenulatak and Bombax ceiba.
The forest edges are earmarked by dense populations of Rauvolfia
tetraphvlla as the co-dominating species along with Jxora coccinea and
Desmodium triquetrum. The lower elevation towards the extreme south of
Palolem. The vegetation type is constituted of Pongamia pinnata.
Garcinia indica. Bombax ceiba as dominants. Co-dominants observed
were Carissa congesta, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Leea indica. Cassia
dalbergioides.
The sea shore on sandy areas is dominated by Thespesia populnea
as natural medium sized tree besides the cultivated coconut palm
groves, Cocos nucifera Calotropis gigantea and Vitex negundo are the
35
Table: 4 Some vascular plant species collected during the survey
of the Western Ghats' (Goa) vegetation.( identification of the
plant species has been confirmed-)
N.B. : The following is a Key to the numbers used in the tables
on the column of habit.
1.0 Tree 2.0 Shrub 3.0 Under shrub. 4.0 Herb 1.1. Large 2.1. Twiner 3.1. Erect 4.1 Perennial 1.2 Medium 2.2 Climber 3.2 Climber 4.2 Annual 1.3 Small 2.3 Stoloniferous 3.3 Parasite 4.3 Prostrate
2.4 Snandent 3.4 Twiner 4.4 Erect 2.5 Erect 3.5 Scandent 4.5 insectivore 2.8 Succulent 3.8 Prostrate 4.8 Succulent
4.7 Aquatic 4.5 Climber 4.9 Twiner 4.9.1 Diffused 4.9.2 Parasite 5.0 Epiphyte
Asterik * means cultivated species, though. found in the wild
state also.
Sr. . Tacos fully lablt tat Bank of Musk Isportance
PTERIDOPBYTAR
. OpkiegInues codas R. Br. Ophinglossaceas 4.0 ---
2. isgiopterio evade (Pout.) Bonn. Barratiaceas 2.3 Smaller ornasental
3. °suede retails I. Ossilmtame 4.0 ---
4. Lygodies !Immo Redd. Schicaeeoess 4.0 ---
. loremlichus wens L. Pteridecese 2.5 Young fresh: Vegetable
( Coml.. ..)
6 . Mateo phIlippenee L. Pteridaceae 4.0 ---
T . CheilAnthur tencifolia (We.) Nate. Pteridaceae 4.0 ----
8. Pityrogalia calolelanoe (L) Link. Pterideceae 4.0 ----
9. Pterie pellecida Preel. Pteridaceae 4.0 ----
10. Pterie vittata L. Pteridaceae 4,0
II. P. seardiaurita Rete. Pteridaceae 4.0 ----
12. Polyttiches aceleates L. Pteridaceae 4.0
13. Pterit schlsolenia L. Pteridaceae 4.0
14. Gleichenia Linearity Redd. Gleicheniateae 2.3
15. Nephrolepir falcata CSC DavAlliaceae 4.3
16. Cyclosorue paraeltices (L.) Tard. Aspidiaceae 4,0 -
IT. Blecbees ()Hepatic L. Blechnaceae 4.0
18. Drynaria qwercifolia (I..) Si. Polypodiaceae 4.0
19. Pyrrosia Women', (Sc.) Ching Polypodiaceae 4.0
20. Selaginella proniflora (Lae) Raker SelaginellAceite 4.0
21. S. Leiters (8k. 1 Ores.) Spring. Selaginellame 4.0 ----
GINVOSPEDWAS
22. Geetee Oa Brow. Geetaceae 2.1
4$GTOSPP.RHAE
23. Clesatis hedysarifolia DC Danuncelaceae
24. hrtfeiit teyiARICA (L.) DC Ranunculame 3 ----
25. Cleaatie gouriana L. Daeueculaceee 3 Leaves and stee: vesicant
36
2 7 37
• (cost.- )
28. Dill8Ril peetagyna Rob , Dillenieceae 1.2 Tieber - Leaves sled for Packing
27. Dillenia Mica L. Dilleeiateat 1.2 Tieber
H. Anemia reticelata L. Aenonaceae 1.2 Edible fruit
29. WORK 'moots L. Annonacese 1.3 Edible fruit
30. Witte bingo's Rorb Annonaceae 1.2
31. Cycles peltata Lae. Menitpereacese 4
32. Diploelitia glanceeceet (HI. Diels Neeitpereaceae
33. Tinotpors corditolia (11111d) Siert Meniepereacese 2 ----
34. Meltable, epeciotme Wilid. Nyeplieceae 4.7 Edible tubers
35. Ilyephses novehali Rune. Wyepliscese 4.7 Edible tubers
38. Argonne OWCIRA L. Papageraceae 4.4 Juice: Malaria, jaundice
97. Brassies Marisa). 01111.*
Braseitecese 4.4 Edible leaves
38. Raphanun eativue L. 5 Bratticateat 4.4 Edible leaves I roots
38. &mica csepettrit L.*
Rratticatete 4.4 teed, : antiocorbutic
40. Close vitcolta L. Capparaceae 4.4
41. Capparit leylseles L. Capparatetie 2 Pruitt: pickled
42. Capparie roteeditolis L. Cepparscese 1.3 ---
43. Capparis 'spivs L. Capparsceee 2 Pruitt: pickled
44. Capperit baducca Rbeedi. Capparatese 2
45. Cretin mortal& Asch-Pae. Capparaceae 1.2 Juice: rheueatige
46. Platourtia Mita (hire.) Derr. Platovrtiacese 1.3 Fruit : edible
47. Bydnocarpue laurlfolia (Delimit.) Sleueer. Flacourtiacese 1.2 Seeds oil: leprosy
48. Flacourtia NAM Grab. Flecourtiecue 1.3 Ripe fruit" : edible
S g
38
(Coat....)
411. Canaria eseilleetli Ron. Flacoirtiaceae 1.2 Medicinal
50. Polygala ampule Villd. Polygalacese 4.4 ---
51. Polygala erloptera DC. Polygalacese 4.4 ---
52. Polycarpon provtratun (Forib.) i. 1 S. Caryophyllaceite 4.4 ---
53. lopes 'Aglaia.* Vail el Vt. i Ape. Dipterocarpame 1.2 ---
$4. Oli► 00111 rlintioellynee Ilk. er. Were. CIUROACtie 1.1 ---
H. GArCillill oangoitana L. Clatelacele 1.2 Rind: edible
58. Calophyllati leophyllin L. C 1 INCilkOelle 1.3 Cooetrection
57. Garciaia ledlcs Cho*. C i 11.1inelle 1.2 Rind : edible
58. Portellica alumna L. Portulacacese 4.6 leaver : vegetable
51. POnVIACI giliediflora I.*
Portulaciiceae 4.1 leaves : vegetable
60. Nalvaetruo coronaidelliinuo (1..) Garde. IIIIVICele 4.4 Root*: rhouoatilo
61. Biblical cannabinut L. Nalvacene 4.4 Flower juice: Piles i conttipatioe
62. Mime for:calve Willi. NOVICellfl 4.4 ---
6S. &hellion Mimi (L.) Sweet, Nalvaceae 4.4 ---
64. Sida acids Biro. 11A1VACele 4.4 Roots : rbevoatiro
65. Sida cordate (Bu ► ) Boric Dalvacelie 4.4 ---
66. Sida rbooblfoliii L. halvaceae 4.4 Step : febrifuge
67. Side cordifolia L. Volume 4.4 Roots: urinary infectioe
68. ibespeeia Lam CRY. NAIVACelle 2.5 -
SE Delimit popeleea (I..) Sol. Nalvaceee 1.2 (traumata', Tiaber
70. libiseve vitifoliut L. Nalvaceae 2.5 Ormentel
(Coat...)
71.
72.
73.
74.
Gottypivn Minutes L.t
ibitiloa portico, Burt
libiects fabdarilfa L.
Gottypiva arborean L.t
Nalvaceae
Nalvaceae
Nalvaceae
Malvaceit
2.5
1.3
2
1.3
Fibre
Ornasental
Leaver : fedative.
Fibre
75. Bosbar ceiba tact. loabacaceie 1.2 Fibres; faulting pilleve
7$. Flrillana colorata (Rotb) S.D. loabacaceae 1.2 Potential ornavental
77. leiicteret ism L. Sterculiaceae 2.4 Pruitt :diarrhoea,
78. Nelociria corchorifolia L. Sterculiaceae 4.4 ---
TO. Stemlia guttata Roll. Sterculiaceae 1.2 Bark : Wog fibre
80. S. foetid' L.*
Sterculiaceae 1.1 Fruit : edible
81. S. arm lorb. Sterculiaceae 1.2 Ste. erudite: Gus
82. Grevia tillattolia Vahl Tiliaceae 1.2 Tisber,
83. Grevia pilots Lae Tiliaceae 2.5 Feel
84. Grevia robellifera Redd Tiliaceae 2.4 Tieber
85. Memo. pallicelata L. Tiliaceae 2.5 !reit!, : edible, fuel
88. Corcborat Aegean§ L. Tiliaceae 4.4 -
ST. Corchorui captularis L. Tiliaceae 4.4 Fibre, : cordage
88. Grevia villas Villd Tiliaceae 2.0 loot : diarrhoea,
80. Nentingia Calabar* L.*
Tiliaceae 2.0 Ornarientel
90. Eriaocarpat elarioeii Grab. Tiliaceee 2.0 ---
DI. °relit corniculata L. Oralidaceae 4.0 Juice of leavers : pilet,
92. Biophyturi condolleanue Vt. Oralidaceae 4.0 ---
93. liophytus reneitivut (I..) DC. Oralidaceac 4.0 ---
39
(Coat...)
94.
95.
IC
17.
it
II.
tepatienn balnamins L.•
I. tleisii Vt. & Arn. & A
I. oppotitifolia L.
Zantherylau rhetta (Rorb) DC.
Glycossis imeritiane (tem). Taneka.
Nurraya panicvlata (I.) Jed.
0101,111lMineat
ItalilleiRAC818
Balsaminaceee
Rutacele
Mame
Rutaceite
4.0
4.0
4.0
1.2
1.3
1.3
---
---
---
Fruit: Amebic
Wood : snakebite
1811.C. : Spices
100. kurraya erotic* L.s
Butane 1.3 Leaves : spices
101. Citrus medic* DC. ' liutaceae 1.3 ---
102. Ochs obtuasta DC. Oclinaceee 3,0
103. Garuga pinnate Roth. Demme/to 1.3 Fruit pickled
104. Neregamis slats VI 1 Arc Neliaceae 3.0 Root: bronchitis, ant*
105. Chvkrassia tabular). Jess. Neliaceae 1.2 Wood: construction
108. isedhiracts indica A. .10111.•
Neliacese 1.2 ----
107. Celattrus panicalates Villd Celastracele 2.2 Oil: rheum/ago, paralysis
108. Hippocrates Indies I_ Celastracese 2.2 Alkaloid
1011. Zielphut rylopyras Vino,. Rhasnacese 2.4 Leaves : Nugatory
110. Ziliphur ilaberrima Sant. Rhemnacese 1.3 Fruits: edible
• . 111. Delphos! murales' LAO Rhamnaceae 1.3 Fruits: edible
112. Zixiphito oeitoplis Miller Rhalinateae 2.0 Fuel wood
113. Zitiphua Mose Lem Rheinacese 2.0 Fuel wood
114. Veltilago denticulate Villd. Rhisnacese 2.0
115. Veatilago eadraapatasa Cleric Rhaunaceae 2,2 Feel wood
40
41
(Cee t.. ..)
Ill.
111.
118.
Icpelocitrae latilolla lotb.
I. tweeting (lotb) Planchon.
Lees edgeworthli het.
Vitleele
Yltacese
Vitseele
4.0
4.0
4.0
.
111. Lees indica (Bin) Pers. Vitlicese 2.0 loot, : sbeuoatito
120. Lees aacrophylla lorb. Vitacese 3.0
121. Cayratia eloetata (Korb), Overeat. Yitaceae 2.2 - -
122. Cited manila Uhl. Vitame 2.2 - -
123. Noma discolor (Blood) Ilijdr. Mame 4.0 Ornapental
124. Lees crisp' L. Vitaceae 2.4 Tubers: guinea Morse
125. Lees herbacea Buell - Ian. Vitaceao 4.0
128. Cardiosperoun balicacaben E. Sipindacele 2,2 Vbole Plant: rheunatino
127. Lepiegethes tetraphylla (WI) Wadik. Sapindacetie 2.0 Fuel wood
128. 1110011y, cobbe (L.) laespoh. Sapindaceae 2.4
129. 8chieichera oleos& (Lour) leo. Sapindaceile I.) Tiaber
130. 4ftaeardiun oceldeiltale L.s
inacardiaceae 1.2 Nuts edible
131. Buchanania Liman Sprout. inacardiaceae 1.3 Wood timber
132. Polity% arnottlana Pk, l. Anacardiacese 1.1 Wood timber
133. Lama coropandelica Ricb. knacardiaceae 1.3 Wood construction
134. b $ bottler* indica L Anacardiecele 1.2 Drupe edible
135. Speedier &mints liorb.t
► nacardiacese 1.3 Leaves: earache, Bark: dyne
131. Comm wightii (Ilk. 1.) Cooke. Coonaracese 2.4
137. Om precatoriiit. L. Fabsceae 2.4 Leal juice : rheynatiso.
138. leschyneoene indica L. Fabaceae 4.0 Floats
(Col t....)
138.
140.
141.
Alysicarpas bypleerifolirs (L.) DC.
A. Mom DC.
1. vaginal', L.
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
4.3
4.3 -
4.8 ---
142. Itylotia ecarableoidee (L.) Death. Fabaceae 4.3 loots: rbosoativo. pile,
143. Butes mown (Lank.) hob. Flames 1.3 Hole plant : dysentery.
144. Clitoria ternatea L. Fabacese 3.0 Seeds : teems, dropsy
145. Crotalaria albida Roth. Fabaceae 4.4 ---
148. Crotalaria epochal' Dais. Fabacese 4.3 ---
147. Crotalaria linifolia L. Fabaceae 4.0
148. Crotalaria pallid" Ait. Fabaceae 3.4 ---
148. Crotalaria retell L. Flamm 3.4
150. Crotalaria triquetra kir: Fabaceae 4.4 ---
151. Crotalaria vermin' L. Fabaceae 4.4
152. Cyaoopsis peoralloidee DC. Fabaceae 4.0
153. Dalberiia latifolla Rorb. Fabaceae 1.2 Tlober
154. Cu/walla oacrocarpa (DC.) Piper. ! Fabaceae 2.2 Seed : edible
155. C. illadiata (Jens.) DC! Fabaceae 2.1 Seeds : edible
158. Deroodleo diellotooso. (Villa.) DC. Fabaceae 4.0
15T. D.beterocarpoe (L.) DC. Flamm! 2.1
158. Detoodieo triangslare (Rat?) Rem Fabaceae 2.1
151. D.trifolioo (L.) DC. Fabaceae 3.0
1180. Derrie scandal (Rorb) Cooke. Fabaceae 2.1
42
4 3 43
(Cont....)
161.
112.
163.
114.
16S.
Gerrie trifoliate Lour.
Wider biller'', L.*
Pleeingie strobilifere R.Or.
Geistespit °Hetet& Vt. 1 Ire.
G. teeelle Beath.
Febeceee
Febeceee
Fabaceet
Mateo
Pabaceae
2.0
2.0
2.0
4.3
4.3
Podr 1 seed* : edible
-
- -
---
141. Erythriea Arid& Rorb. Memo 1.2 Oreacental
147. Erytbrina variegate L.*
Pabaceae 1.2 Orneeentel
141. Iadigofera earteiolden lott. Pabaceae 2.0
160. Iedigofere delzellii Cooke. Femme 3.0
170. Iedigofera linifolle (L.f.) Sett. Femme 3.2 - -
171. I. prottrate Villd. Fabaceae 4.3
172. I. tinotorii L. Pabaceae 4.0 Leaf juice : Whoa.
173. I. trifoliate L. Mum 4.0
174. I. uaifiera Ruch - Ran. Pa baceae 4.0 - -
175. bevel prerleall (L.) DC. . Pabaceae 4.0 Seeds : leueorrbooe
176. Olgeilia oojeieentie (Rorb) lochr. Pa baceae 1.2 Tieber
177. Pberteele, sego L. Pabaceae 4.3 Seed,: Food
171. Peagesie Osaka (I..) Pierre Fabacese 1.2 Seed : sedieinal oil
170. Pterourpv, samples Rorb. Falmeee 1.2 Tieber
100. Sesbanie bispitum Jam Fel:4mm 4.4 Fodder
161. Suable comforts Se. Pabaceae 4.3 - -
102. S. etienitive hit. Febaceee 4.3
163. Tephrotie parpurea (L.) Pere. Pabaceae 4.4 Leaves : dropey.
(Coat...)
184.
185.
188.
181,
Terami• iabiali• (L.f.) Spring.
Zoysia gibbon •panoghe.
Tepbro•ia cocci's& Vall.
Dessodiss Welfare's (L.) De.
Fence's
Maces,
Fablicese
Fabaceae
4.3
4.3
4.4
4.9
---
---
---
188. Kama loso•peraa L. Fabaceae 1.3 Seeds : edible
189. Crotalarla filipes Beath. Falaceae 4.3 ---
190. Crotalaria soiagsefolla L. Vabaceae 4.0 ---
141. Terasses sollit Booth. Meese 4,3 Seed, : edible
112. Itylo•ia CIA••I Frain Fabacese 4.9
1113. le•ebymiese Alpena L. Fabaceae 4.4 Wood : caking floats
1114. Serbania grandiflora L.s
Fabacese 1.3 Oreasental
195. ltylosia lineata Vt. 1 Iry Flamm 4.1
118. Dawdles •otorius (0outt) krt. Febscele 2.1
197. Despodios polycarpas DC. Fabaceae 4.0 ---
118. Fleeingla tuberosa Dal'. Mame 4.0 Tubers : edible
118. De•sodiss gym• DC. Muncie 4.9
200. GAIREA ab•a• L. Caesalpiniacele 4.4
201. C. slat* L. Caesalpiniaeeae 2.5 Leaves decoction : nuke-bite
202. C. lintels L. Gm' pi n hone 1.3 Oraasents I
203. C. •looroide• L. Caetelpinincele 4.3 ---
204. C. Owl LAI. Caesalpiniacese 1.3 Ornasental
205. Bashinja rum•& Look. Caeralpiniaceae 1.3 ()remittal
44
(Cont...)
