Paradigm Shifts in Quality Improvement in Education

8/11/2019 Paradigm Shifts in Quality Improvement in Education

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Paradigm Shift in Quality Improvement in Education

Paradigm Shifts in Quality Improvement in Education:

Three Waves for the Future

CHE!" #in Cheong

Centre Director, Professor

Centre for Research and International Collaboration

Asia Pacific Centre for Education eadership and School Quality

!ong "ong Institute of Education

o Ping Road, #ai Po, $#, !%$& "%$&'a() *+-. -/0+122-3#el) *+-. -/0+122--

Email)yccheng4ied5edu5h67eb1site)http)889995ied5edu5h68cric8

7eb1site) http)889995ied5edu5h68cric8apcels:8

Invited Plenary Speech Presented at

#he#he International Forum on Quality Education for the T$enty%first Century

Co1organi;ed by

&ESC'%P(')P" ational Commission for &ESC' of *inistry of Education"

and ational Institute of Educational (esearch" China

une -??3

I'1Quality1@CCheng 3
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.ied.edu.hk/cric/http://www.ied.edu.hk/cric/http://www.ied.edu.hk/cric/apcelsq/mailto:[email protected]://www.ied.edu.hk/cric/http://www.ied.edu.hk/cric/apcelsq/


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Paradigm Shifts in Quality Improvement in Education:

Three Waves for the Future

CHE!" #in Cheong

Hong +ong Institute of Education

,)-stract.

'acing up the challenges in the ne9 millennium, education reform has inevitably become a necessary to pursueeducational :uality and effectiveness in the Asia1Pacific Region and other parts of the 9orld5 nfortunately mosteducational reforms in the past t9o decades resulted in serious frustration and failure even though they often had agood 9ill5 Revie9ing the policy initiatives since 3/+?s and earlier, this presentation 9ill point out 9orld 9ideeducation reforms for education :uality are e(periencing three 9aves5 Different 9aves are based on different

paradigms and theories of education :uality and school effectiveness, and they result in different strategies andapproaches to education assurance5 #he first $ave of school reforms and initiatives focuses mainly on InternalQuality Assurance and ma6es effort to improve internal school performance particularly the methods and processesof teaching and learning5 #he second $ave emphasi;es Interface Quality Assurancein terms of organi;ationaleffectiveness, sta6eholdersB satisfaction and mar6et competitiveness and ma6es effort to ensure satisfaction andaccountability to the internal and e(ternal sta6eholders5 Suffering from the narro9 conception of school functions and:uality, many initiatives of the first t9o 9aves cannot meet the challenges and needs of rapid transformations in an

era of globali;ation and information technology5

y presentation 9ill further e(plain that the coming improvement initiatives should be moving to9ards thethird $ave9hich emphasi;es strongly Future Quality Assurance in terms of relevance to the ne9 school functionsin the ne9 century as 9ell as relevance to the ne9 paradigm of education concerning conte(tuali;ed multipleintelligences *CI., globali;ation, locali;ation and individuali;ation5 In pursuit of not only internal and interface

:uality but also future :uality in education in the ne9 millennium, this presentation proposes a ne9 paradigm for:uality assurance in school education5


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Introduction

Since the turn of the ne9 century, there have been drastic impacts from economic

globali;ation, advances in information technology, international mar6et competitions, and

rapidly increasing local social1political demands on nearly every country in the 9orld5 'acingup these impacts and challenges, numerous education reforms have been initiated in the Asia1

Pacific Region and other places *Cheng #o9nsend, -???.5 According to Cheng *-??3a.,

the 9orld19ide education reforms are e(periencing three 9aves since the 3/2?s5 #he three

9aves of reforms are mainly based on different paradigms and theories of education

effectiveness, and they result in the employment of different strategies and approaches to

changing schools and education5

Assuming goals and ob=ectives of education are clear and consensus to all, the first

9ave of school reforms and initiatives since the 3/2?s focuses mainly on internal

effectiveness, 9ith efforts made to improve internal school performance particularly the

methods and processes of teaching and learning5 any changes are government1directed and

top1do9n, 9ith the aim to improve school arrangements and education practices, thus

enhancing their effectiveness in achieving the goals and ob=ectives planned at either the site

level or the system level5 Improvement of teacher and student performance up to identified

standards obviously had been a popular and important target for educational reform5