201. Baubloia ton/doss L. Cnealpiniacen 1.3 Ornsnental and Tiober
207. Culls gopher& L. Citeealpinlacese 4.4 Roots:Soakebite. Plant:Purgative
208. Cassia ecdon L.t
Caeealpiniscen 1.3 Oranental
208. Baubinia purpose L. Caegalpiniaceae 1.2 ----
210. Piliostigna oalabarien kerb. Cnealpiniacen 2.4 Frolt: laxative,
211. Cagela occidentalls L. Canalpinianae 2.5 Bark (externally): skin diseases
212. C. Lora L. Cagellpiniacen 4.4 Tender leave, : vegetable
213. C. obtueifolie L. Citegalpinianae 4.4 Tender leaves : vegetable
214. Tanarlodve indict L. Caessipislacen 1.1 Pods : spices
215. Vagatea spicata Dalx. Caegalpiniacen 2.4 Roots : Pneumonia, bark: skin diseases.
218. idenanthera mooing L. Ming/men 1.2 Oro/mental
217. Miele lebbect (L.) Beath. Minosacese 1.2 Tinber
218. .
SADA1181 HIM L. Ni0011C018 1.1 Ornamental
219. Tylis 1/y1c/carps Taub. Ninon/m/0 1.1 Tinber
220. Acacia chundra (Rorb). Villd Ninoncen 1.2 Substitute for A. Catechn,
221. A. Oldie& (L.) in. Nioosacese 1.3 Sten exudate : Geo
222. 1. pout& (L.) VtIld Nicol/mese 1.3
223. A. torts (Rorb.) Craib. Niooncen 1.3 ---
224. Albigria lebbeck (L.) Villd. Nilo/men 1.2 Timber
225. Minos& pudica L. Ninceaceae 4.3 Juice : piles i sores
226. Pithecellobilio deice (Rorb.) Berth. Nineacen 1.3 Fencing
227. Made pieaertha DC. - Mineaceae 3.2 ---
221.•cacia cstechu (Rub) Villd Mingscen 1.3 Bark : astrigent, diarrhoea
45
4G
(Cont....)
229.
230.
231.
talaschoe pinnate (Lam.) Pere.
Drolera burmanii Vahl. '
D. indica L.
Cransulaceue
Droeerecele
Droseraceie
4.1
4.5
4.5
Ornamental
- -
Tieber
232. thixophora oucroaata Lan. Rbirophoraceae 1.3 Fuel wood
233. Sandell' candel (I..) Dry. Rbizophoraceite 1.3 Fuel wood
234. Rhizopbora conjugate L. Rhizophoraceae 1.3 -
235. Inoleillue latifolia (DC) VW. Conbreteteae 1.3 - -
236. Coobretum ovalifolium Rorb. Coobretaceite 2.1 Timber
237. C. latifolivo HI. . Colbretaceae 2.1 Tiober
238. Calycopterie floribunda (Rorb) Lao. Conbretacese 2.4 Fruit : jaundice
238. Terminalia arjuea (Rorb) Vt. i irn. • Coobretaceite 1.2 Tiober
240. Terminalia bellirica (Winn.) Rorb. Coobretacele 1.2 Tiober
241. Terninallit chebala (Gaertn.) Betz Combretaceite 1.2 Tiober
242. Teroinalia paniculata Roth. Combretacese 1.2 Timber
243. Termilialia tomentoes. V i A. Conbretaceite 1.2 Timber
244. Quisqualis indica L. Coebretimae 2.4 Ornamental
245. Syzygimo caryophyllatem (1..) Mop Nyrtaceae 1.2 Timber
246. Syzytieo cumini (I..) Steele Nyrtaceae 1.2 Edible drupes
247. Syncline hyaena Nall. Nyrtaceae 1.3 Feel
248. Syzytieo xeylanIceo (I..) DC. Nyrtaceae 1.3 Fuel
240. Barrington* tenant/PIA (1..) NAertn. Barringtoniaccae 1.2 Timber
250. Barrinitonia raceme (I..) Spreni. Ilarringtoniaceae 1.2 Timber
41
47
(Cori....)
251.
252.
253.
Carey' arborea Rotb.
Ifellietooa oalabathrieun L.
Keoecylon vobellaten Burn.
Barringtoniame
Nelattooateene
Ilelaittooataceae
1.2
2.5
1.3
Co ntrol:hos
--- •
--- '
254. lienecylon vightli Thu. ilellivtonetacelie 2.4 Peel
255. Media trimate Doe. Lythraceae 4.4 ---
256. Amalie bacoifera Rob. Lythraceae 4.7 ----
251. L. oultiflore L. Lythraceae 4.7 ---
258. Lageretroesie lanceolate Clarke. Lythraceae 1.2 Tiober
258. Retain deileiflore (Roth) Below Lythraceae 4.7 ---
260. Voodfordia Outlook (I..) Kurt. Lythraceae 2.5 Orntoental
261. MOO& linlfolli (VO).) Rao (Migrate/le 4.0
262. L. weenie L. Oliagracele 4.0
262. Purifier' foetid' L.$
Pentiflormae 4,8 Orneeentel
264. Citrvilev colocyttbie (L.) Sob!. $ Cu eurbitheete 4.8 Toiler fruit edible
265. Luffy cylindric& L. Cceurbitileele 4.8 Edible fruit Tender fruit :edible
266. Leffe imitangula (L.) Verb. Cu curbitaceae 4.8 Edible fruit Tender fruit :edible
267. Tricholanthee tricurpidata L. Cu curbitaceae 4.8 Edible fruit
268. T. bracteata.(Lao.) Voigt. Cu evrbitaccae 4.8 Edible fruit
268. W $
Woolf neio L. Cu curbitaceae 4.8 Edible fruit
270. Monodic& dim' lorb. Cu curbitaceae 4.8 ()elemental
271. Kelotbria heterophylla (Lour.) Cogn. Cu eurbiteme 4.8 ----
272. Makin oaderaspetana Rom. Cu curbitaceae 4.8 --
273. Triebovaathee mmHg& L. Cu curbitaceae 4.8
48
(Cost...)
274.
275.
276.
277.
8010011 crenata Dryand.
°pant!' elator 11111. =
Melillo peatiphylla L.
Mollogo oppooitifolia 1..
Begoniaceae
Cactaceae
Nolloginacecie
Nolitiginacese
4.6
2,5
4.3
4,3
Ormaleatal
---
-
---
278. Cestella 'static" (L.) Orb. Apiacele 4.3 Leave,' decoction : bead-tcaie
279. Pimpinella Impious (D.0) fors. Apiacele 4.3 - -
260. Pimpinella initialing (NW Gandhi. Ipiacelie 4.3 ----
281. lipermacece articalaria L. !labium 4.4 ---
282. S. biopic!" L. Rubiaceae 4.4 ----
283. 8. wills tall, Micmac: 4.4 ----
284. 8.1tricta loct. Rubiaceae 4.4
285. Whig" dicoccom Tem. Rabiacese 4.4 - -
266. Deatella repent (L.) J I G. Fork. Rubiaceae 4.4
267. teclyotio auricularia L. Rubiaceae 4.4 thole Plant : dysentery I Cbolera
286. I. WW1 Villd. Rubiaceae 4.4 Plant Decoction : pile,
269. 8. Corylbola L. Rubiaceae 4.4 Jeindice 1 Fever
290. 1. berbacea L. Rubiaceae 4.4 thole plant : Malaria
291. bora coccinea L. labium 2.5 Oraamental
292. I. arborea toe). Rubiaceae 1.3 Timber
293. lymeaodictytoa obovatua tall. Robiaceae 1.3 Fuel wood
214. Keyes lariflor" Robyn,. Rubiaceae 1.2 Timber
295, Marilyn' parviflora (Rob.) Iortb. tubiaceae 1.2 Timber
296. Norinds citrifolia L. Rubiaceae 1.3 Fruit : Ratko* 1 dysentery.
(Coat.. ..)
297.
291.
Neellamida !Ara (B.t.) Gabble.
. PecetiemeA frOldOIA L.
A
Rubiacese
Rubiaceae
2.4
2.4
Grommet*,
Oroimentil
299. Neopotir foetid" (011r.) Lewis. Rubiaceae 4.4 ----
300. Bealtioclea 'torpors" Neu Rubiaceae 1.2 Timber
301. GardeelA latifolia lit. Rubiaceae 2.4 Feel wood
302. Pawetta erateicaulit Bread. Rubiaceae 2.4 Feel wood
303. Peyekotrla d'Ixellii (Ilk) Cooke. Rubiaceae 1.2 Fuel wood
304. intboceptalei dimwit (Look) Rick.A
Rubiaceae 1.2 Omer:Mal 1 Tiober
305. VeadliodiA thyreoidea Wee i Scbul) Steed Rubiaceae 2.4
306. leroophie spleen (TWO.) hay. Miscue 2.5 Fuel wood
307. Wilda topectolla Bale. Oubliette 2.4 ----
308. irora brachlati Rorb Rubiaceae 1.3 ----
309. Coffer arAbica L.A
Robleoece 1.3 Coffee reed"
310. SperoAcoce ocyooidet (Burp) DC. Rubiaceae 4.3 ----
311. Timis radicle* Grade. . Rubiaceae 3.1
312. Idles cordiloliA Rerb Rubiaceae 1.2 Tuner
313. iterate° copy:older L. literal:elle 4.4 Root 1 juice : in
314. Blue* eriantba Do. itteracetie 4.3 Leaf juice : carminatIve
315. Zincia elegem, Jacq. Atteraceat 4.4 Oreasental
318. note, W A elt Alteraceire 4.4 ()remittal
317. Chr000llienA DOWN! (L.) Ling 1 Robs. toteraceet 4.4 ----
311. Senecio daltelli C.B. Clarke Acteraceae 4.4 ---
319. Echinopt echinAtut korb.A Ieteracese 4.4 ---
320. Bedell' urticaefolia DC. Airteracelie 4.9 ----
49
1, b
50
(Cont.- )
321.
322.
323.
324.
325.
Lame& nedictivlit Ilk. f.
Spilmithen galenist& 1101.
Bedell& bi ► lora DC.
Bluaea BAIC0101 (Cl.) Bk. f,
Blues aeibranacea DC.
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
loteraceae
Asteraceae
4.8
4.3
4.9
4.4
4.4
----
---
----
326. Blues twilit (Don) Nett. leterateae 4.4
327. B. siren! DC. keteraccae 4.4 ----
328. Centhr&therum tenue (Bight) C,B. Clarke. Asteraceae 4.4
328. Elephantopun tuber L. interacese 4.4 Vbole plant : cardiac, tonic
330. Etilia wonthifolia (L.) DC, Asteraceae 4.0 ---
331. Gynurn cusimbuit (D. Don) DC. Asteraceae 4.4 ----
332. Lacteca runcinata DC. Istereceae 4.8 ----
333. Seneclo grahami Bk.?. Asteraceae 4.4
334. S. belgaumensin C.D. Clarke. Asteraceae 4.4 ----
335. Sphaeranthun indicun L. Asteraceae 4.3 ----
336. Synedrella nodiflora (I..) Willi. Asteraceae 4.3 ----
337. icanthonperout hinpidium DC. Asteraceae 4.4
338. Artetinia nilagirica (CI.) Pulp. Asteraceae 4.4 Leaves : entitle
338. Tricholepie gl&berritit DC. Asteraceae 4.4 Vhole plant : leucoderma
340. Tridar procumben, L. Asteraceae 4.3 ----
341. lithonia diverlifolia (Bell) Gray. Asteraceae 2.4 Ornamental
342. Vernonia anthelmintica Villd. Asteraceae 2.0 Seeds : anthelmintic, diuretic.
(Coat....)
343.
344.
345.
346.
V. claret (L.) Lees.
Eclipts alba L.
Blum lacers (Bute. r.) DC.
Latta reaotillora DC.
Atteracese
Atteracen
Atiteraceae
Atteracese
3.1
4.3
4.4
4.3
Roots : dropsy
Decoction : jaundice
341. Nabs sigrescens Dalz. E benacese 2.4 Fuel wood
348. Diolipyros prurient Dalt. E besacese 1.3 timber
349. Olee dioice Roll, Oleacese 2.4' - -
350. hulas. ■alabarices Vt. Oleaceite 2.4 Ornamental
351. Partoatia helicandrs D. Apocynaceae 2.1
352. Neries indicus L.*
Apocynaceee 2.4 Ornamental
353. Allasanda cathartics L.$
Apocynaceae 2.4 Ornamental
354. Ervatasia heyneans (Yell) Cooke. Apocynaceae 1.3
355. Aletotia tcholarie (L,) R. Br. Apocynaceae 1.1
356. Catharanthut room Don. Apocynaceae 3.1 Ornamental
357. Whim intuit VOL Apocynaceae 2.4 Pruitt : edible
351. Carina congests Vt, Apocynaceae 2.4 Fruit: : edible
351. Ellertonia rheedi Vt. Ie. Apocynaceae 2.4 - -
360. 'Diarrheas lialidytenterica (Roth) DC. Apocynaceae 2.4 Root: dysentery A pilet
361. ichnocarpin truletceet (L.) Ear. Apocynaceae 2.2
362. Plnueria rubra L. Apocynaceee 1.3 ()reagents!
383. Rauvolfla serpentina (L.) Benth. Apocynaceee 2.5 Root : reduce" blood pressure
364. R. tetraphylla L. Rao Ipocyaaceae 2.5 Root : sedative
365. Vrightis Oilcloth R. Br. Apocynaceae 2.5 Feel vood .___,
51
52
(Cont.-)
386. nelepin currienvica L. leclepinacen 3.1 Root :
317. Caloirephie Mann (I..) R,Br. nclepiadaten 2.5 Later : antiseptic for monde
388. Ceropegia allenata Ilk. nclepiancen 3.1 ---
389. Dynan eylvettre (Vete.) Schltee. nclepiadacen 2.2 Leaver : diabetes
370. Tylophora dalzellii Ilk. nclepiadacen 3.1 ----
311. Tylophora indica (Rurm.) Kerr. &sclepiadaceae 2.1 Root : erpectorant
372. T. taniculata Pam. 11clepiadacen 3.1
313. Vattakaka volubille L. inlepiadacen 2.1 ----
314. feminine lading (L.) R. Br. Periplocaceae 2.1 Roots : diuretic 1 Ain Cameo
315. Strychnoe oar-voeica L. Logniacen 1.2 Seeds : nervine Inflict.
376. Strycline colubrina L. Loganiaceae 2.4 Fuel wood.
377. Camera diffuse (Vahl.) RAF. Geatiniacean 4.9 Whole plant : nervine tonic
378. C. decerrens DaR. Gentininne 4.4 ----
319. C. paniflora Dala Gentiniecen 4.4
380. Cordia dielloton Pont.e Boraginaceae 4.0 Ornamental
381. Bellotropin iodine L. Seraglio/cm 1.2 Ornamental
382. 1. ovalirolin Pont. Boraginaceae 4.0 ----
383. Coldeaia procurhen L. Boraginaceae 4.0 ---
384. Cordia tauten L.*
Boreginacen 1.3 Ornamental
385. Tabeilia Allman (R 1 S.) Britt. ' Boraginaceae 1.3 Ornenental
386. Cordia wallichil Don. Braginacese 1.2 Timber
381. idelocaryal coalettinno (L10d1) Brand. Boraginaceae 3.5 ---
(Coat....)
308.
388.
Coevolvilve sierophyllue Sieb.
Lrgyrela mervola Burs.
Convolvulaceae
Convolvulaceae
4.9
4.8
390. I. eerie.' Dalt. Convolvulaceae 41 ----
381. kivea bypoCrateriforsie ChOily. CONVOIVNIACW 2.1
312. Nerresia esargieata Dore. Convolvulaceae 2.1
383. Argyrela involserata Clarke. Convolvulaceae 2.1 ---
384. Cucuta fellers lotb. Convolvulaceae 3,4 ....
385. Evolveles aleleoldee I.. COOVOIVOICOMO 4,3 Whole plant : brain tonic
39$. Isom& digitate L. Convolvulaceae 4.3 Mere : edible
HT. I. miss (L.f) Doe. COOVOIVVIACM 4.3 ---
388. I. dicer* (L.) L.G. CONVOIVNIACele 4.3 ---
399. 4
I. quamoclit L. Coevolvelacese 4.3 ---
400. I. pee-melte (L.) Sweet. Convolvulaceae 4.9 Sand binder
401. Nerreela tridentate (L.) kali. t. COVOIMACOAS 4.3 ----
402. N. usbellata (I..) lall.f. Convolvulaceae 4.3
403. N. vitifolia (L.) lall.f. Convolvulaceae 4,8
404. Dater' setel L. Solanaceae 4.4 Seeds : 'enmity i fever
405. D. Walloping L. Solanaceae 4.4 - do -
406. Moodie minima L. Solanaceae 4.4 Fruit : edible
407. Soignee Ogres L. Solanaceae 4.4 Leaver : vegetable
408. S. turatteate Biol.!. Solanaceae 4.4
409. Centronocturne. L. $ SOIARROW 2.4 Ornamental
410. Capsicum insure L* Solanaceae 4.4 Spices.
5;'
54
(Cont.-)
411. Capsices trvteicees L. Solsnacese 4.4 Spices
412. Selma ryollmarpo L. Wanness 3.5 ---
413. S. Wins aunt. Solapaceae 2.5 ---
414. legisetia Wiwi L. Orobafichacete 4.4 ---
415. Cestranthert indica (L.) Gamble. Scropholsrisceas 4.4 ---
416. Liodersi6 cilists (Colts) Peneell. SeropholAritteeas 4.3 ---
417. L. bIrtA (C i 8) Pennell, 8cropholArlAcele 4.3 ----
418. L. vim,' 2Aktl. ScropholArinette 4.3 ----
410. kkAopiliorpe lootiflor• Heath. scrophouistoe 4.4
420. Bowie Melt L. Scropholsriaceie 4.4
421. Somibis delphinit0116 (1.0 Dol. $crophulAriecue 4.4
422.
423.
Strip lute& Lour,
. WPM' juices LVCC.$
Sembulariimeat
Scrophulariaccie
4.6.6
4.9
----
Orhasentil
424. Litdereis corditolis (0100) Nerr. ScrophulArisceat 4.3 ----
425. L. Astipode (L.) iliton. ScrophelArlacese 4.3 ---
426. Sterodis vinorm Sorb. ScrophulAriame 4.0 ---
427. Otrictilaria ClierVi011 L. LentibulAriAcese 4.5
428. 0. eroletA R. Br. Lentibulariaceee 4.5 --
429. U. retiewlen Si. Lentibulnrineene 4.5
430. O. gores Lour. Lentibulifineelie 4.5
431. leterophragee qudriloculAre Herb. Dignoniacelle 1.3 Tisber
432. Ororylee indieme Vent. Bignoniseele 1.3 Timber
433. Bignonit vnguis - Ceti L.*
Bignenimeette 2.2 Ornanental
55
(Coat...)
434. Sumo Wien L.*
Pedaliaceae 4.4 Seed oil : lighting
435. Waage Wows* Nair. Pedaliaceae 4.4
438. Idhatoda varica Nees. Icanthaceae 2.4 Boots A leaves : cough
437. Acanthus illicifolitie L. Icanthaceae 2.4 - -
438, iedrographie paniculata Nees. Acanthaceae 4.4 Whole plant : verlifuge.
439. Barleria cristitta L. Acanthaceae 4.4 -
440. B. strigosa Mid. Acanthaceae 4.4
441. laplanthat verticillatus (kotb.) Went. Icanthaceae 4.4 ---
442. Dicliptera seylanloa Nees. Acanthaceae 4.3
443. Isystaria daltelliama Sant, Acanthaceae 3.5 - -
444. Wright's+, room Br. Icanthaceae 4.4 Ormatental
445. Oesigraphis latehrosa Nem Acanthaceae 3.4 Bark A leaves : bitter tonic
446. lygrophila auricillata suet. Acantbaceite 4.4 Seed : gonorrhea
447. Byplenthoder aeigherryentis Vt. Icanthaceae 4.3 -
448. Jasticia micrantha Wayne. Icanthaceae 4.3 - -
440. J. procusbens L. Acanthaceae 4.0
450. J. geadarussa Burs. * Acanthaceae 4.0 Ornamental
451, lepidagathis cristata Villa. Acanthaceae 3.6 ---
452. L. culpidata Nees. Acanthaceae 3.6
453. L. prostrate Dalt. Icanthaceae 3.6
454. kongia pectioata Nees. Acanthaceae 4.3
455. I. linifolia Nees. Acanthaceae 4.3 ..
(Coa t ...)
456.
451.
458.
459.
Newracanthus spharostachyul Nees,
Boller', prionitin L.
Blepbaria marries Neer.,
Jestice trinervie VOI.
Icanthacelie
tcanthaceoe
Icentheceee
Icanthecese
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.3
----
----
----
----
460. idhatoda reylanica L. Acantimeae 2.4 Ornamental
461. Strobilanther alkali Nees. icantbaceae 2.4 ----
462. isystatia gangetica L. Acantbacele 2.4 ----
463. Blepheit oaderapatensin L. Icanthacele 2.0 ----
464. Cronniiadrii lareadibuliformie Nees. Icantbaceae 2.4 ----
465. Rangia elegana Dale. icantbaceiie 4.3 ----
466. iviceenia officinalie L. Verbenaceae 2.4 Fuel rood.
461. Callicarpa tooting (L.) Nurr. Verbenaceae 1.3 Fibre : cordage
468. Clerodendruu Warn (L.) Corte. Verbenecege 2.4 Ora/mental
469. C. Retrials (L.) Noon. Verbenaceae 2.5 ----
470. C. those, Vest. Verbenaceae 2.5 Ornamental
471. Gulls& arborea lob. Verbenaceae 1.3 Vood : Kunio' inittrumeets.
472. Stechyterphele jit aicenoil (L.) Vabl. Verbenaceae 2.5 Ornamental
473. Totowa ireadis 1. Verbenaceae 1.2 Timber
474. Miter negundo L. Verbenaceae 2.5 Leaver : H104111101111, lora repellent.
475. Met altiesime L. Verbenaceae 1.2 Tleber
476. Clerodeadran 'gumbo Vabl. Verbenacean 2.5 ---
477. C. tbouioaae Ball. a Verbenaceae 2,1 Ornamental
478. Durant* plamieri Jacq. 4
Verbenaceae 2.4 ledge plant
5C
(Cut...)
479.
480.
481.
482.
483.
Avicennia satin var.
Icrocephalut indlcua (Bern.) Iuntte.
isitochiln vertielllatut Rook.
Iyptit nueolent (L,) Poit
Lunt upon Spreog.
Verbenateat
Lail/meat
Laaiaceae
Laaiaceae
Willows
2.4
4.4
4.4
3,5
4,4
----
----
---
Plant: paratitital title dliteittes
Plant: psortuit, stable.,
414. L. luandulaefolla Rut, Laaiaceae 4.4 - do -
485. L. nylamica R. Br. Laaiaceae 4.4 - do -
486. Pogottenon pulevIttet (Villd) Beath. Laaiaceae 4.4 ---
487. P. parvifloret Beath. Laaiaceae 4,4 Root : haeaorrage
488. kings bullion L.*
Laaiaceae ' 4.4 Seeds: dysentery, g000rthnea
481. O. °urinous L. Laaiaceae 4.4 Leaven : paratitital akin diteate
410. O. tauten I.. *
. Laaiaceae 4.4 Leaver/ : etpeetoramt, earache
481. Leonotia sepetifolia Br. Winne 4.4 ----
482. Boerhavia diffun L. Myetaginacette 4.3 Roots : anthelmintic i febrifuge
493. Bougainvillea tputabilit Villd.t
Nyetaginsceae 2.4 Ornamental
494. ichyranthet aspen L. imaranthsceae 4.3 Vbole Plant purgative, dropsy
405. Uinta argeatea L. imaramthacele 4.0 Ornamental
496. Asaranthet opium L. isaranthatette 4.4 Leave,: vegetable
497. !ern lent* L. imaranthatne 4.4 ----
498. Gospliren ceiniodet L. Inaranthacele 4.3 ----
411. imaratthwt hybridut L. Amannthana. 4.4 Leaven : vegetable
500. Alternanthera multi, L. imannthacette 4.3 ----
57
(Coat...)
501. terve pertica Bars. Wrentham 4.0 ---
502. Polygons °Om Bind. Polygonacese 2.4 Leaves: colic pain
503. P. plebeium R.Br. Polygonum 4.3 ---
504. Nueblenbectia platycladon L. Polygonaceae 2,1 Ormental
505. Ariotolochia indica L. Iriotolochium 2.1 Root: tonic, (Julie, in feve
50$. Piper trichottachyon MO DC. Piperaceae 2.1 ----
507. Peperolia pellucida(1.)B.B.1, Piperaceae 4.4 Vhole plant : edible
508. Piper nigrus E. Piperaceae 2..1 Seeds : spices
509. Myrintica fragrant Boutt.t
Byrinticacele 1.3 Spices
510. Whiling suraotha Beet. Lanracese 1.3 Laves: ulcers. Bark: rkedadlise
511. CIONA00011. neylanim RI. Lauraceae 1.2 Bark : spices, rtienlant
512. Elaegnus latifolla L. Elaegnaceae 2.0 --
513. Belicanthes elastics (Dear.) Dens. - Loranthaceae 3.3 ---
514. Desdropthoe (Licata (L.) Etting Lorantbaceao 3.3 ----
515. Nacrosolen capitollatur (Vt. Il. Are) Dancer Loranthaceae 3.3
516. Scarrala phillperrie (Thal i Sohi.) G. Don Loranthaceae 3.3 ----
SIT. Saitains album L.s
Santalacm 1.3 Vood: cottiostic industry,
51B. Bridelia retain (L.) Spread. Euphorblaceae 1.2 Timber
519. Bridelia nankin (Korb) Villd. Euphorbiaceae 1.3 Feel wood
520. Croton bospldbdiahus kill Eupborbiaceae 4.4 Ornaments,
521. Eurhorbia hirta L. Eupborbisecae 4.3 ----
522. E. heterophylla L. Eupborbiacese 4,3 ----
523. E. thyalfolia L. . Euphorblaceac 4.3
58
59
524.
525.
E. sotoptera Bolin.
Glocbidioa hobeaacteri Bedd.
Eupborbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
4.3
1.3
---
Fuel wood
528. Jatropha carcee L. Eupborbiaceae 1.3 Ornamental fence.
527. Vietnam commis L. Eupborbiaceae 2.5 Seeds: purgative.
528. Breynia retuaa (Dennat) illtoft. Eaphorbilicelle 2.4 Fruit! edible
528. Mallotmn album afoot. Euphorbiaceae 1.3 Feel wood
530. N. pkilippeanim (Lam.) hell. Eupborbiaceae 1.3
531. Phyllanthem emblica L. ' Euphorbiaceae 1.3 Freit : source of vitamin C
532. P. maderanpatenfir L. Euphorbiaceae 1.3 --
533. P. reticulatim Poir. Euphorbiaceae 1.3 ---
534. P. fraternum Vebm. Eupborbiaceae 4.3 ---
535. Sepias insigne Benth. Euphorbiaceae 1.3
538. Tregia involucrata L. Eupborbiaceae 3.4 ---
537. Pedilanthen tithyualoidea (L.) Poit.t
Euphorbiaceae 2.5 Ornamental, fencing
538. Macaranga peltata (Korb.) Nuell -Arg, Eupborbiaceae 1.3 Fuel wood
538. fireplia paten, Rolfe. Euphorbiaceae 2.4 ----
540. Bitchofia Javanica Blase. Euphorbiaceae 1.2 ----
541. Bridella bailltollia Vall. Eupborbiaceae 1.3 ---
542. Putranjiva rorburgbil Vali. Eupborbiaceae 1.2 ----
543. Poitmettia puleberrima Villd. ' Euphorbiaceae 2.5 Ornamental
544. V0,0504 riparia LW. Euphorbiaceae 2.4 ----
545. Euphorbia neriifolia L. Eupborbiaceae 2.8 Ornamental, fencing.
Co
(Coat...)
546.
547.
548.
Glocbidioa veylasicus A. Jus .
Eaphorbia parvilolla L.
E. pyllostegia L.
Eupborbilicue
Eaphorbiacese
Euphorbiacue
1.3
4.0
2.0
Fuel wood.
---
---
549. Tres& orientalio (L.) Blume. Ullaceae 1.2 Beat for reclamation
550. Boebseria subrella Rorb Urticaceae 3.1 ---
551. Potisolria xeylaaica L. Urticaceae 4.3 Whole Plant: syphilis
552. Pilea microphylla L Urticaceae 4.3 ----
553. Elastostessa cuneatuo Vt. Urticaceae 4.3 ----
554. Celtic cianausea Liadl. Urticaceae 1.3 ----
555. Ficus macrophylla L. Noraceae 1.3 ---
556. Moran elba L. Noracue 1.3 ----
557. irtourpus gosezianus Wall err Tree. Noraceite 1.2 Fruit: edible
558. Lrtocarpua heterophyllue Leak. *
&lime 1.2 Frait: edible
559. hug wards& Rorb. Noracue 1.3
560. Hews bengbalereis L. Noraceite 1.1 Ornamental, sacred tree.
561. Ficus heterophylla 1. Nowell: 1.2 ---
562. Ficus hippida L. Noraceae 1.3
563. Pious raceme L. Noracese 1.3 Fruits: edible
564. Ficus tinctoria Forst. Noumea() 1.3
565. Fleas drupacea Thumb. Noraceae 1.3 Fruit: edible
566. Ficus gloserata Rorb. Noraceu 1.2 Ornuental
567. Ficus religion L.*
Noracue 1.2 Ornamental, sowed tree.
568. Flees rtimphii L. Noracue 1.3 Ornamental
(Con t...)
589.
570.
571.
Canaria' equilefolia J. R 1 G. s
SAiif tetrasperoa kotb.
Ceratopbylloo depersuo L.
Cauarinaceae
Salicanele
Celtatophytlao
1.2
2.5
2.5
keelmlion
----
----
572. Vallisperia spiralis L. Bydricharitaceae 4.9 Ornaaental
573. Bursannia mills (Vali el Stern) Tbs. Burelniaceite 4.4 ---
574. Leiria tenuifolia Bl. Orebidaceae 5.0 ----
575. inapt praesorsa Roth). Blatt A McCann. Orchidaceae 5.0 ---
576. Aeriden erispus Lind) Orebidaneae 5.0 Onaaental
577. Aerider naeulogus Lindl Orebidaneae 5.0 --
578. Dendrobius ovatus (Villd) Irani. Orchidateae 5.0 ---
579. Fria sierochilos Lindl. Orehidaneae 5.0 ---
580. Babenaria grandiflorifors11 Blatt 1 McCann Orebidaceae 4.4 Ornamental
581. Babenaria sarginata Coleb, Orcbidaceae 4.4 - -
582. Nerviliii aragoana Gaud Orchidateae 4.4 ---
583. kbyachostylio retook (L.) 81. Orchidaceite 5.0 Ornasental
584. hada teelelata (Ron.) kook. Orcbidaneao 5.0 Ornalental
585. Coitus 'peelings (loeiiig) So. Zingiberaceae 4.4 koot: astringent, purgative, snake-bite.
586. t
Curtails smutting Swop. Zingiberaceae 4.4 1110ose: carsioative, 100e-bite
587. C. oeilglierreosie Vt. Zingiberaceae 4.0 ---
588. Corm* decipiens DAI2. Zingiberaceae 4.0 ---
589. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Zingiberaceae 4.3 ithi7ose : piles, jaundice.
590. Grim latifolimo L. kaarYllidtceae 4.4 Rhixose : reusatiss 1 piles,
G
(Cont....)
591. Dioscorea bulbifere L. Dioecoreaceae 4.9 Bulbs - theepatiel, pile,. L
592. D. glebra Rorb. Dioecoreaceae 4.9 Bulb, and belbile: edible
593. D. hispide Delimit. Dioecoreaceae 4.9 ---
594. D. oppoeitifolie L. Dioscoreacele 4.9 . Bulb edible
595. D. pentaphylla L. Dioecoreaceae 4.9 ---
SOS. D. wallichii Boot. f, Dioscoreaceae 4.9 Bulb edible
597. itperague maim! Villd. Wilmette 4.9 Tuber edible
598. Dracaena terniflora Rorb. Liliaceae 4.9
599. Gloriola Rupert)* L. Liliaceae 4.9 Root : antheleintie, leprosy.
800. Urginea indica (Rorb.) Sunni Liliaceee 4.4 Bulb : bronchitis.
601. Seiler seylanice L. Sellacese 2.2 Root : rbeuestiom, dysentery.
602. Nonocborie veginalie Burn. f. Pontederiaceee 4.4 ----
603. Coopelina alternate Teen. Coomelienaceee 4.9.1 ---
604. C. diffuse Bum C011ehAMICOAO 4.9.1 ---
605. C. palvdon 111. Coorielineche 4.9.1 ---
606. Cyanotic crietata (I..) D. Doe. Copeelinache 2.5 ---
607. Ruthenia ',edifiers (I..) Oman Coonelinacette 4.9.1 ---
608. N. miters, (Dalr). Sent. Connelinache 4.0,1 ---
609. N. Sipple! Vahl Couaelinaceae 4.9.1 ---
610. M. Crocee (Griff.) Paden. Cooselieaceae 4.9.1 ---
611. Flagellarie iadica L. Flegelleriache 2.5 ---
M. Waive pseudo-tennis Deco. i 9k Arecache 1.3 Rood : furniture
613. Ceryota wrens L. irecacese 1.2
62
(Coat...)
614. Pandang tectoria Sol. Pandanaceae 1.3 Plover : pertenery.
615. larphophalla bulbirer (Rotb) 81. Araceae 4.8 Allitoner edible.
616. A. capitulate" (Bab) 81. Araceae 4.6 Rhiteses edible
617. Pother Hadar L. Araceae 3.2
618. Colocania erculenta (L.) Schott $ Araceae 4.6 Rhizeper edible
619. Theriopboavu daltellii Schott Araceae 4.3 ---
620. ilocaria indica Schott. Araceae 4.6 Edible tuber
621. Warty peltata line Araceae 4.6 ---
622. learatia vivipara (Rotb.) Schott. Araceae 4.8
623. Iriaosia Wilma (Wall) Schott, Araceae 4.6 ---
824. Pirtia atratiola L. Arleen 4.8 ---
825. Eriocaulon dime Pyron Eriocaularacelle 4.0 ---
626. E. dianae Fyroa var longibracteala Fyron, triocaularticere 4.0 ---
627. E. etellglata lam Eriocaularaceae 4.0 ---
628. E. robata-browriaall Ruhl. Eriocaulliceae 4.0 ---
629. E. ritchieanun Rohl. Erlocaulaceite 4.0 ---
630. Bulbortylir deal (Wall.) Rand. Cyperaceae 4.9.1 ---
631. Cyperla coalmine L. Cyperaceae 4.9.1 ---
632. Cypera cornball Rottb. Cyperaceae 4,9,1 ---
633. Cyperua cyperoider (L.) 0, Ionize. Cyperaceae 4.9.1 ---
634. C. hapao L. Cyperaceae 4.9.) ---
835. C. tyllioga Indl. Cyperaceae 4,9.1 ---
3
64
(Coat...)
638. C. lencocephalee Bets. Cyperaceae 4.9.1 ---
637. C. murmur L. Cyperaceae 4.9.1 ---
638. Fiebrietylie dichotomy (L.) Vehi. Cyperaceae 4.9.1 ---
639. F. digitate beck. Cyperaceae 4.9.1 ---
840. F. eiliacea (L.) Vah1. Cyperaceae 4.9.1 ---
641. F. Imre Roe.. A Schutt. Cyperaceae 4.9.1 ---
642. F. voodrovii Clke. Cyperaceae 4.8.1 ---
643. Rhyecbospora vightiana Steed. Cyperaceae 4.4 ---
644. Cyperve congloseratur Rottb. Cyperaceae 4.0 ---
645. Iylliege brevifolia Rottb. Cyperaceae 4.0
646. 1. trlcepa. Rottb. Cyperaceae 4.0
647. Fiebristylis colipalanata (Retx) Link, Cyperaceae 4.0 ---
848. Cyperne odoratun L.. Cyperaceae 4.9.1 ----
649. Fiubrietylin junooidee Lank, Cyperaceae 4.0 ----
850. Cyperes ealaccensit Lank. Cyperaceae 4,0 ----
851. C. rotnedee L.e
Cyperaceae 4.0 Tubers: stomachic, duiretic
852. Digitaria marginate. Link. • Poaceae 4.0 ---
653. Cynbopogon parker) Step,. Poaceae 4.0
654. Paolo* peilopodilie trio Poaceae 4.0 ----
655. Eragrostis piloea L. Poaceae 4,0 ----
656. !scheme eeeitagittates R019. Poaceae 4.0 ----
657. I. repeal Saheb. Poem* 4.0 ----
659. Cyobopogoe citrate, L.*
Poaceae 4.0 ----
6 5 65
(Coat....)