Responding to concerning the accountability to the public and sta6eholdersB

e(pectation in the 3//?s, the second 9ave of education reform emphasi;es interface

effectiveness in terms of education :uality, sta6eholdersB satisfaction, and mar6et

competitiveness, 9ith most policy efforts aim to ensure :uality and accountability to the

internal and e(ternal sta6eholders *Evans, 3/// &oert; Duffy, -??3 Coulson, 3///!eadington, -??? ahony !e(tall, -??? !eller, -??3.5 Quality assurance, school

monitoring and revie9, parental choice, student coupon, parental and community

involvement in governance, school charter, and performance1based funding are some typical

e(amples of measures to pursue and enhance effectiveness at the interface bet9een the school

and the community *Cheng #o9nsend, -???.5 !o9 to improve the e(isting structures,

organi;ations, and practices in education at different levels to meet sta6eholdersB needs and

e(pectations, is a ma=or concern in the second 9ave of reforms5

At the turn of the ne9 century, the effects of many initiatives of the first and second

9aves have been doubted 9hether they can meet the challenges and needs of rapid

transformations in an era of globali;ation and information technology5 Particularly 9hen6no9ledge1driven economy and information technology are strongly emphasi;ed in the ne9

millennium, people urge paradigm shift in learning and teaching and demand reforming the

aims, content, practice, and management of education at different levels to ensure their

relevance to the future *Cheng, -???a, b Daun, -??3


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#he above three 9aves of education reforms provide a general typology to capture and

understand the 6ey paradigms and characteristics of various education reforms in

international conte(ts in these years5 Different countries or areas may have different historical

and conte(tual constraints, and therefore their progress and characteristics of education

reforms may be different and move to9ards different 9aves5 'or e(ample, some countries

may be still struggling for internal effectiveness at the first 9ave 9ith focus mainly on

improvement of internal process5 Some countries may move to9ards the second 9ave or a

mi( of the first and second 9aves to pursue both internal and interface effectiveness5 In

addition to the internal improvement of school process, they implement different measures

and initiatives to ensure education :uality and sta6eholdersB satisfaction5 Responding to the

challenges of globali;ation and impacts of information technology, some countries may have

already started the third 9ave of education reforms to pursue for future effectiveness 9ith

emphasis on relevance of education to ne9 school functions and ne9 paradigm of learning in

the ne9 millennium5

#hese three 9aves represent changes in paradigms and theories of education :uality

and school effectiveness, and they also result in different strategies and approaches to

education assurance5 #he first $aveof school reforms and initiatives focuses mainly on

Internal Quality Assurance in terms ofimproving and ensuring the methods and processes of

teaching and learning meeting the planned education aims5 #he second $ave emphasi;es

Interface Quality Assurancein terms of ensuring organi;ational effectiveness, sta6eholder

satisfaction and accountability to the public5 Suffering from the narro9 conception of school

functions and :uality, many initiatives of the first t9o 9aves cannot meet the challenges and

needs of rapid transformations in an era of globali;ation and information technology5

#his paper aims to revie9 the characteristics and paradigms of :uality assurance in thefirst and second 9aves and then e(plain 9hy the coming initiatives for :uality assurance

should be moving to9ards the third $ave 9hich emphasi;es strongly Future Quality

Assurance in terms of ensuring the relevance to ne9 education functions in the ne9 century

as 9ell as the relevance to the ne9 paradigm of education5 In pursuit of not only internal and

interface :uality but also future :uality in education in the ne9 millennium, this paper

proposes a ne9 paradigm for :uality assurance in education5

First Wave: Internal Quality )ssurance

Effectiveness in Teaching and /earning

#raditionally, the discussion of education :uality in this first 9ave focuses heavily on

the effectiveness of internal education processes particularly teaching and learning in

classroom5 In this line of thin6ing, education qualitymainly refers to the achievement of

planned education goals particularly in terms of studentsB education outcomes5 #he higher

achievement in planned education goals implies the better :uality in education5 In this sense,

education :uality is not different from education effectiveness5 Also, quality assuranceoften

refers to the efforts for improving the internal environment and processes such that the

effectiveness of learning and teaching can be ensured to achieve the planned goals *Cheng,3//2a.5 #his type of :uality assurance may be named as GInternal Quality )ssuranceH5 As

I'1Quality1@CCheng 0


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sho9n in 'igure 3, the structure of effectiveness in teaching and learning can provide an

useful overall vie9 on ho9 strategies and initiatives can be conceptualised and organi;ed to

ensure internal :uality in education *Cheng, 3//a, 3//+.5

Education effectiveness in classroom is a comprehensive conception even though it isoften assessed by the :uality and :uantity of achieved student learning e(periences and

outcomes5 #he structure sho9s ho9 the 6ey internal factors such as teacher factors,

curriculum factors, conte(tual factors, and student factors are related to student learning

e(periences and educational outcomes5 It assumes the follo9ing procedural inter1

relationships among the components of internal education effectiveness *Cheng, 3//+

edley, 3/+-.)