650.
6$0.
661.
662.
Digitaria slide Roth.
Wow, navnercals Bor.
flytropbotile stilettos (Bind) Cason
Incline globose Ionize
Poacese
Neese
?mese
Poaceae
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
----
----
----
----
883. Pennisetos hohenackeri Roast Poaceae 4.0 ----
664. Digitaria ciliarin ?rain Poaceae 4.0 ----
865. irundinella ciliate L. Poaces* 4.0 ---- I
688. Botbriocbloa toelkesii Ri. Poacese 4,0 ----
667. irondinalla mile (Rocket.) Stead. Poem 4.0 ----
688. I. pygasses Bk. Poaceae 4.0 --
SW Bonbon arondinacea (Reit.) Wind Poeceae 1.0 Wood construction
670. Botbriochloa patios& (I.) A. Cason. Poaceae 4.0 --
671. Cynodon dactylon (I..) Pers. Poaceae 4.0 Fodder
672. Dactylocienius aegyptius (L.) P. Rem. home 4.0 Fodder
673. D. shiftily, Link. Poaceae 4.0 --
674. Dendrocalason strictus (Rotb) Nees, Poaceae 1.0 Wood construction
875. Digitaris &descendent (O. Bk.) bear, Pawn 4.2 Fodder
676. Digitaria longillora Betz, home 4,0 Fodder
617. Diseria voodrovii Stapt. Poaceae 4.0 --
678. Echnochloa colons (L.) Link Pewee 4.0 --
878. Eritgrostis ciliarir (L.) R.Br. Nacelle 4.0 ---
880. E. ultioloidee (Beta,) Neat. Poaceae 4.0 ----
(Coat...)
681. leteropogon contortel (L.) P. Bear. Poaceee 4.0 For thatching
682. Incline eiliom Roth Poaceae 4.0 Fodder
683. ileums coojogatoo Korb. Pomp) 4.0
684. iteileatt Imo Pack. Poaceae 4.0 Fodder
685. Monirorip ocuoinoto (Rook) luotro. Poaceae 4.2 ---
686. Naniterir goenrir Iona Poaceae 4.2
687. N. talbotli (BUJ Bor. Poaceae 4.2 ---
681. PAOCUO poinciana ROlb. Poaceae 4.0 Fodder
848. Phragoite, karka (Reit.) Mr. Poaceae 4.0 ----
690. Setoria pooila I. Poaceae 4.0 ----
691. Sporobolur diander (Rely.) P. Beam Poaceae 4.0 ----
682. Spinifer littoreur (Burr: I.) Herr. Poem 4.1 ---- a
GG
67
co-dominants. Herbaceous flora is mainly comprised of patura metelt
Cassia tora. occidentalia. Alocasia indica, Mimosa pudica., Leta indica
and 1pomoea pes-caprae a creeper on the sand terrain.
A good number of plant species are found in these forests with a
pulvinus which is the enlarged cushion like of a leaf. It is a
mechanism which enables many plants to change direction and move the
position of their leaves according to the amount of external stimulus
especially light and water. The mechanism make a number of legume
species to fold their pinnate leaves, remarkable examples are those of
Tamarindus indica, Albizzia lebbek, Cassia Osus, Cassia torn, C.
occidentalis and many other species of the genus Cassip.
The most sensitive species are the young and immature which are
exposed to the danger of browsing hence, they have the tendency to
fold leaves earlier even before sunset. The most rapid folding species
through the pulvinus mechanism are Mimosa pudica, Sm thia mpsitiva
and Bioohytum sensitivum.
About nine hundred vascular plant species were collected in
triplicate and placed in herbarium. Some of the plant species which
were not found flowering in the previous seasons had to be collected
in flowering condition in the following season. The plant species
mentioned in the list overleaf (Table: 4) are those whose economic
importance are widely in use and deserve to be in the first ranking
position. Out of about nine hundred plant specimens so far collected,
it is well about 500 plant species with high economic values that are
generally accepted in this locality.
Salient behavioural patterns of plant communities
a) From the studies done on the ground truth data, it was found that
some plant species are broad in their distribution on the plains
(plateau) and lowland areas of the western Ghats of Goa and the
largest bulk of plant species biomass are namely:
68
Abrus precatoritle, Pombax cejba, Calycopteris floribunda,
Careva arborea, trvatamia heyneana, Holarr_hena antidyeenterica,
Lannea coromandelica, MIcrocos paniculata, Tervinalia paniculata and
Randia dumetorum.
b) Slopes influence soils and drainage whioh, in turn, affeot plant
life. On steep sloping land the soil is apt to be thin, stony and
immature, and the depth texture of such soils will influence the
kinds of plants that grow. Slope lands are more particularly prone to
the influence of gravity and the downslope movement of regolith and
soil will occur. Under such gravitational movements a sequence of
plant life and hence the pattern of the vegetation is modified
accordingly (Robinson, 1972).
During the study a number of species have been found to grow
on extreme solely selected habitats viz. very steep slopes.
Table: 5 Species that were found to thrive best on very steep slopes
(between 10' and 45'):
IS. 1 Taxon Family Angle o slope INo.1
I I
11. I Woodfordia froticosa Lythraceae 1 20' - 40'
12. 1 Breynla patens Euphorbiaceae: 15" - 35'
13. 1 Wendlandia thysoidea Rubiaceae 10' - 30'
:4. Pteris peliuoida Pteridaceae 20' - 40"
Is. : P. vittata Pteridaceae 15' - 35' : I 16. I Capparis mon41 Capparidaceael 20' - 45'
1 17. Connarys Connaraoeae 10' - 35'
with The species probably require well drained soils along
other
moisture
probable factors like higher intensity
content of the soils,
of light and
69
c) Four categories of coppicing powers have been identified in the
species found on the Western Ghats of Goa namely: the species that
Coppice strongly, Coppice fairly, Coppice badly and those that do
not Coppice or very rarely, if at all.
Category: 1. Coppice strongly; Acacia oatechu. D
Ficus asperrima. F. benghalensis, F, tinctoria, Mecarenga peltata,
Syzvzium cumini and Syzvtium zeylanicum,
Category: 2. Coppice fairly; Alstonta acholaris. Tprminalia
paniculata. Terminaii4k bellerioa, TeToinoLia ariona, Anaoardium
occidentals. I,annea ooromandelica. Goroin.ka inOLLoa and tionglfera
indica.
Category: 3. Coppice badly; Leucaena lgamokahala„ Acacia chundrai_
A. arabica and AL. torte.
Category: 4. Do not coppice, very rarely if at all; Acacia
auriculiformis. Cas uarina ecluisetifolia and 6cacia mangium,
d) During the survey of the Western Ghats veg9tation (Goa) some new
plant species were recorded for the first time for this region
namely:
Table: 6 Some new recorded plant species of the Goa's Western Ghats
region.
:S. 1 Taxon Family 1 No. I I I I
11. 1Atylosia craSSe Prain
:Fabaceae
12. 1Hypericum mypprense Wall
:Hypericeae
13. :Hugonia mystex L. (Fig. 7a) :Linaceae
A. 1Merremia °marginate Hallier :Convolvulaceae 1 1 15. 1Scutia indica Brongn (Fig. 7b) :Rhamnaceae
r7. 1Ventilago genticulata Willd 1 Connaraceae
0 70
Atylosia crassa, Prain and Merremia emargjnata Hallier are more
confined to the lower Ghats at Mormugao and Verna areas.
HypericuM mysorense Wall and Squtta indica Brongn are rarely
distributed in the upper Western Ghats near Caranzol (Sattari).
Hugonia mystax L. was found on banks of fresh water
tributaries of River Mandovi (Dudhsagar river) at Collem and areas
between Cotorem and Birondem - Goa. Venti1ago dentilago is found in
the Cotigao forest. Aeschynomene aspera is located at Zuarinagar
Marmagao, Nuvem, Margao - Salcette.
1.1.4. DISCUSSION
Rao (1985 - 1986) has botanically surveyed many of the villages
the author surveyed. The observations made by him are more or lasts
similar with the author's findings (though the author's interests in
the present work was more in phytosociology and not on pure taxonomy).
The species composition at Caranzol, Caudal and Penderal reflect a
stable but "delicate" ecosystem which has remained undisturbed
probably for several centuries. One major indication is that of
finding abundant natural wild populations of the cultivated species
like Cinamomum macrocais.bUm. Mangifara Indica. tturraya paniculata and
Artocarpus heterophYllvs growing gregariously in these forests.
The main reason might be due to the extremely low human
population density which is 79 persons per sq.km. (Singh and Ahuja,
1990) therefore the exploitation of the forests by the villagers has
remained quite low. Some of the villages which were botanically
surveyed by the author which confirmed with the findings of Rao (Loc.
cit) are Caranzol, Caudal, Pendral, Honda, Vaguriem Valpoi Sattari
taluka, Dudhsagar, oxel, Uguem, Surla, Mollem-Sanguem taluka, and
Agonda, Palolem, Cola, Canacona, Cotigao, Poinguinim and Loliem in
Canacona taluka. Though several villages on the plains, which are
interrupted by a few hills, have been modified by agricultural crops,
71
some still harbour a wide range of plant species especially Siddhanath
hill, Borim Ponda taluka and Curtorim Maina villages - Salcette
taluka.
Plant species which were predicted by the previous workers of
their probability of oocurrence in Goa have been confirmed by the
author to be in this locality namely;
Crateva nurvala Such - Ham. Loc: Borim Ponda, Zaranim, Caudal -
Sattari.
Ventilago dentipulata Gaertn. which was located only in
Nagarhavelli by Rao (1985). The same has been found in the Canacona
forests extending down to north Kanara by the author.
Butea monosperma. (Lamk.) Taub. Loot Molten: - Colleen and Sonauli
Sanguem. It is a tare species in this locality. Dalgado (1989)
recorded it in the Goa forests but did not mention the locality.
OuSeinia ooieinensjs (Roxb.) Hoehreut. Loc: a Pale village -
Bicholim. It is not clear whether it might have been introduced or
not; since the author has not located it anywhere in the Goa region.
OroxYlum Andlok.10 (L.) K. Schum. Loc: Mains" Raia, Fatorda and
Margao Salcette. Rao (1986) has mentioned the species as being
common in the evergreen forest of Concan and Kanara ghats.
Holoptelea integrifoila Planch. Loc: a Fatorda village 1/2 km from J.
Nerhu stadium, Margao Salcette.
Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. Loc: Pale village - Bicholim,
Raia village - Salcette and Borim village - Ponda.
Rao (1986) predicted its locality in Goa since it is frequent in
the north Kanara and Concan. (N.B. Please note that the localities
given here are as per the findings of the author).
Gaitonde (1994) has mentioned in his research paper on "Medicinal
resources from Western Ghats forest (Goa)" of a species Paedaria
foetida being in the Goa's forest as indigenous. This species is found
7'
in the central and eastern Himalayas upto 5,000 ft, extending to
Calcutta and Malay peninsula. Such mistakes would not have arisen had
the species been identified by a taxonomist, then reconfirmed with an
authentic voucher specimen and reference made with the local floral
textbooks. The same author has made a mention of Grewia microcos which
Rao (1950) after careful analysis of several African and Malaysian
species, is convinced that this single Indian species should be
considered under MicroCos only. This genus is distinct from Grewia by
several characters as indicated by him. Gaitonde (Loc. cit.) mentioned
the taxon Microcos paniculata as Grewia micr000s which is under a
distinct different genus from Grewia.
The most serious issue, is the misidentification of a plant
species which is being diagnosed for some chemical properties and may
find its way to the public through a pharmaceutical industry. Gaitonde
(1988) has misidentified a plant species Embelia ribs as tulle_ Indica
of which he has made detailed pharmacognostic study without confirming
the taxon identity.
Local names of plant species vary from one region to another
therefore it was wrong to use merely the local name "Vavding" to refer
to Embelia Fines as Massa indica. The use of local names of a species
as authentic for pharmacological diagnosis test or any other related
studies, can be very Misleading.
To cite an example is that of a pharmaceUtical firm in the U.S.A
which initiated a program of obtaining information by searching books
on medical botany concerning the flora of primitive countries.
Interesting uses of plants were noted, and orders were placed for the
collection of 1 kg quantities of each plant for initial
pharmacological screening. Commercial plant suppliers usually operate
by notifying their botanist collaborators to collect specific plants
(giving them the Latin name and any other pertinent information). In
7 3 73
most cases, the botanists recognises the Latin name of the plant as
one which is known popularly by the natives under some common
(vernacular) name. A native in the area who is knowledgeable in herbal
medicine is dispatched to collect 2 kg of "the bark of capinuri" (as a
hypothetical sample).
The native collects what to him is "capinuri", but a native in an
adjoining village or province might have collected an entirely
different plant that he knew as "capinuri". This is not too difficult
to understand; even in Europa, if a person was asked to collect 2 kg
of "periwinkle", that person could conceivably return with any one of
four or five different species of plants, each quite distinctly
unrelated. Thus, the shipment of "capinuri" is shipped to the
pharmaceutical firm (invariably the collector does not supply for
future reference, a voucher herbarium specimen of the plant being
collected). The extract from the "capinuri" shows very interesting
pharmacological effects, and the commercial supplier is requested to
obtain 500 kg of the bark of the specified Latin name plant. Our
supplier again notifies his contact (usually several months or years
4 later), and perhaps a different native is dispatched to collect the
500 kg of "capinuri". Again no voucher specimen is made and the 500 kg
of bark', after extraction and testing for confirmation of the original
activity, is found to be devoid of that activity!
Several years ago, more than 20 plants with extremely interesting
pharmacological effects were obtained by the aforementioned
pharmaceutical firm, but the pharmacological effects shown by most of
the plants could not be duplicated when collected samples were tested A
subsequently. The obvious answer to the mystery (by those in charge of
the operation) was that this simply represented the trials and
tribulations *of botanical -. chemical - pharmacological research and/or
3' biological variation from one batch of plant material to the next.
74 Could not all this have been avoided if all parties concerned had
been more aware of the need for proper precautions in documenting
botanical specimens so that identical collections could have been made
at a later date? (Tonne, i986). Millions of dollars might have been
spent in this project which resulted to no achievement but losses,
This is surely a lesson each one of us should learn and try tO avoid,
A large number of exotic plant species are found in the Goan
home backyards whose clear identity or origin have not been
investigated, this is because the Portuguese (who were frequent
sailors world-wide) used to collect any attractive plant species
they could come across with and introduce them in their colonies.
There is need to do more investigations also into the exotic flora
of this region.
Some areas on the Sayhadri hills are impenetrable and in certain
cases, rocky outcrops makes it challenging to obtain a precise
botanical survey for an entire analysis of the vegetation of Goa's
Western Ghats.
Goa being blessed by nature with dense semi-evergreen forests
at the foot hills of the mountains, a rich fauna, a natural
architectural landscape with bountiful of fresh water rivers should be
appreciated and respected by all. For the survival of mankind and
generations to come, this unique gift of nature ought to be protected
and looked after at all costs.
1.2 COMMON PLANT ASSOCIATIONS OF THE WESTERN GHATS OF GOA.
1.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Plants tend to occur together in associations. The associations
are determined by a variety of factors including climate, soils and
drainage. Plant association is used in ecology in either the abstract
sense to refer to a characteristic assemblage of species comparable to
a community, that appear as a unit vegetation or in concrete sense
as a measure of similarity of occurrence of two species.
Plant association can act as understorey indication of site
quality for example the occurrence of Calamus pseudo-tennis, Murraya
paniculata. ArdiSia solanacea in the primary semi-evergreen forest is
an indication of a good site quality on the other hand the occurrence
of CalotroPiq $1kantema Trema orientalie. Santana camara is an
indication of poor quality sites (Personal observation).
According to Meher-Homji (1984), Goa lies in one of the
phytogeographic zones which is along the West coast and Western Ghats.
The zone consists of a potentially evergreen forest dominated by
Dioterocaroua Meawa Palaq_ium species.
Though the classification is rather fair for such a very large
country like India, but it is rather broad to be applied in this area.
For instance the above named species especially Palaoium are rare on
the Goa's Western Ghats. Rao (1985) has broadly classified Goa's
vegetation into 6 types. During the survey there appeared to be
species' composition variation, (Personal observation) and therefore,
detailed investigation was carried out on the vegetation types.
1.2.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant association in its abstract sense was used which was later
reconfirmed by statistical methods such as chi-square (X 2 ), poisson
series for detection of pattern. A large number of random quadrats
wprp sampled and data recorded in contingency tables for each of the
76
qualitatively detected association.
a) X2 - test for association between species. The presence or absence
of each plant species are recorded at each qualitative association.
Plant species with extremely low frequency are eliminated and a
two by two contingency table constructed for all the plant species.
The reciprocal (1/n) of the calculated value of X2 between each
species pair is used to construct diagrams.
Thus a pair of plant species highly positively associated and
with a large X2 value are positioned close to each other.
The use of X2 test to prove the significance of the relationship
between expected and observed occurrences is a valuable tool in
vegetation type analysis.
b) Poisson series of detection of non-randomness. By relating the
observed number of individuals per quadrat to the expected number
derived from the formula belOw;
e -m , me -m m2e-m m3e -m
etc.
2! 3!
Where e = 2.718 and m = mean density of the population.
This can be tooted using statistical tables to prove their
significance whether they are randomly distributed or they occur by
chance. (Kershaw, 1973).
Transect Method: It is a Sampling strip extending across a stand or
several stands (Oosting, 1958) which is useful where one is concerned
with the analysis of Vegetation changing in composition through an hl
ecotone (transitional zone between any two communities). The size and
number of transects varied with extent of the different stands.
A calibrated string of 1 meter segments or more was run across
the vegetation in the north-south direction. The presence and absence
of plant species in each one meter segment was noted down. Only those
plant species which touched the string, were considered. The method is
7?
useful especially for grassland (Misra, 1968) sampling.
Another appropriate use of transacts is in the study of pattern
(Moore and Chapman, 1986).
1.2.3. OBSERVATIONS
During a botanical survey of the Western Ghats (Goa) about nine
different species associations type were identified which are as
follows (Fig. 70.
A) Mangrove association: Rhizophora mucronata, coniug*ta, (<ardelia
°andel, Avicennia marina, Acanthus ilicifolius, Bruguiera gYMnorrhiza,
Cyperus Laevigatus and CYPeruS arenanus.
B) Sandy area association: Pandanus tectorius, Vitex negundo.
Thespesia poPulnea, (Fig. 8a) Pogostemon paniculatus, spinifex
littareus (co-dominant), 1pomoea biloba, Jaunea fallax, Urginea
indica, Cassytha filiformis, Plumbago zeylanica, (Fig. 8b) Lantana
camara Phvllanthus reticulatus, Calophyllum inophyllum (Fig. 8c) and
Polycarpaea corymbosa.
C) River banks - fresh water association:Barringtonia acutpngula,
Ficus glomerpta. Liagerstroemia parvLfloral Pandanus tectorius
occasionally, Pongamia pinpata and Vitex leucoxylon.
N.B: Hydrophytes lie under this category especially those in marshy
areas and slow moving water.
e.g. Flagellaria ind ca, 4crostichurk aureum, Cyperus Sops. Nymphasta
spps, Utricularia spPs and Drosera sus.
D) Rocky plateau association: Alstonia scholaris, HYdnocarous
laurifolia, Sterculia, urens. Careya arborea. Bombax ceiba, holarrhena
antidysenterica, (co-dominant) Lepidagathia cristata, Whpiciagathis
prostrata.
E) Moist field association: NIzyirimpi cumint. Mangifera 110dica,
Holigarna arnottiana A'tocarpus gomezianua and Buchanania lanzan.
EXPLANATION OF 11,1iTE
KEY TO THE MAP SHOWING COMMON PLANT SPECIES
ASSOCIATIONS OF THE WESTERN GHATS' COM).
S. No. PLANT ASSOCIATION SYMBOL
1. Mangrove Association
a. Sandy Association
3. River Banks Fresh Water Association C
4. Rocky Plateau Association
5. Moist Field Association
6. Scrub Association
7. Semi evergreen Forest Association
8. Grassland Association
9. Deciduous Forest Association
W. Cultivated Fields-Man Made Association - Blank *O&M no symbol was Ovum
MAP OF GOA SHOWING MAJOR DIVISIONS OF VEGETATION
ASSOCIATION TYPES OF GOA
FIG. 7C, MAJOR DIVISIONS OF v GETA ION ASSOCIATION IYFI- S OF GOA,
17
SCALE 1: 5,00,000
7g F) Scrub association: Ziziohus glaberriMal Z. Oenoalia, Abrus
precatorus. Terminalia paniculata, Calycepteris floribunda, MemecYlon
wightii, CelastruS panioulata, Wagatea spicata and Merremia Otifolia
(Fig. 9a, b and c).
G) Semi - evergreen forest association: Xylia gylocarpa, Schleichera
oleosa, Hopea wightiana, Vitex altissima, Viteria indica, Dalbergka
latifolia. DioopYros pruriens, Calamus pseudo-tenuls, Glyoosmis
pentaphylla, pillePia indica, Ardisia solanaceae (Fig. lla and b)
Pvschotria dalgellii, and Lageretroemia lanceolata.
H) Patches of grassland association: lseilema laxum, Jschaemum
conjugatum. pilosou. Heteroposon contortus. Disitaria longiflora,
Isachne globosa and Echinochloa colopum (Fig. 10a, b, c and d).
I) Deciduous forest association: Garcinia indica, Mimusops elensi,
Strychnos nux-vomica, Bridelia retusa, Terminalia ariuna, T.
bellirica, T. tomentosa, crenulata, Caryota wrens. and Actinodaphne
angustifplia.
J) Cultivated fields (Man-made association): All known crops e.g.
Oryza sativa Musa paradislaca, Mangifera Oldica. Cocos nucitera etc.
Some transects were prepared to show the different vegetation type
(Fig. 8d).
N.B. The same alphabets (A, B, C ) have been used in the key map
except cultivated areas which are left blank.
Estimates are based at 95% confidence limits of probability.
Estimate of total diversity = 1150 vascular plant species covering an
area of 3702 Sq. km.
a) Diversity and role of Plant Association in the Goa's Western Ghats.
A) Mangrove association: Estimated diversity is 35 which is 3.04% of
the total plant species diversity. It is the hatching, breeding and
spawning ground for several fishes, crustaceans and reptiles. Stilt
roots of Rhiseehora and pneumatophores it Avicenria help aid soil
Fig. 9a.'(11..-3.1ItZitLnalag_Vab Wind.
Flowering tuts . Fig,gb nest_tea qa csa Dal t
Flowering 'rtg IR a pod ,
Fi g 9c.1.4..orr_opi c! v4 L.f.(211,., 4;1 I
ti owor at; hrf
Some plant spocics of the scrub Asso a on
Fig. 7a Sou1aa indi
flowering is fru/ -d.ng branch.
Smo raro plant spoctos
H ugonia mystox .
.5hoviring a twig.
Goat 3 1103 -born Ghats
(b)
Fig.9 Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland
showing (a) a flowering twig.
(b) a dry globose wrinkled capsule .
S
ri g 4, lib c)( .
flow n e; fru.i Z.ne, bran
Pi g .9 0 Onilo phorlitui I nophyilum L.
noworing & frul tine twig.
Some plant species that comprise the sandy area Association
Fig. 10b. Fig.10a nattinoahl on oaonum
Y IAA tioboan Thunb) 0Jruntzo. %.‘,/ 311eilnhn &
Ni col ion.
Fig. 10c. • Icohnamituryiloeum lleult .
Bono plant spocios in ho form of patches in grassland Association
.10d. Iseilema laxum Hack.
Fig. 11b. Dillenia indica Linn.
Fig. 11a. Ardi 314 tell RA-511394 RoXb ahoning
a) flowering twig b) ooryzabone inn r,reseenee and
0) a Dingle whole flower.
showing a flowering & fruitiostwig
Soma plant spocios found in tho semi—ovorgroon forosts.
EXPLANATION OP PLATE
Photographs of soma raro plant spoolos in tho donso aui*ovorgroon forest of botanioca. intoros'..t
Pig 7a. Pursaortia scandons showing pod and good (scald a-MT'I'Zirriargrou. of Zio.papor in contlmoters) eollooted from Nandor forost-Sattaril Pods mansard about 7 5 art in length; being probably tho largest among tho incligonous Loguanosao spooios of this locality.
7b. Drooping fruits of Di loalisia gP.aueoseans which arm direeay produco ran • o .d.ura p-art.on located at Sonauli—Sanguom.
a
formation by trapping debris (Dawes, 1981).
There is frequent indiscriminate cutting down of mangroves for
firewood which may lead to disturbance of this association.
5) Sandy area association: Can act as an effective sand binder.
Estimated diversity is 202 species, which is 17.56% of the total
diversity.
With the immense, emerging of hotels and other allied activities,
several plant species of this association are getting destroyed which
may lead to sand erosion.
C) River banks - fro:01 water association: Generally reduces the soil
erosion along the river bank. Fresh water river banks in Goa, harbour
a large diversity of vascular plants including threatened plant
species like iknsiopAeris evecta, Gnetum via and Oqmuncia rOg,a0a,
Estimated diversity is 300 species to the total diversity being
26.08%.
'The cutting down of this association along the river bank, has
led to soil erosion eg. Khandepar river bank in Usgao Panda taluka.
D) Rocky plateau association: Contains the best known lithophytes
* (rock loving plants) including several threatened plant species like
Rauvolfia SeTPentinac bilaidesmus indious, Bauvolfia tetraOhylja and
Hippocratea indica. Estimate diversity of this association is 520
species i.e. 45.21% of the total diversity.
Denudation of the plant species has resulted to acceleration of
,superficial lateritic in the event of time.
E) Moist field association: A number of leguminous plant species do
exist here like Ponsamia pinnate and pesModium Indigofgra which
nodulate and hence improve soil fertility. Estimate diversity of this
association is 462, which is about 40.17% of the total diversity.
This association has got a number of evergreen economic plants
which give shade to the surrounding and also they are beneficial
130
economic plants for food and timber and Understorey is relatively
dense compared to other associations.
F) Scrub associations Indicates the extent of degradation close to
residential areas, clearing of forest land for construction purpose,
orchard plantation etc. Several plant species used for firewood are
found in this association. Estimate diversity is 456 species, which is
about 39.65% -of the total diversity.
This association is highly exploited for firewood and timber.
G) Semi - evergreen forest association: Depicts the climax vegetation
of Goa's Western ghats which comprises the natural intact actual
forest (Fig. 11c). This association comprises dominantly evergreen
elements amidst few deciduous plant species. The scarce population
of deciduous elements makes it appear almost uniformly green in all
the seasons of the year. They are the main producers of economic
goods, fruits, fibre, timber and a variety of other forest produce. It
contains the highest genetic diversity as it can be reflected in the
species diversity 804, which is 69.91% of the total diversity.
This forest, like any other dense tropical forests, moderate
quantities of peak discharges from the watershed, decrease
sedimentation and reduce possibilities of floods. Forest reduce
quantities of water reaching streams surface flow.
i) By canopy interception and evaporation from foliage.
2) Litter interception and finally by increasing infilteration into
the ground.
3) Canopy and litter interception also have a significant effect on
rainfall impact and the force that initiates erosion from the bare
soil.
H) Patches of grassland associations Is important for forage in
livestock. Estimate diversity of this association is 130 species i.e.
11.30% of the total diversity.
81
Overgrazing by livestock might lead to disturbance resulting into
disappearance of herbaceous plants species and soil erosion.
Deliberate burning of grass is a common practise in Goa which may
result to emerging of resistant varieties. Moreover, it is universally
accepted tact that tires bring in unpalatable grasses of low-protoin
content (Anonymous, 1984).
1) Deciduous forest association: It comprises of many deciduous
elements as compared to the semi-evergreen. The trees are found to
shed their leaves in winter and summer and thereby give more open
spaces and during monsoon they all together show a different
picturesque view. It harbours great diversity of orchid plants which
are highly threatened. Estimate diversity is 628 species, which is
54.6% of the total diversity.
It was formerly a dense semi-evergreen forest which has been
disturbed mainly for its timber and exploitation of important
medicinal plant species.
J) Cultivated fields: (Man-made association) constitute mostly paddy
fields, orchard plantation, also several man made plantations have
been carried out especially constituting Acacia aurlculijormis and
Tectona grandis.
General Observations
Setbacks: Mangrove, river bank and sandy area associations should be
protected by setbacks to limit land use for a certain distance from
mean high water marks for example River bank fresh water association
(7 to 10 mts.) on both sides of the river bank) and sandy area
association (200 to 250 mts) stretching from the sea should be
protected "zones".
Protected areas: representative samples of these ecosystems should
be preserved as protected areas by declaring the areas as sanctuaries.
82
Land use zoning: Land use activities which could have negative impacts
on various plant associations should be cited accordingly and
measures to curb deliberate burning of grass.
Uso of indigenous species: Land use development should use indigenous
adapted to specific sites rather than introduced species. The
use of native flora and fauna in socio-economic development will
aid locally in preservation of this tropical ecosystem unlike in the
case of using imported plant species which may carry the risk of
accidentally introducing all sorts of other species such as the
microbes of which so little is known eg. accidental introduction of
avian- mal -aria—to Hawse i i tHarrison, 1987 a).
For example sandy association could use 'porno's 0...w_caprae
1 rather than Casuarina egOiSeOfclia,
1.2.4 DISCUSSION
Some aspects on the Somievetgreen forost.
Central Government issued the following directive in 1987 which
still stands: On February 17, 1987 the Ministry of Industry,
Government of India Sent on a circular to the industries departments
of all the states, which states:'"With a view to ensuring that
ecologically fragile regions in the country are protected froM adverse
effects of industries which emit harmful effluents, the Department of •
Environment and Forests have identified a list of districts which they
consider as totally protected and also those districts where non-
polluting industries could be located. They have also identified a
list of industries which could be set up in these districts in the
various States/Uni-on Territories". The East and South belt of Goa
along the Western Ghats have been declared "protected districts"
according to the circular,
Some aspects on rock plateau association.
In the present work the author has estimated 45.2% as the plant
diversity of the rocky plateau association. Probably prior to 1930
there must have been a dense scrub forest but the human disturbance
and starting of industries has resulted to the present day naked rocky
plateau.
In mid April 1992 the Government of Goa announced its intention
to acquire about 650 ha and 490 ha at Verna and Betul respectively for
starting golf courses.
Golf like any other field game is good for physical exeroiSe but ---
need not be given any consideration if it might cause _deleterious
effects to the environment.
If the proposed project proceeds, the rocky plateau plant
association (species diversity 45%) which constit utes many lithophytes
would be badly disturbed and might disappear from the site: the
lithophytes which are in most cases deep rooted, often avoid
competition with shallow rooted plants thus play a significant role to
the ecological balance in plant nutrition and water uptake.
Some aapecta on cultivated fio$d association.
Agriculturo creates artifical association of plant species. These
are in many cases, products of natural and human selection and contain
genetic treasures for resistance to pests, diseases and adaptability
to stress conditions. They are like natural "gene banks".
For many centuries, Goans have had a long standing traditional
practise of farming which has involved well organised crop
conservation. This has -helped to preserve the Local land races and a
variety of crop plants such as mangoes, cashew, coconuts, jack fruits
and rice. Unfortunately the traditional practise of crop conservation
is gradually being replaced by exotic hybrids which may pose a threat
to the local varieties of crop species.
84 1.3 LIFE-FORM SPECTRUM OF THE GOA'S WESTERN GHATS' VEGETATION.
1.3.1 INTRODUCTION
A plant life-form is usually understood to be a growth form which
displays an obvious relationship to important environmental factors
(Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). For example, a deciduous tree
is a plant life-form that responds to an unfavourable season by
shedding its leaves.
Plants of the similar life-form growing together are likely to
compete directly for the same space or niche. Their similarity in
structure and form indicates a similarity in adaptation to the
at the environmental -resources _offered in a !iven space.
At the begining of this century the Danish botanist Raunkiaer
(1860 - 1938) devised a system of classifying life forms which is
based on the distance between ground level and the position of the
highest bud. Raunkiaer's classification allows to sum up the
composition of vegetation according to broad groups of life forms of
terrestrial plants. Various life-forms adapt land plants to a variety
of environmental situations or conditions and, in a broad way,
Raunkiaer's classification indicates how plants exhibit increasing
adaptation to adverse conditions of moisture and temperature.
Raunkiaer's grouping is a functional grading unrelated to
taxonomic order but it very useful in that it allows the geographer to
categorise the compoBition and compare the composition of vegetation
in various broad climatic regions.
Raunkiaer (1934) drew up six primary categories of life-forms,
based upon the position of the renewal bud or regenerating organ and
related them to the protection they gave in the period of cold or
drought. The classes are; Phanerophytes, Chamaephytes,
Hemicryptophytes, Cryptophytes, Therophytes and Epiphytes (Robinson,
1972).
85
Phanerophytes bear their perennating buds freely in the air at
varying heights, at least 25 cm above the ground. They are mostly
woody plants (trees and shrubs) which are sub-divided into classes
according to their heights: Megaphanerophytes 30 + m,
Mesophanerophytes 8 - 30 m, Microphanerophytes 2 - 8 m and
Nanophanerophytes 25 cm - 2 m.
Chamaephytes are also woody or semi-woody perennials bearing
their buds close to the ground but less than 25 cm from the surface:
i) Suffrutescent or semi-shrubby forms, ii) Passively decumbent forms,
iii) Actively creeping or stoloniferous forms and iv) Cushion plants.
HemiCrytoltbvte-t - boar their- renewa4 buds at the surface of the
ground. They are a large and diverse group and include many
graminaccous and herbaceous species.
Crytoohytes have their buds beneath the soil surface or in water,
These includes groups like geophytes, hydrophytes and halophytes,
because the protection given by the water is analogous to that
provided by the soil.
Therophytes are annuals where the unfavourable season is passed
as an embryo in the seed. In other words they complete their life
cycle from seed in a single growing season (Moore and Chapman, 1986),
Epiphytes are plant species which grow non-parasitically on Stems or
branches of other species. (Burrows. 1990).
Raunkiaer established the percentage of each of these categories
of life-forms in differing environments, showing that Phanerophytes
predominate in moist, tropical regions, HeMicryptophytes in moist
temperate regiont and Therophytes arid regions.
To the percentage breakdown of the life-forms in any area he gave
the name "biological spectrum". Because of its simplicity, the system
has been widely applied and is a helpful method of characterising
vegetation zones (Robinson, 1972).
86
Life form spectrum (Biological spectrum) provide a useful basis
for comparing the structure of communities that occur in different
parts of the world. A list of species, even with some indication of
their relative abundance, will convey no information about the nature
of a community to a botanist who is not familiar with the flora of
that region. Presentation of the same data in the form of a biological
spectrum, however, will enable botanists in other countries to form a
mental picture of the community (Loveless, 1983).
The main idea of Raunkiaer's life-form system is that similar
environmental conditions will bear same life-forms. This he called as
"Equiconditional regions", Life-form iyeteM -has - the following
advantages: i) In selecting plants for afforestation, ii) In the
comparison of the oonditiona in different communities, iii) In the
determining successional trends and iv) In planning silviculture
practises.
Some caution should be taken not to interpret the results to
economic botany; since the figures relate to the flora and not to the
bulk of the species growing in the region their social value is lost
and the preponderance of one life-form over the other has a limited
meaning.
iii) Biological spectrum actually reflects the most operative factor
of the environment and not the climate; or to modify this a little,
biological spectrum is the result of the sum of the environment and
not only one factor of climate (Pandeya et al., 1968).
According to Mclean and lvimey-Cook (1973) Raunkiaer's
classification points of criticism. First, the limits of the classes
are too indefinite and there is some overlapping. The distinction
between Hemicryptophytes and Helophytes and between the former and
Chamaephytes is often dubious and individual cases difficult to
allocate to one class or the other. Second, many plants show marked
87 changes of life-form in different climates or in different areas.
Third, that the biological spectrum is not entirely governed by
climate but historical causes are also important, so that similar
climates in different parts of the world may show different spectra
because of their differing flora.
Several ecologists have tried to modify plant life-form in
different ways for example the two dimensional r - K "strategy"
approach of McArthur and Wilson (1967) and the more elaborate three
dimensional method of Grime, 1979.
None of these approaches is very satisfactory for expressing the
whole gamut of ecologically meaningful plant 'rite form.-
Therefore the author feels there is no ideal classification which
has so far been developed to surpass Raunkiaer's life form
classification.
1.3.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS.
Almost all, indigenous, plant species located in this region
(Goa) were botanically identified and confirmed. Seasonal ecological
observations were mad* on these plant species on their mode Of growth,
height of perennating buds from the ground level, and presence or
absence of modified special organs like tubers, bulbs and thiZoMeS for
over a period of six years. Using the Raunkiaer's method of life form
(1934) the number of species were summed up by life form classes and
expressed in percentage. The extremely rare species were not included
in the life-form clastification.