*3. Student learning outcomes are the product of the interaction bet9een curriculum

characteristics, student learning e(perience and individual characteristics

*-. Student learning e(perience is affected by teacher performance, curriculum

characteristics, and classroom environment

*F. #eacher performance is determined by the interaction bet9een teachercompetence, curriculum characteristics and school organi;ational environment

*0. E(ternal teacher education, school1based teacher education, and pre1e(isting

teacher characteristics can contribute to teacher competence and

*. #eaching evaluation based on the information from teacher performance,

student learning e(perience and learning outcomes can be used to facilitate

development of teacher competence through staff development activities5

I'1Quality1@CCheng


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Figure 0: Structure of Education Effectiveness in the Classroom

School1based

#eacher Education 8Staff Development

#eaching

Evaluation

#eacherPre1e(isting

Characteristics

Studentearning

E(perience

#eacher

Competence

Student

earning%utcomes

#eacher

Performance

E(ternal

#eacherEducation

Curriculum

%rgani;ational

Environment

ClassroomEnvironment

Student

Pre1e(istingCharacteristics

#eaching earning

Curriculum

* from Cheng, 3//+.


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)pproaches to Ensuring Internal Quality

'rom this structure, there may be t9o different approaches that can be used to ensure

education :uality or effectiveness in classroom5 #hey are the component :uality approach and

the relationship :uality approach5

The Component Quality Approach

#his approach focuses on improving the :uality of some components of the structure

9ith a hope to enhance or ensure the :uality in student learning outcome5 'or e(ample, many

improvement initiatives ta6e teacher competence as the 6ey factor for internal :uality and

ma6e effort to improve teacher competencies such as language s6ills, pedagogic 6no9ledge,

sub=ect 6no9ledge, use of information technology in education, etc5 In the past years, there

have been different types of improvement efforts for internal :uality assurance in education

such as school management improvement, classroom environment improvement, teaching

improvement, learning improvement, curriculum improvement, evaluation improvement, and

teacher education and :uality improvement5 All these efforts focus on improvement of the:uality of certain components 9ith aims to achieve planned education goals5 #able 3 sho9s

some e(amples of this component :uality approach5

Currently, based on this approach, there is a strong emphasis on using the benchmar6ing

concept *


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#able 3) #he Component Quality Approach

Improvement

'f Component Quality E1amples of Factors to -e Improved

#eaching Improvement #ype

Improve #eacher Competence e5g5 language s6ills, pedagogic 6no9ledge, informationtechnology s6ills, sub=ect 6no9ledge, ethical and legal6no9ledge in education, etc5

Improve #eacher Performance e5g5 teaching styles, teaching attitudes, teaching strategies,behaviors, use of facilities, teaching materials, classroommanagement pattern, leadership to students, etc5

earning Improvement #ype

Improve Student earning E(perience e5g5 learning activities, learning strategies, e(periences,responses and feelings, interaction 9ith peers, s6ill practice,affective e(pression, physical performance, intellectualstimulation and e(ercise, etc5

Improve Student earning %utcome e5g5 academic achievements, reading ability, 9riting ability,developed self efficacy in learning, computer literacy, moraldevelopment, citi;enship, s6ill and motivation of continuousself learning, etc5

Curriculum Improvement #ype

Improve Curriculum and its

Characteristics

e5g5 learning aims and goals, teaching and learning tas6s,te(tboo6s, sub=ect syllabus, curriculum design, medium ofinstruction, teaching materials, etc5

Evaluation Improvement #ype

Improve Evaluation of #eaching

earning

e5g5 supervision, classroom observation, student achievementassessment, teacher self evaluation, teaching portfolio,

evaluation by students, etc5Classroom Environment Improvement #ype

Improve Classroom Environment for

#eaching and earning

e5g5 e(isting social climate, class si;e, level and diversity ofstudentsB academic ability in the class, teaching and learningfacilities, e:uipment, physical conditions, etc5

School anagement Improvement #ype

Improve %rgani;ational Environment

for #eaching and earning

e5g5 instructional leadership, program planning, team support,staff development in area of instruction, staff professionalism,management of curriculum, school mission and goals, policy of

program design and implementation, human relations, schoolculture, schoolBs physical environment, etc5

#eacher Education and Quality Improvement #ype

Improve #eacher Personal

Characteristics

e5g5 academic :ualifications, 9or6ing e(periences,

personalities, self concept and efficacy, beliefs and valuesabout education and society, personal vision and mission,cognitive styles, age, etc5

Improve School1based #eacher

Education 8 Staff Development

e5g5 9or6shops, e(perience sharing, collaborative teaching,

reflection on teaching, educational visits, =ob enrichment, etc5

Improve E(ternal #eacher Education e5g5 goals, ob=ectives, methods, content, course designs,organi;ation, relevance of programs, :uality of teaching, etc5

+


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The Relationship Quality Approach

Different from the component :uality approach, the relationship :uality approach

focuses mainly on improving the :uality of relationship bet9een components of the

effectiveness structure5 It is assumed that the better relationship bet9een components, the

better impacts of components on the :uality in student learning outcomes5 It means that

improvement of relationship bet9een components is the 6ey for ensuring education :uality inclassroom5 #able - provides some e(amples of the relationship :uality approach5 'or e(ample

F in this table, the improvement effort can focus on ensuring the :uality of teacher

competence and organi;ational environment related to positive teacher performance in

classroom5 Another e(ample, say e(ample - in #able -, the improvement effort can focus on

providing a coherent and positive lin6age bet9een teacher performance and characteristics of

classroom environment and curriculum in order to enhance the :uality of student learning

e(periences5 In other 9ords, it is to ensure that the teacher can adapt his8her teaching

performance to the classroom characteristics *such as class si;e, student composition, social

climate, etc5 . and the curriculum features *such as learning ob=ectives and tas6s, sub=ect

content, etc5 . in order to ma(imi;e the learning opportunities for different students5

#his relationship :uality approach is comparatively po9erful than the component

:uality approach in ensuring education :uality because it ensures not only the :uality of

separate components but more the :uality of relationship bet9een components5 #he

successful application of this approach is based on the understanding of the relationships

bet9een components5 #herefore there is a strong demand for a more sophisticated 6no9ledge

base about these relationships5 7ithout such a 6no9ledge base, it is impossible to 6no9 ho9

to ensure these relationships contributing to the :uality in student learning outcomes5

'urthermore, in the structure of education effectiveness, all factors are directly or

indirectly related in different stages of the teaching and learning processes *see 'igure 3.5 If

the relationship :uality approach =ust focuses on the improvement of certain relationships but

not all, it cannot promise the contribution of all the components and their relationships

converging to the total internal :uality in education5

Ta-le 2: The (elationship Quality )pproach ,E1amples.

Ensuring (elationship Quality

-et$een Components

Quality to -e Enhanced

Through Ensuring (elationshipE(ample 3)


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*odels of Internal Quality )ssurance

According to Cheng *3//a. and Cheng #am *3//2., there are eight models of

education :uality that can be used to understand and manage :uality of education from aperspective ta6ing educational institution and its interface 9ith environment into

consideration5 #able F summari;es the conception of :uality assurance, conditions of

usefulness, and 6ey areas of concern of these models5 #he first three models, including the

goal and specification model, the process model and the absence of problem model, are

concerned 9ith the internal :uality assurance focusing on internal goal achievement, process

improvement, and internal problem avoidance5 #hese models can be used to manage and

ensure internal :uality in education5

The Goal and Specification Model5 #he goal and specification model assumes that

there are clear, enduring, normative and 9ell accepted goals and specifications as indicators

and standards for education institutions or education systems to pursue or conform5 Asdiscussed in the previous part on internal :uality assurance, education :uality defined by this

model is the achievement of the stated goals or conformance to the specifications listed in the

institutional plan or program plans5 It is a type of internal :uality5 Quality assurance by this

model is to ensuring achievement of stated goals and conformance to given specifications5

#he typical e(amples of :uality indicators to be used may include studentsB academic

achievements, attendance rate, dropout rate, and personal developments, number of graduates

enrolled in universities or graduate schools, staffBs professional :ualifications, etc5

The Process Model #he model assumes that nature and :uality of institution

process often determine the :uality of output and the degree to 9hich the planned goals can

be achieved5 Particularly in education, e(perience in process is often ta6en as a form of

educational aims and outcomes5 #herefore, education :uality defined by this model is mainly

the smoothness and health of internal processes and the fruitfulness of learning processes5