1.3.3 OBSERVATIONS
The life - form upectrum of the Gee] Western Ghats vegetation is
basically dominated by Phanerophytes 35.2% followed by Therophytes
28.5%, Cryptophytes 13.9%, Hernicryptophytes 12.1%, Chamaephytes 8.7%,
Epiphytes 1.3% and Succulents 0.3% in respective order (Fig. 12f1.
Cha
rnotp
hyte
s
1,9rn
ic r
ip p
hite
a
14
Cs. 0
Fi_3. 12 f. Lift for Coa's Ghcts Y tatoi
Table: 7. Life Form Spectrum of Goa's Western Ghats' Forest,
I I ,
. . Phanerophyte0 I .
. . I ,
I CH HEM1 CRY TH I , ......— .........-- --..
191 127 1146 299 I I
,. 1 1
:Percentage 10.3%1/.3 1.5%16.7%113.4%113.5%18.7% 12.1% 14% 28.5%1 , , , 1 1 1_ 1 s , ,
1 35.2% . 1 1 -
,
____ _1 _ 1 , , , 1 . , I 1 ,
:Raunkiaer's I 1% 13% 1 6% 117% : 20% 1 - 1 9% 27% 4% 13% 1 :life form 1 1 1 1 , 1 ' –__.– ---
Some aspects on Life-form, family-wino in Goa.
Phanerophyte is the most diverse class having representatives
from more than three quarters of the families of vascular plant
species found in the Goa region.
:Class
:No. of
:Species
1 S 1 . I — ......—
E I I
ItiegaIMesolMicrolNano I , . .
— . — —
13 : I I I I , , ...–........ 1 _
14 16 : . 1
70 : , ,
141 :142 .
369
, 1 , 1 , . 1
'
43% , 1 1 ................ , , ,
(Confidence 1 ' , , , ' , :limits of 1 1 . , . , ,
. .
:probability 195% 196% 199% 199% 1 99% 1 95% 1 95% 98% 199.2% 98% 1 –.....-- --- ---
Several family representatives of Clussiaceae (Guttiferae)
Dipterocarpaceae, Sterculiaceae, and Moracea are observed growing to
more than 60 mts in height which belong to this class.
The Hemicryptophytic life form olass in this region is found to
be mostly confined to perennial tufted "grasses" especially in the
poaceae, Cyperaceae. Some members of Asteraceae are also observed to
be confined to this class.
The ChamaephytiO fife form is mostly confined to a large number
of Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae and Convolvulaceae members which are
often non-woody twirlers and scandent undershrubs.
The Cryptophytic class which comprises many tuberous species is
more in the families of Zingiberaceae, Orchidaceae (terrestrial),
89
Amaryilidaceae, Hypoxidaceae, Liliaceae Dioscoreaceae and Araceae.
Therophytes in this region are quite diverse representing many
families. Members of Poaceae, Malvaceae, Fabaceae, Asteraceae,
Scrophulariaceas and Aoanthaceae represent a large proportion of the
Therophytes in this locality. The epiphyte class is confined mainly to
the families orchidaceae and Polypodiaceae family (Pteridophyta).
Aerial parasites (0.95%) which actually are not Epiphytes do not
find place in the classification. This is one short fall of this
classification from the author's view point. For example some plant
species under different environmental conditions show two life-forms.
This is a common characteristic in several members with tufts in
Poaceae and Cypera00040 families, where depending on the prevailing
conditions the species Can parennate through buds just close to the
surface and by seeds also. The species tend to show Hemicrytophytic
and therophytic life-form. (personal observation).
Perennial grasses proliferate vegetatively and some species
spread widely in this way. The perennial grass plant has basal stem
axes from which emerge ILLIIL1 (branches, each having a cluster of
leaves enfolding one another and successively younger towards the
centre of the cluster. Many tillers are terminated eventually, by a
flower stem. Some grasses have a series of very short axes on which
the tillers are clustered together to font a tussock or bunch grass,
like Heteropogon oontOrtus. In other species there are somewhat longer
to form a tussock or bunch grass.
90
Table: 8 Comparison of Goa's Western Ghats' Life form spectrum with
other regions of the world.
Life form class . (%) S E 1 PH CH 1 H 1CRY 1 TH
!Seychelles I (Mclean & Ivimey-Cook, 1973) 1 3: 57 6 1 12 5 I 16
. 1 _ I 1 .
1Sahara desert (Loveless, 1983) 0 0 I 27 6 39 23 l 5 . . _, ,
:Equatorial rain-forest of • 1 1 :Guyana, S. America (Loveless, 1983) 0 221 66 12 0 0 1 0
,
!Temperate deciduous Woodland !Germany (Loveless, 1983)
1 0 0 1 27 6 39 23 1 5
1 0
!Goa's Western Ghat's. Monsoon I , . Irain-forest 10.3 1.3135.2:8.7 12,1 14.0:28.5 . lRaunkiaer's normal spectrum 1(Mclean and Ivimey-Cook, 1973) 1 1 3 1 43 : 9 27 1 4 : 13
1 ' -
S - Succulent E Epiphytes PH - Phanerophytes CH - Chameephytes
H - Hemicryptophytes CRY - Cryptophytes TH Therophytes.
1.3.4 DISCUSSION
Generally the speOtruM of the Goa's Western Ghats, is well
represented in all the individuals of life-forms although it seems to
deviate slightly in the percentage from the Raunkiaer's normal
spectrum.
Although groups of plant species can be found which are similar
in many respects, species differ in'general form and stature, seasonal
activity, growth rates reproductive patterns, aspects of their
physiology and various other attributes. A very wide range
permutations and combinations of characteristics is possible and as
far as is known each species is uniquely different from every other
species in at least some respects. This means that each species must
respond uniquely to the ecological situation in which it occurs,
compared with other species exposed to the same set .of conditions. In
fact, genotypic variation within species and even within individuals
91
will cause some ecological differences between populations of the same
species (Mueller - Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974).
The type of flora in a region may cause some effects on the
vegetation hence the life forms. The influence of the flora on the
vegetation can only be appreciated properly if one travels in a wider
geographic area and then attempts a comparison of different parts of
the world. One will find that similar habitats may be occupied by
quite different plant communities, wherever these habitats occur in
different floristic regions. Good examples of this are the evergreen
scrub and forest formations of the mediterranean region. When one
compares these to four other World-regions with Mediterranean climates
- the South African Cape Province, parts of South America (in Southern
California and Chile). These areas have similar climates and as 0
consequence, life forms dominate in the natural vegetation. However
the evergreen formations of these five regions are floristically
entirely different (Mueller - Dombois and Ellenberg Loc. city.
Long standing biotic and abiotic factors might result to a swift
of the life forms fro0 Raunkiaer's normal spectrum due to disturbance
for example, Pandeya (1964), while working in the grasslands of Sager
(India) observed that the life forms of the flora Of each of the
associations is maintained by the intensity of grazing. However the
situation in Goa's Western Ghats is slightly different as grazing does
not appear to be a real major anthropogenic factor. However minor
cases do exist for example on the coastal sandy association, where
coincidentally large populations of pigs are nurtured, UrgingA indica
bulb is a delicacy among other bulbiferous plants, to them. They bore
holes of even up to 60 cm depth in the sand in order to uproot the
bulbs. In a way, this can change the life form diversity with the
event of time though not significantly. On the other hand the
relinquishing of the bulbs by the pigs has helped to keep down the
population of this species which may become a serious weed on the
agricultural fields.
Though the high amount of Therophytic class may be attributed to
the seasonal ohanges in the climate governed by heavy monsoon rains
followed by along dry period, the acceleration is due to the clearance
of vast areas of forests for mining operation, agricultural use and
fuelwood. As a result of these the phanerophytic flora IS getting
reduced whereas the Therophytic vegetation is increasing.
Studies carried out earlier at the areas close to the mining
areas of Goa showed a domination of Phanerophytes (34.1%) followed by
Therophytes (31.7%), Epiphytes (14%), Chamaephytes (12.7%),
Cryptophytes 10% and Hemicryptophytes 7% respectively (Nyabuto, 1989;
Torne and Nyabuto, 1994). From those studies, it is found that it is
due to the indiscriminate clearing of vegetation by the local people
prior to mining operations that has led to the increase of
Therophytes. Secondly it is found, that, in very old dump sites,
natural succession is mainly composed of Therophytic and to some
extent Cryptophytic and Hemicryptophytic life forms. The natural
succession of Phanerophytes would probably occur at the abandoned
reject sites, after a long time may be to the tune of 50 to 100 years
to come.
The Chamaephytes which are most numerous in regions of cold and
dry climate (Robinson, Loc. cit.), are not a large group on this
locality. Their percentage available in this region is almost equal to
the Raunkiaer's Normal Spectrum, this truly justifies Raunkiaer's
classification in this respect.
Hemicryptophytes are far less below the Raunkiaer's Normal
spectrum probably because they require less humid conditions
regardless of temperature. Though Robinson (Loc. cit.) states that
they are characteristic of regions having rather cold, moist climates,
pia
the author argues that if the same can dominate the Sahara desert
(Table: 8) then cold is not the controlling factor but rather moisture
amidst other factors.
Cryptophytes are extremely high as compared to the Raunkiaer's
Normal Spectrum in this region. Robinson (Loc. cit.) states that these
are plants which owing to drought or cold die down below the soil
level. The cryptophytic Olast may have tripled with the event time;
with the gradual reduCtion of phanerophytic class, it is the species
which can get protection in the soil due to the dry period and high
temperatures. Moreover, several species like in Dioscoreaceae family
have more developed forms of vegetation propagation through bulbs.
The bulb, tuber or rhizomes are in many cases toxic (due to
glycosides) which make it unpalatable to many mammals and birds. Thus
little disturbance is felt in this class. In some cases, some
epiphytic members were found to be extremely rare so they could not be
included in the spectrum. This does not mean that the diversity of
Epiphytes specially orchids is low but moderate, probably reflecting
the constantly humid atmosphere in the forests of this region. As
Shukla and Ramakrishnan (14134) states, seasonal rhythms, not
necessarily synchronized for different species, are apparent in leaf
flush, leaf shed, flowering and fruiting. Some species have more than
one flush of leaves and flowers. Some species flower and seed for most
of the year, others flower only at intervals of two years or more.
Some species may be deciduous, briefly or for longer periods, while
others are evergreen. Burrows (Loc. cit.) concludes that dry periods
or rainy periods are the cues for these rhythms.
This life form spectrum cannot be said to be finally complete it
is subject to revision in case new plant species' life forms are
brought about. However the changes will not be very wide as from the
data already obtained. The 35.2% Phaner nniv ripAni^4.1.A
"
94
the Goa region but it is predicted to be much higher to the tune of
55% in the evergreen forests (which are outside Goa region) on the
Western Ghats.
Raunkiaer himself did not claim that his system was in any way
final, and several authors have attempted to improve or enlarge it. No
Cryptogams are included in the original system, but applied it to
perennial Algae with suitably modified classes. Braun-Blanquet also
added three extra , classes: Planktophytes (plant plankton),
Edaphophytes (soil Cryptogams) and Endophytes, which covers both
Endolithophytes soil (plants boring in rocks) and also internal
parasites of plants and animals. It is difficult to see that this adds
anything to the usefulness of Raunkiaer's classification.
Valuable as the latter undoubtedly is an index of climatic
relationships, it cannot by itself provide a means of classifying
plant communities. No more than any other physiognomic-ecological
classification can it give a complete picture of communities or their
relationships, without taking into account the all-important floristic
composition of the communities, to which it must, be considered as
ancillary (Burrows, Loc. cit.).
The life form spectrum for the Western Ghats (Goa) is
potentially evergreen and semi-deciduous biome with varying degrees of
stratification. The phytoclimate of the Western Ghats of Goa may be
designated as Phanero-therophytic. This is in agreement with the
climate of the Western Ghats. The co-dominance of Therophytes is as a
result of heavy monsoon rainfall followed by a long dry span period.
Comparing Life forma of other regions and Goa.
The Phanerophytes are lest from the Raunkiaer's normal spectrum
by 10% they are also less compared even to the equatorial forests of
Guyana, and the temperate rainforest of Germany (Tablet 8). The
Chamaephytes . are less by 1.2% from Raunkiaer's normal spectrum but in
.95
a way they are almost equal to the normal spectrum because the
difference is small. Chamaephytes are found to be much higher than the
temperate forests of Germany though less in the equatorial forest of
Guyana. The Hemicryptophytes are less by 14.9% from the normal
spectrum. They are found to dominate the Sahara desert and in the
temperate deciduous forest of Germany but not found in the equatorial
forest of Guyana. The Cryptophytes are three times much more compared
to the normal spectrum. They are found in all types of regions
compared with (Table: 8) in the text.
The equatorial forest of Guyana laoks Hemicryptophytes and
Cryptophytes but the Therophytes are twice more than (by 15.5%) the
normal spectrum. The Epiphytes are less compared to the normal
spectrum. They are found to be even less as compared to the equatorial
forest of Guyana but which are missing in the temperate deciduous
forest of Germany.
The spectrum for tropical Rain forest is notable for the enormous
preponderance of Phanerophytes, the abundance of Epiphytes (which
probably reflects the constantly humid atmosphere within the forest,
and the absence of life forms showing adaptation to seasonal drought
or cold (i.e. Hemicryptophytes, Cryptophytes and Therophytes).
By contrast, the spectra for temperate, Deciduous Woodland and
the Desert are characterized by a preponderance of Hemicryptophytes
and Therophytes, respectively (Loveless, 1983). This is quite
different from the Western Ghats'life form spectrum in this respect.
9G
1.4 VEGETATION AS LAND COVER
1.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Tropical forests (like the Western Ghats of Goa's forest) cover
only 7% of the earth's land surface, yet they harbour between 45% and
50% of the plant and animal species. The forests as a natural resource
play a vital role to mankind especially in wood which is used for many
purposes; over 2 billion people in the third world depend solely on
wood for their domestic energy needs. The realisation of shrinking
forest resources in the country, especially after the publication of
the National Remote Sensing Agency report based on the 1985 aggravated
the controversy and heated the debate (Lai, 1989).
As early as the 1950s, the use of aerial photographs in forest
survey in Canada was found to reduce survey cost up to 80 times, and
in the same period, the introduction of aerial photography and
statistical sampling into forest land system assesment in Western
Tanzania enabled ten times the ground area to be covered without
increasing the size of the field teams (Howard, 1959; Howard and
Mitchell, 1985).
In general, using aerial photographic mosaics, stereoscopic pairs
of aerial photographs and single photographs, landforms can be
identified, their boundaries mapped, and the natural vegetation
divided into plant formations and plant subformations, and the
landscape divided into land units. (Howard & Mitchell, 1985).
There are 11 talukas (districts) in Goa, out of this, only seven
talukas have a forest cover (Anonymous, 1985). However the most
densely forest talukas are three namely, Sattari, Sanguem and
Canacona.
Therefore it was with this intent in view, that the author
thought it worthwhile to undertake at regional level the study of the
vegetation as land cover in three talukas.
97
The extent to Which these forests covet the land need to be
continously and repeatedly surveyed thoroughly so that their rate Of
degradation could be monitored. Such knowledge could help in amMending
their mode of utilization and conservation.
1.4.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
After obtaining the Ground truth data on the actual vegetation of
Goa's Western Ghats, the author proceeded directly for the aerial
photographic interpretation.
Tracing of the index maps for the aerial photographs dated Jan.
1988 was carried out at the Agricultural Department, Panjim. Three
talukas namely Sattati, Sanguem and Canacona were taken for intensive
studies as these areas constitute dense vegetation cover. The index
maps form a guiding key to find out the exact specific aerial
photographs.
The Howard and Mitchell (Loc. cit) method of aerial photograph
interpretation was followed which involved examining numerous
stereoscopic pairs of aerial photographs under a mirror stereoscope
model no. 2 serial no. 0528. The vegetation details were interpreted
by tracing them on maps. The bits of maps were joined together after
completing the tracing for each taluka. The approximate Ground truth
data obtained previo0Sly in these talukas was synchronized with aerial
photographs' information to prepare an authentic map for each taluka.
Aerial photographs dated Jan 1986, panchromatic stereoscopic pair type
with scale of photography 1: 10,000 and scale index 1: 50,000 were
acquired for the vegetal cover interpretation.
The index to the survey of India topoSheets used were 46 1/2, 3
and 4, 48 E/16, 48 1/6, 7 and 8, 48 J/1 ; S for Sattati, Sanguem and
Canacona talukas respectively. The aerial photographs dated 1935 and
1960 were also examined. Due to the eXpenses involved in the
purchasing of satellite imageries only two were acquired - Systematic
98
geocoded type No. N 15 38E 74-87 GRS D 207 - 319/045 from "satellite
spot" visible wave band dated 17-3-1989, which showed only a portion
of the Western Ghats through Goa. (only a portion of Sattari is
present). Otherwise the major part of vegetation analysis was based on
the physical verification (ground truth data) and aerial photographs
interpretation.
1.4.3 OBSERVATIONS
About 70 stereoscopic aerial photographs were studied for Sattari
taluka 150 for Sanguath taluka, and 90 for Canacona taluka:
From the aerial photographs interpretation as well as field
observations, it appears in the recent twenty years many changes have
taken place in land cover of the three taluka especially on the valley
basins mainly due to the exploitation of the natural resources;
Clearing of forest for agriculture, rehabilitation and mining.
a) Interpretation of vegetation as land cover of SATTARI TALUKA - GOA
A semi-evergreen dense vegetation is observed on the East and
North eastern region bordering Karnataka State. The middle ventral
portion is a flat area comprising of mining activities which ate
adjacent to rice fields. Towards the west are rocky plateau and small
hilly terrains with scrub forest which contain large number of cashew
plantation mixed with jack-fruit and mangoes at lower elevation.
More human settlements are found in Rivona-Poriem and a part of
Molem. Open areas which are more or less marshy are found towards the
south west in Sonum-Vonvoliem, Ponocem and Vantem (Fig. 13 a).
Mid-ventral portion of Sattari is thickly populated and is
composed of a number of cultivated fields especially around Valpoi,
Satoreth, Ambedem, Davem, Bombedem and Nagargao and towards the south
of Sanvordem, Advoi, Nanus, Ansolem and Codiem villages. Pissurlem
the most affected village due to mining and partly sonus.
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. 1313. Mod San 1t Taluka l Goa, showing Vee,*etal Land Cover as interpreted from GIT ( 1987 199 2) mid with the help of Panchrom.c Stereoscopic Aerial
Photographs dated 1988.
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(1937 — 99 2 ) and yr -th the heir' of Panchrom a ti e stereoscopi c Aerial
Pho .rypa-pils date ;1 u 19 38.
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99
The vegetation on the extreme north east of the boundary between
Goa and Karnataka State is of a deciduous dense forest which appears
to have been degraded due to biotic factors like grazers and man's
forest clearance for agricultural use. All other areas on the extreme
eastern side of Goa, the vegetation is of a semi-evergreen dense
forest which is not disturbed even up to the boundary between
Karnataka and Goa. About 46% of the land is under dense forest cover.
b) Interpretation of vegetation land cover of SANGUEM TALUKA - GOA
Generally the vegetation is thick towards the eastern region of
the taluka. A dense semi-evergreen vegetation is observed along parts
of Molem, Caranzol,' Collem, Surla, Sonauli, Boma, Potrem though
interrupted by human settlements such as Cumbari, Sigonem and Verlem.
Along the mid-ventral western portion a number of areas are
interrupted by mines like Dongor, Sancordem, Sigao, Codli, Rivona,
Costi and Patem. The areas are mostly of deciduous and scrub forest
which have frequently been degraded. A number of rocky outcrops are
frequent along the slopes of Caranzol, Sonauli and Okel and
occasionally at Verlem areas (Fig. 13 b). About 54% of the Sanguem
taluka is under forest.
0) Interpretation of vegetation land cover of CANACONA TALUKA GOA
About 35% of Canacona is under semi-evergreen dense forest which
cover the eastern, south east portion viz. Cotigao and a part of
western portion of Agenda. The rest of the other areas are deciduous
to scrub forests. The coast of Poinguinium, Nagorcem, Palolem offer a
wide open sandy areas which are suitable for beaches (Fig. 13c).
No mining activities are observed in this taluka as per the
aerial photograph interpretation. Canacona village has the highest
human settlements followed by Loliem. Other villages seemed to have
very little or no human settlements at all and the vegetation cover
was more.
100
The total area where dense vegetation that existed in 1960 was
486 sq. km ; presently only an area of 255.2 sq. km has got vegetal
cover. The total land degraded is 230.8 sq. km . during the last 30
years on the areas covered in the study.
During the studies on aerial photographs and Ground truth data,
it was estimated that the Western Ghats of Goa forest viz, Sattari,
Sanguem and Canacona, degradation since the last 30 years had been
loosing its forest cover by approximately 2.0% annually; in other
words about 55% of the original forest cover to cultivated lands,
mining, illicit felling of trees and human sottlements. The results
were based on aerial photographs of 1935, 1960 and _198$ and the
present ground truth data, but it was felt that the annual degradation
may be as high as 2.4% in the recent past ten years.
The major portions that existed as a closed dense primary forests
in 1935 (personal observation, 1935 aerial photographs) have been
reduced to scrub (1958) even sometimes to no Vegetation at all.
1.4.4. DISCUSSION
The denudation of the world's forest cover has proceeded during
the last several years at an estimated rate of about 11.5 million
hectares per year. As a result of such deforestation, plains and
valleys are being subjected to recurrent excessive flooding. In India,
for example, more than 20 million hectares of land are currently being
affected annually by flooding due to deforestation with disastrous
consequences such as silting of dams and salination and alkalination
of soils. In the Gangetic plains of India alone, the loss due to flood
damage has been estimated to exceed one billion dollars annually.
(Gopalan, 1990).
From the present studies carried out on the Western Ghats of Goa
large amount of forest cover is disappearing annually at an alarming
rate. The causal factors are quite many; the increased population
101
pressure, conversion of forest to agricultural lands, the opening up
of roads and pathways and other modes of communication through forests
and by far the most oontributing factdr is that of open caste mining;
the large excavation of soils takes along with it thousands of plant
species each day at the sites.
Forest cover in Goa has been expressed by many previous workers
to be of different percentage cover for example (Govindarajan, kl al.,
1974) gave the figure when calculated as 29.6%, Goa Gazetteer
(Anonymous, 1979) 28%, the same was quoted by Alvares (1993) and
Vishwa nirmal magazine (1993) whereas Singh and Ahuja (1990), have
given it as 29.27% and recently the Forest survey of India gave it as
33.4% (Anonymous, 1991).
This has led to the doubtfulness of the exact figures. One
wonders whether really the forest cover has expanded in the two
decades as the figure given by the Forest Survey of India! To any keen
observer, need not necessarily be an environmentalist, the forest
cover could never be constant in the same way it was more than 2 or 3
decades ago. The new development activities taking place at all places
in Goa could never render the forests constant e.g. the timber used
for constructions most probably must be coming from these forests
whether by legal or illegal means. This should be an accepted fact!
Though, mining areas are small in Goa, they create a great impact
on the environment of this region. Most of the mines are confined to
Bicholim, Sattari and Sanguem talukas (Districts) distributed in about
sixteen villages namely Advapale, Velge Bicholim, Aravalem, CudneM,
Sanguelim, Pale, Surla and Sirigao in Bicholim taluka; Pissurlem and
sonus in Sattari and Sigao-Bimbol, Sancordem, Dongor, Codli, Rivona in
Sanguem taluka. The villages most adversely affected due to mining
because of overburden of rejects are Bicholim, Velge, Pale, Sirigao
Pissurlem and Codli villages (Personal observation).
102
According to Singh and Abuja, (1990) forest cover is highest in
the Sanguem taluka 56.48%, followed by Sattari taluka 47.29% and
Canacona taluka 41.25%, Quepem taluka 33.65%, Fonda taluka 11.62%,
Pernem taluka 5.45% and Bicholim taluka 3.03%. According to the
report, Tiswadi, Salcete, Bardez and Mormugao taluka do not have any
forest cover.
According to Mr, S.S. Guha, incharge of Agro-climatic Regional
planning unit, Ahmedabad, (Indian express 14.9.92) in recent times
ecological and socio-economical issues relating to forests are
becoming increasing critical and indiscriminate exploitation of
forests have resulted in ecological imbalance and reduction in the
carrying capacity of land. The problem of deforestation has been
compounded by increasing industrialisatiOn and urbanisation leading to
commercial exploitation of forest even the increasing population has
contributed to decline in the yield of forest. The progressive
conversion of forest to reserve forest has, by and large, ignored the
needs of the forest communities, and their exclusion from the planning
and management process has aggravated the problem of encroachment and
exploitation. He suggested that new forms of farm forestry which
advocated new species, patterns of investments, adoption, plantation
and income generation need to be researched and encouraged.
According to IIT Report, Bombay (1992) forest cover change over
the period 1961-1989 in 5 main mining blocks Of Goa (992 sq. km area),
viz Bicholim, Sanguem, Pissurlem, Pale and Codli villages, mining
activities increased from 19.6 sq.km to 57.6 sq.km, crop land declined
from 101.4 sq. km to 90.2 sq. km' whereas, fallow land increased from
35.8 sq. km to 40.8 sq. km . Thick forest declined from 54.5 sq. km to
51 sq. km, the scrub increased from 219.3 sq. km to 243.5 sq. k
According to the finding, the most adversely affected land cover
are the moderate forest (declined from 277.3 sq. km to 215.3 sq. km
103
and the sparse forest (declined from 245 sq. km to 215.3 sq. km ).
The author's interpretation of the aerial photographs of
vegetation as land cover of Sattari, Sanguem and Canacona (1988) was
found to almost confirm the results of IIT, Bombay Report (1992).
However, the satellite imageries (1988) used by liT, Bombay could
not overlap with the author's findings, but the intensity of
vegetation land cover was approximately similar; the reason being due
to the curvature of earth's rotation when satellite imageries are
taken.
Global concept of biological diversity convention and some issues in
the Economics of Conservation
Over 155 countries including India have signed the
convention on biological diversity adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio
de Janeiro in June 1992. The convention establishes commitments on
conservation, access to genetic resources, transfer of technology and
benefit sharing and finance that are likely to make it an extremely
important instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of all
components of biologidal diversity. Article 7 of the convention
obliges each party as far as possible and as appropriate, to identify
components of biological diversity important for its conservation and
sustainable use, to monitor through sampling and other techniques, the
components of biological diversity so identified and to identify
processes responsible for significant adverse impacts on the
biological diversity and monitor their effects. Because we are now
party to this international convention, and even otherwise, it is our
obligation to protect and safeguard the biodiversity for posterity
(Singh et al., 1994).
Goa is being impoverished by the loss and degradation of its most
fundamental capital stock - its genes, species, habitats and
ecosystems.
104
This loss of the tiny richness of the state has profound
implications for its development. Natural habitats have long provided
local people with the means for survival, supplying food (meat, nuts,
fruits and vegetables), fodder and firewood, construction materials,
medicinal plants, wild genes for domestic plants and animals and So
forth. The highly diverse natural ecosystems which support this wealth
of species also provide important ecological services, including
maintenance of hydrological cycles, regulation of climate,
contribution and the processes of soil formation and maturation,
storing of cycling of essential nutrients, absorption and break down
of pollutants and provision of sites for tourism, recreation and
research.
But instead of conserving the rich resource of forests, wetlands
and the seas, (e.g. establishment of Free Port) current processes of
development are depleting many biological resources at such a rate
that they are rendered essentially non-renewable, leading to forms of
development that are not sustainable. The root of this problem lies in
the maldistribution of costs and benefits of both overexploitation and
conservation.
Overexploitation is quite different from conversion. If a forest
is converted into agricultural land which can be sustained,
productivity for humans can be often be greatly increased, which is
one of the objectives of development. So some conversion of natural
ecosystems is probably inevitable and even beneficial.
But the available evidence suggests that current rates and
patterns of conversion of natural habitats are not sustainable
(conversion of land are as to many industrial zones) and that many
species are being lost as a result. For example, the most recent
estimates suggest that more than 14.22 mha of tropical forests were
lost in 1989, at the rate of about 27 ha per minute (Myers, 1990).
1015
Since tropical forests hold well over half . the world's biological
diversity, and many of the species are confined to relatively small
areas, the numbers of species being lost is certain to be high; some
experts suggest that at least several hundred species are lost every
year. Many forces are blamed for this overexploitation, but it is
useful to ask who benefits from it. The lion's share of the benefits
have flowed into relatively few pockets, and most of the profits are
earned by the wealthier sectors of the population.
Who pays for the losci
Some conservationists would answer this question by saying
'everybody', to the extent that everybody benefits from biological
diversity and, therefore, suffers when it is reduced. This is not a
satisfactory answer. While nature certainly has some built-in
redundancy and some species could disappear (indeed are disappearing)
without any body missing them, little data is available on which
species are particularly important in the functioning of ecosystems.
In the case of Goa'a forests, the people who pay are very often the
people who live closest to the forest and who had for a long earned
sustainable benefits from harvesting the goods of services from the
natural productivity of the system. On many occasions, the people
(farmers), common environmentalists, ecosystem preservers, etc. are up
in arms over government forest policies which enable outside
concessionaires (e.g. chemical industry, recent nylon 6,6 - Du Pont,
Kerim,.case) to deplete the forests which had long been the source of
their irrigation water, construction materials, medicinal plants and
game animals (Anonymous, 1990).
i . Out of an area of 2 sq. km (200 hectares) allotted for the
proposed Nylon 6,6 project at Kerim it is only 1.5% that is alloted to
fi
gardening (Anonymous, 1990) in other words this is what the original
people might benefit or not at all. This is indeed a very small
106 proportion compared to the amount of deforestation that would take
place. Who pays for the opportunity costs ?
The opportunity costs of conserving biological diversity are paid
disproportionately by the people who live closest to the greatest
biological diversity. Individuals who live amidst the greatest
biological wealth tend to be the poorest of the poor. In fact the
opportunity costs of modern conservation programmes which restrict
access to resources are falling disproportionately upon the very
communities that development projects (e.g. are as designated for
playing golf) are designed to assist. If conservation programmes are
to be socially accepted then the new and more appropriate means of
apportioning (=diviSion or distribution) opportunity costs, or
providing compensation for them need to be sought.
1.5 WILD EDIBLE, MEDICINAL AND THREATENED PLANT SPECIES
1.5.1 INTRODUCTION
Presently, humanity largely depends on no more than 20 cultivated
plant species for food though in totality, including those which are
used to a limited extent by a very small number of people, it uses
about 3000 plant species to obtain edibles. With growing population.
which may, or may not stabilise at 8000 million as envisaged by
demographers, and the changing environmental conditions which.
unfortunately, are helping in the evolution of more aggressive
varieties of pests and virulent strains of fungi, dependence on
limited plant species for food may spell doom for humanity. Yet as the
prospect of food shortages becomes more acute, people 'must depend
increasingly. on plants rather than animals for the protein in their
diet (Anonymous, 1975).
Man has to disoover not only new species for food, but also
evolve new varieties of known species, which are more resistant to
pest attack and fungus infection. To evolve new varieties of known
107
plant species, it is necessary that their wild ancestors as well as
the still existing cousins of those ancestors are preserved. New
species for food of course, can be discovered only if wilderness is
not lost. Even the present knowledge indicates that about 75 000 plant
species can be used for food (Lel, 1989)
More than thirty percent of the currently used drugs and
medicines contain gradients which are extracted from plants. In
future, we may need new Medicines and new drugs. Forests are the eco-
systems richest in plant species, and have to be preserved to enable
the future scientists develop medicines and drugs which may be
required (Lal, Loc. cit.).
The wild edible, medicinal and threatened plant species found on
the Western Ghats of Goa region have not been clearly documented
especially in their extent of distribution.
Today, few institutions in the world offer training in tropical
botany, tropical horticulture and tropical agronomy. Facilities for
training and research should be established rapidly because the time
left for the study of undisturbed tropical vegetation is limited.
Local governments must be made more aware of the importance of their
native flora resources to their country's economic development and of
the need to inventory, maintain, and capitalize on their indigenous
vegetative materials (Anonymous, 1975).
It is estimated that the world stands to lose between 437,000 and
1,875,000 species within the next twenty years. The loss could average
50,000 species a year. True, species got extinct even before the human
history began. Dinosaurs and some other big Mammals disappeared before
humans were born but they disappeared at a rate of no more than one
every 1000 years. To lose 50,000 species a year is indeed some
acceleration. And the cause for this acceleration is the rapid
depletion of tragical forests (Lai. Lenn. rit_).
108 1.5.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
A botanical survey was carried out in the forty one villages
(list already given in the introduction) in Goa. Information was
acquired from people in different localities on their uses specially
as being medicinal or wild edible. Notes were made on the species as
being medicinal or wild edible. Observations regarding their pattern
of distribution, frequency and abundance was noted. To avoid ambiguity
of a plant being called medicinal or wild edible, only those species
which have been widely accepted for a long time at different
localities in Goa for their uses have been mentioned in the list.
Information given by people about useful plant species was confirmed
with the available literature (Nadkarni, 1954; Dastur, 1962; Jain,
1981).
Generally, plants whose efficacy in medicine have now been tested
and recognised and those plants which have been included in the Indian
Pharmacopoeia, British Pharmaceutical Codex, and United States
Pharmacopeial have been included.
The method used by IUCN (The International Union for Conservation
of Natural Resources) (Jain & Sastry, 1980) was followed in
identifying the plant species in this locality as being threatened.
The IUCN recognizes six categories of rare plant species namely
Endangered, Vulnerable, Rare, Threatened, Out of danger and
Indeterminate.
The category that was used in the studies is that of threatened.
The term is used in the conservation context for species which are in
one of the three categories: Endangered, Vulnerable, and Rare.
The causal factors upon which the species were selected, are as
follows: i) the present and past distribution, ii) decline in number
of populations in course of time, iii) abundance and quality of
natural habitats and iv) biology and potential value of the species.
109
In several cases many villages and markets which are separated
far apart have frequently been repeatedly given the same names, for
example the Caranzol in Sattari and the CaranZol of Sanguem; the Pale
and Surla of Sattari and the Pale and Surla of Bicholim etc. Such
confusions did not arise when distribution maps were prepared which
could suffice in giving the proximity distribution of the given
species at 95% confidence limitS.
The plant specimens were processed as per the methods mentioned
by Lawrence (1951) and placed in the Department of Botany, S.P.
Chowgule College, Margao, Goa for future references.
1.5.3 OBSERVATIONS
Distribution maps of the most important 32 medicinal, 49 wild
edible and 24 threatened plant species in the Goa's Western Ghats have
been prepared. The points given on the maps implies where the
population of individual species; i) Trees are 8 per hectare or more,
ii) Shrubs are 80 per hectare or more and iii) Herbs are 250 per
hectare or more, on an.average, are situated.
The species distribution on the maps has not been confined to the
Sattari, Sanguem and Canacona talukas only; the rest of the other
areas of Goa have been taken into consideration also. The distribution
is at 95% confidence interval of means obtained by the extensive
sampling. The factors which may have led to the taxon getting
threatened have been investigated (Table: 9).
Please note that the species distribution is given wherever it
has been located in Goa even upto the seashore. This is because the
Western Ghats implies the different descending steps until the sea
level is reached.
The areas depicted in the distribution maps may be termed as "hot
spots" sites of Goa region, where the Opecime'n might be located
easily.
0 . C•A•COhA
O
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TAXON ON TH E DI (.3 TRI Ill 71 ON M AP 3
O. Wild _Edible Plant Spe9iea
MAP NUMBER
Annona reticulate L.
2 • Nympha ea pubesoens wi t ld 0
3. Portulact oloracea L. 0
4. Chonopodium album L.
5, waranthus viridis L.
6. Amaranthus rhino sue , L.
7. Dillania pentaqvna Rokb.
B. r .la urtib indica, (Burro. CI) Marill
9 • saajtaas indice Choisy El
10 • '..,LiataanAuar indica L. 0
11. Phaseolus munqo L. 0
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migcarpus azzazianus Wall ex Tree.
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16.EA21:12142. njataatisrla Lain K
TAXON ON T11.8 DI S TRI '3 ON M AP S
B. Wtld Edible ?lant Snectes
M AP NUMBER
17. Car„ issa sonqesta wt.
18. Solarium nigrum L.
19. Physalis minima L.
20. iccumanei_gherrensis Wt.
21. Diosoorea bulbif ,2ra Lo
22. Diosoorea his-Ada Dennst.
23, Cassia fora L.
24. Buchanania lanzan Spreng.
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B. Wild Ediblo Plant Spocion.
MAP NUMBER 4 .
25. Aoro ohium =mum Linn. 0 26 . 4.annta Roxb
27. Spondi as pi nn ta (L .) Kurz. A
28, 35,,y(citun cumini ( L .) ak 0 (a .
29. 3 toroulin foo do Linn.
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31. Ginn= mum zoyl and, cum 1L. Dij dr . •
MAP NUMBER 5. 32 • Carl ann I n ormi 3 Vabl 0
33. Carl san oongo 3 ta Wt.' c
34. Phasoolus mune L .
35. Mi orocos eulata L
36. Pima drupaoon Thunb
37. Taff a nou'out (L) Roxb .
38 . Abpttrrigus raoomosn L.
39. Garai ni m ango tann L . 121 40. Bra roixsa (Lennst.) Alston. (.D
NB. Phyll an thu s o bli en L . and Hol 0 tomm a annul aro
( Roxb)K .8 chum havo boon gi von in 'to diatribe id on
maps of Modioinal plant spocios.
YE REA NAL
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MAP OE GC• SNow ■ NG f of Ols•PoeurtoN Og PILO Witt PLANT SPECIES. MAP Of GOA sNowtodG I NE DtStRieulsON OF wit() (016t.t ANT SPECIES.
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M AP OP GOA 311. OWING DI S TRI E ON OF IMPORTANT MEDIC) N LT.
PLANT SPECI BS .
MAP NUMBER 5.
TAXON ON rilsIf
DI S TI. ON LJ s
A. Modi cinal Plant Spoci os
33 • Holostomma annul aro( Roxb)1C S chum .
34 • Andrographi s paniculata( Banal . ) Wall . ox Noos .
35. L au cas lavandulaof oli a Roos, Cyol op .
36 . Rauvolfi a to traphyll a L .
0
El
EXPLANATION OP PL ATE
Photographs Shoving sumo of th o throatonod plant sp oci os of tho Goa's Wostorn Ghats.
Pig 14a. Ran volfi a sorpont.na whol o plant during oworing •
Pig 1 4b Hol o stoma a annul aro flowering portion.
If
110
Table: 9 Threatened plant species in Goa, and their causal factors.
1Sr.: Threatened plant species INo.: 1 1
Causal factors (specific for Goa's region)
1 1 :1. tAngiopteris evecta Forsk. I I I
:Destruction of natural habitats &
:exploitation as ornamental.
:2. tGnetum ula l3rongn. :Exploitation of seeds and stem &
:3. IHippocratea indica Willd.
:destruction of their natural
:habitats.
:Exploitation of seeds and stem &
:destruction of their natural
:habitats. . I 1 I
14. IZanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) DC:Exploitation of the root system.
:5. 1Drosera burmanni L. :Destruction of natural habitats &
:exploitation by the student
:communities for studies.
16. :Drosera indica L. :Destruction of natural habitats &
:exploitation by the student
:communities for studies.
:Exploitation of fruits & seeds
:therefore, natural regeneration
:7. tGarcinia indica Gaertn.
lis greatly hampered. . , . . le. IHemidesmus indicus (L) Schult:Overexploitation of the root 1 :
:system.
:9. :Rauvolfia serpentina L. lOverexploitation of the root '
, :(Fig. 14a) :system. . . 1 110.:Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. lOverexploitation of the root
'(Fig. 15 a) :system and as a substitute for
IR. serpentini.
:Sr.; Threatened plant species Causal factors INo.1 I (specific for Goa's region)
111.:Acampe praomorsa (Roxb)
:Blatt & Mcc.
I12.IAerides orispum Lindl. I I
:13.1Aerides maculOSUM Lindl. I I
I I 114.1Dendrobium ovatum Willd.
I I
I
I I
I15.:Eria miorochilo0 Lindl.
:Destruction of their natural
:habitats.
:Destruction of their natural
habitats.
:Destruction of their natural
:habitats.
(Destruction of their natural
:habitats. 1 ;Destruction of their natural
:habitats. 1 116.1Habenaria gran iflOriformis :Destruction of their natural
I (Blatt. & MoC. :habitats. I I 117.:Habenaria marginata Coleb, :Destruction of their natural
:habitats.
118.IHabenaria plantaginea :Destruction of their natural I 1
ILindl. :habitats. I
119.:Luisia tenuifolia BI. :Destruction of their natural : I
:habitats.
:20.;Nervilla aragoana Gaud. :Destruction of their natural
:21.:Plantanthera susannae (L)
ILindl. (Fig. 15 b)
:habitats.
:Destruction of their natural
:habitats & exploitation of the
:conspicuous white attractive
:flowers.
:22.1Rhynchostylis retusa (L) 81. :Like above,light pale-pink flowers: ; 1
112
:Sr.: Threatened plant species 1No.1
Causal factors 1 (specific for Goa's region)
123.1Calamus pooudo-tenuis lExploitation for cane wood.
I I
:Becc & BK.
124.:Bambusaarundinacea Poor regeneration per seeds & over 1 ,
' . :(Retz.) Roxb. lexploitation for the poles.
:25.1Holostemma annulare :Over exploitation of flowers &
:(Roxb.) Schum. (Fig. 14b) :roots.
The medicinal plant species have been mentioned and their uses
given in the text however a word of caution for their use as medicine:
unless a detail knowledge of dose concentration and vast experience in
practising the medicinal plants their parts to cure diseases may pose
serious danger. So never try to use the medicinal 'plant without proper
guidelines and knowledge.
An aspect on some of the threatened plant species.
Holostemma annulAre though reported as very common by Delgado
(1898) about one century back the species population is extremely rare
today. Since the species is being exploited for both its flowers and
roots its population is fast diminishing.
Urgent needs to bring it under cultivation is wanting; moreover
it is a real beautiful species when in flower which could admirably be
introduced as an ornamental in the homesteads and public gardens (Fig.
14 b).
Hemidesmus indic4s is an important species which is
internationally known as a blood purifier "sarsaparilla". Cooke (1903)
states that the species' root has been employed as a substitute for
sarsaparilla and in 1864 (about 130 years ago) was made officinal in
the British Pharmacopoeia.
The species IS threatened because of overexploitation of its
EXPL AN ATI ON OP PL ATE
Photographs showing throatonod plant sp o oi os
Fig 1 5a . Rau. vo3.fi a to tr h la, in f rui ting condition -al Italy& oo wo.
Pig 1 5b PI atanth ora sannao, fl owor portion at uaranzol- sots
roots for various uses. The species though abundant in some areas
where accessibility is less, it got to be accepted that it is under
threat in the Goa state and other pocket areas of the Western Ghats,
Garcinia Imlica is an important culinary in every household in
this region; the fruit rind is widely used, whereas seeds are used in
making oil. Though many people may argue that the species is abundant
in this region, ground survey conducted showed enormous decline of the
species population in their natural habitats in the recent years.
Bambusa griandkpaosa and DendrooalatMuS strkctus have become rare
plant species in their natural habitats. Some efforts are being made
to introduce them in the homesteads by the locals but the efforts are
not sufficient enough. The high demand of the species for several
domestic uses and in paper industry requires both private and public
institutions to start large scale cultivation for commercial purpose
in this territory.
Cane plant, calamus pseudo - tenpin is one of the species being
exploited for making furniture. Though its populations are high in the
semi-evergreen forests, their rate of exploitation is high
necessitating precautions to be taken.
So far no efforts have been made to introduce the species in the
homesteads. if the species is made available on large scale
cultivation then we will be rest assured that the species remaining in
the natural forest will be spared.
1.5.4 DISCUSSION
Already several areas in Goa have been declared as protected
zones in form of sanctuaries. It is in these areas where focus of
attention should be made and introduce the threatened plant species.
The threatened species especially thote exploited for food or
medicine or any other use have had the long standing tradition which
may have gone from generation to generation for centuries for their
Fig. 12b. Dipecorea bulbifara L. . Fig. 12c. Dios corea tuber & fruiting branch Fig.
tifolia L. & f ruiting branch
Fig. 12a. Dioscbre a alata L. bulb is attachea tc tha s tam
Fig. 12d. Dioscoraa his ci da Dienns t. . 1 2e .Diocorea pen taphylla Z. 061 r i ng branchas fl owering bud condi on.
114
use, therefore, it is difficult to break the tradition.
The only alternative is to educate the masses/local people of the
usefulness and their danger of getting extinct of these plants and
encourage them to cultivate these plant species in the home yards.
For example the roots of Hemidesmus indious are sold (1994) in
the markets at Rupees 20/- per bundle, (5 to 8 pieces are equivalent
to about 1/4 kg), this serves as a recruitive business to some village
people who collect it freely from the surrounding rocky plateau and
sell it to the local Market.
Measures to save the plant: is not to stop people from their
utilisation of the plant species but rather educate theta on the
species' value.
If the products of this species are exported abroad, they could
definitely earn much More in terms of foreign exchange (which is.badly
required for any nation's development).
One cannot imagine a situation, as Ayensu (1978) says, if
Penicillium had been eliminated from the earth before humankind made
use of it as an antibiotic, or if Cinohona had become extinct before
quinine was discovered as a cure for malaria. It is therefore in our
own interest to conserve our plant as also animal and microorganism
wealth (Khoshoo, 1986).
Sarma (1991) while working out on the forest resources and
utilisation in Assam quotes that orchids and medicinal plants and
herbs can be sources of earning foreign exchange since demand for
orchids and medicinal herbs is universal. Collection of these from
wild growth, their planned cultivation and sale in India and abroad
have immense prospects.
The same should be done to the Goa's orchards and medicinal herbs
which if planted under extensive cultivation may generate high income.
It can be said that the 1990's is the critical decade for the
115
persistence of many tropical species. If appropriate conservation
action is taken, these species will survive into the third millennium;
without urgent action many species will be known only from museum
specimens, or be unknown, in the third Millennium. The question
therefore becomes not what research is needed? "but" "what indicators
are there for action to be taken now?" (Usher, 199'?)
Threatened plant species may be observed in different
retrospective in different states and other regions of the world.
Of course a species found in Goa as being threatened may not be
as such threatened in the thick forests of Assam. Culture and
tradition also play a big role in the utilisation of some forest
species. In general many of threatened species are those which are
being exploited for parts specially for food, medicine and timber to a
little extent but no Attempts have been made to regenorate thorn hence
the enormous decline in their populations.
As Khoshoo (1986) states that "no amount of laws and policing can
save these species because it affects socio-economically the
hereditary vocation of rural communities. Production of these species
is called for because otherwise conservation for the sake of
conservation cannot be "sold" to the rural people of our country who
can be both the destroyers as also protectors of our wildlife.
Owing to the continuously accelerating forest degradation in Goa,
it is high time both public and private institutions try to set
reserve germplasm seedbanks for the medicinal, wild edible and
threatened plant species for example the introduction of these plants
in the gardens both at the home backyards and public gardens might
assist in their preservation, especially for the threatened plant
species.
1.18
1.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF WOOD TIMBER SPECIES AND PLOIDY LEVEL
1.6.1 INTRODUCTION
There is no question that wood specific gravity or wood density,
is by far the most important within species wood characteristic for
nearly all products (Einsphar et El., 1969; Barefoot %I 1I., 1970;
Zobel and Talbert, 1984).
Specific gravity is primarily determined by three different wood
characteristics namely by amount of Summerwood, cell size and
thickness of cell wall. Therefore it is not a simple wood
characteristic but it is a combination of characteristics. Specific
gravity is of key importance of foresters because it has major effect
on both yield and quality of the final product (Barefoot 21 %I., 1970)
and because it is strongly inherited (Van Buijtenen, 1962; Harris,
1965; Zobel, 1966; Zobel and Talbert, 1984).
Overall biomass productivity cannot be determined unless wood
specific gravity is known.
Specific gravity and pulp of wood
Much has been written about the effect of specific gravity on the
quality of pulp and paper; a few publications summarising these
findings are those of Barefoot et al. (Loc. oit); Kirk tk (1972);
Bendtsen (1978) and Zobel (1981). It is clear from these and many
other summaries that the importance of specific gravity many times
overshadows the importance of other wood properties; this is
especially true for the key paper characteristics referred to as tr@l
strength. It is so important that in most programmes which have pulp
and paper as final product specific gravity is the only wood
characteristic manipulated. Because of its effect on quality and yield
and its high heritability, it has become of major interest in most
tree improvement programmes - no matter if the objective is to produce
fibre or solid wood products (Zobel %I II., 1976; Zobel and Talbert,
117 1.984).
A wider investigation into different species to find whether
there is a correlation between sp. gr. of wood (stem) and the
chromosome numbers is required. If a correlation is found it will help
in selecting out species for particular uses in the timber industry by
directly determining the chromosome number of a given specimen.
Some attempt was done in this direction on five different species
namely; Tectona sreimiit L., Terminalia ohebula Retz, $tryohnos, nUX-
vomica L., SyzYsium oumini (L) Skeels, and GMOlina arOerea Roxb.
1.6.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experiments were oonducted to find any correlation between the
specific gravity of wood and the ploidy level of timber species.
If any correlation is found, it will help in selecting out timber
species for particular use in the timber industry by directly
determining the chromosome numbers of a given specimen.
Experiments were conducted in the PG Dept. of Botany, S.P.
Chowgule College, Margao on five different species, namely Tectona
grandis L.; Terminalja 0110bula Retz.; SttYchnos nux-vomtcA L.•
Syzyekum cumini (Li) Skeels; and Gmelina arlpoyea Roxb.
Chromosome count.
Seeds of 5 plant species mentioned above and wood portion of tree
populations showing distinct variations such as plant height, stem
girth- and DBH of even aged-stands were collected from different
forests and labelled in the field. The seeds were separately
germinated in pots with vermiculite. Healthy root tips were excised,
washed and pre-treated with saturated aqueous solution of p-
dichlorobenzene for two hours at 10°C. Pre-heated root tips were
washed thoroughly and fixed in modified Carnoy's fluid. Fixation was
followed by hydrolysis at 60°C in 2N HCI and then staining with 2%
aceto-orcein which gave satisfactory results. Chromosome number was
118 then counted at metaphase.
Determination of specific gravity.
Different pulp woods of tree species whose chromosome numbers had
been determined, were collected from different localities of forests
and labelled on the spot in the field. The samples were put in water
by keeping a weight over them for about ten minutes; this was done in
order to fill the superficial pores of the wood.
The wood sampled were then weighed in air and appropriate sinker
was weighed separately (immersed in water) the wood sample was then
tied with a sinker and immersed in water. The weight of the sample in
air and the loss of weight of the sample in water was found by the
following formula.
Wt. of sample in air Sp.gr. =
Loss of wt. sample in water
Wt. of sample in Air gg W1 gms
Wt. of sample + sinker in water = W2 gms
Sinker alone in water = (W2-W3)gms (-ve value)
Loss of wt. of sample in water m W1-(W2-W3)
Specific gravity of wood sample =
Wi - (W2 - W3)
1.6.3 OBSERVATIONS
During the study of the Chromosome NuMbor of polyploidy and
diploidy, the species showed no distinct correlation in the specific
gravity of the wood compared (Table: 10). Sven the local volume tables
stem/hectare per species, diameter class and ploidy level showed no
distinct correlation. Though in some cases higher specific gravity was
observed in the ploidy species but this could not be clearly defined,'
Given that different environmental factors operate, these imply
that hundreds of stands have to be investigated where the varieties of
a species exist in order to find if there is any relationship.
119 Table: 10 Correlation of local volume tables stem/hectare per species
and diameter class between ploidy level and specific gravity of wood
of some plant species in Goa have been investigated.
I l*Chromos.;
Sr.I: Taxon 1 1 Number 1 *Sp.
1No.1 1 1 (2n) 1 gr. 1
I : :1. :Tectona grandis L. I I
1 1 I I I I I I I I 1 , 12. :Terminalia Chabula Retz.la): 14 10.85 : 1 1 1 1
lb): 18 11.01 , I . . I , , , 1 13. :Strychnos nux-vomica L. la)1 I I
24 10.86 , I I 1
1 1b)I 44 10.86 . I : I
14. ISyzygium cumini (L) 1a)1 33 10.67 1 ;Skeels. 1 1 ,
I / lb); 55 ;0.75 I I . 1 1 15. :Gmelina arborea Roxb. la):
. 36 ;0.47
I I I I . s Ib): 38 ;0.47 . . , 1 1 ,
Diameter class (cm)
1 15 1 21 125 131 1 36 141 151 161 I 1 to 1 to Ito Ito 1 to Ito Ito Ito I 1 20 125 130 :35 140 150 160 170 1 1 _ i____,_____
1 I 1 1 ;111 1 5.6: 0.010.010.010.0 10.010.010.01
I I I 1 1 1 : 1 5.5; 0.0:0.010.010.0 10.010.010.01
, I I I : I 1 : 1 0.0: 0.0:0.013.110,0 10.010.0;3.3:
, I : I 1 1 : I : 0.0! 0.010.0:3.510.0 :0.010.014.21 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 8.01 2.8:0.010.410.6310.210.110.11 ' . : I 1 I :111 110.6: 3.311.510.910.3 10.010.110.01 I . . I I I 1 1 1 1 :84.21 0.013.410.010.0 10.010.010.01
1 I 1 1111 ;93.1; 0.013.610,010.0 10.010.0:0.0:
1 I 1 I i i 1 156.0114.110.010.010.0 10.010.010.01
, 1 I 1 1 1 : , 1 55.1114.610.010.010.0 10.010.010.01
1111 I I I I I ............ 1 ............ e ........_ i
Ia)1 24 10.6,0,7 I t lb); 36 10.6,0.71
120 1.6.4 DISCUSSION
According to a personal communication (Letter No. 9-17/R1L/DGTP/
93 dated 4.1.1993 with the Indian Council of Forestry, Forest Research
Institute, Debra Dun e Otsuka 1. al., (1964) reported that 21 year old
tetraploid PinuS thunbertii in Japan had shorter tracheids with thick
walls than diploid but information on wood density/sp. gravity is
lacking.
The doubling of the chromosoMe complement often produoes
physiological changes which are comparable with those produced by gene
mutations. The cell size in polyploids is usually greater, and body
size is frequently bigger although by no means always increased.
(Dobzhansky, 1968)
As the natural forest resources are fast declining the genetic
diversity is also diminishing. There are many indigenous tree species
though having been Used traditionally as timber species for a long
time, they have not been investigated especially in their timber
values.
It is high time, efficient quick determining methods were evolved
to bring out information on the timber values of these species because
some of the species are going to be threatened no sooner may be
endangered and get extinct from the wild state.
It remains at the hands of the foresters and scientists to take
up this challenge sooner and not later.