#he process in an education institution generally includes management process, teaching

process, and learning process5 #hus the selection of indicators may be based on these

processes, classified as management :uality indicators *e5g5 leadership, decision1ma6ing.,

teaching :uality indicators *e5g5 teaching efficacy, teaching methods., and learning :uality

indicators * e5g5 learning attitudes, attendance rate.5 Quality assurance by this model is to

ensure smooth healthy internal process and fruitful learning e(periences5 It is also a type of

internal :uality assurance 9ith emphasis on internal improvement5

The Absence of Problems Model #he model assumes that if there is absence of

problems, troubles, defects, 9ea6nesses, difficulties, and dyfunctions in an education

institution, this institution is of high education :uality5 #herefore education :uality is

defined as the absence of problems and troubles inside the education institution5 Quality

assurance relies heavily on institutional monitoring and reporting to ensure no problems and

deficiencies arising from its operation and structure5 #his is perhaps the oldest concept of

internal :uality assurance in use in industry *'eigenbaum, 3/3.5 Quality control e(perts

tend to loo6 at :uality as less scrap, re9or6, 9arranty costs, etc5, of the final product5 #he

management team of an education institution may set up stringent :uality assurance and

monitoring system in order to ensure a deficiency free environment5 Identifying strategies for

internal improvement of an education institution can be more precisely done by analy;ingproblems and defects as opposed to education :uality5 #herefore, this model is useful

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particularly 9hen the criteria of education :uality are really unclear but the strategies for

internal improvement are needed5

Ta-le 34 *odels of Internal Quality )ssurance

Conception of

Quality )ssurance

Conditions for

*odel &sefulness

Indicators 5 +ey )reas for

Quality Evaluation ,e4g4.

!oal and

Specification

*odel

Ensuring achievement of

stated institutional goalsand conformance to

given specifications

7hen institutional goals and

specifications are clear,consensual, time1bound, and

measurable

7hen resources are sufficient to

achieve the goals and conform tothe specifications

Institutional ob=ectives,

standards, and specificationslisted in the program plans, e5g5

academic achievements,

attendance rate, dropout rate, etc5

Process *odel Ensuring smoothinternal process and

fruitful learninge(periences

7hen there is a clear relationshipbet9een process and educational

outcomes

eadership, participation, socialinteractions, classroom climate,

learning activities ande(periences, etc5

)-sence of

Pro-lems

*odel

Ensuring absence of

problems and troubles in

the institution

7hen there is no consensual

criteria of :uality but strategies

for improvement are needed

Absence of conflicts,

dysfunctions, difficulties, defects,

9ea6nesses, troubles, etc5

Theory of 6alue%added in Internal Education Quality

#he internal :uality assurance is based on the theory of value1added in education :uality,

assuming that the larger the improvement of internal process of teaching and learning, the

larger the value1added to education :uality5 As sho9n in 'igure -, if the internal process

including different components and their relationships can be improved during a time period

#3 to #-, the area of value added in :uality 9ill increase as the achievement of the planned

goals is increased5 #he larger increase in achievement of planned goals is due to the larger

improvement of internal process5 #herefore, based on this theory, the component :uality

approach, the relationship :uality or the total internal :uality approach can add value in:uality if it can improve some or all aspects of the internal process of education5

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Figure 2:

6alue%)dded in Quality

Second Wave: Interface Quality )ssurance

In the past decades, numerous initiatives and research pro=ects of the first 9ave have

been conducted to pursue internal school effectiveness :uality in different parts of the

9orld *Cheng #o9nsend, -???.5 Some focused on improvement of school management

and classroom environment*Cheng, 3//b. some on curriculum development and change

*Cheng, Cho9, #sui, -???. some on teacher :ualifications and competencies *'idler

Atton, 3///. some on improvement of teaching and learning processes *organ orris,

3/// ant;i, -??3 Sunstein, ovell, -??? !eadington, -???.5


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the second 9ave, the consideration of education :uality and its assurance is put into a larger

changing social conte(t, in 9hich satisfying the needs of multiple sta6eholders and ensuring

the accountability of education to the public are crucial criteria for determining education

:uality5 Clearly, the reform focus has shifted from the internal process improvement to the

interface effectiveness and adaptation5

In this line of thin6ing, education quality mainly refers to the satisfaction of

sta6eholders 9ith the education services including education process and outcomes5

Accountability of a school or educational institution to the public or 6ey sta6eholders is often

perceived as important indicator for satisfying the needs of sta6eholders5 #herefore, quality

assuranceof the second 9ave reforms often refers to the efforts to ensure education services

satisfying the needs of sta6eholders and accountable to the public5 #herefore it is a type of the

interface quality assurance5

Institutional monitoring, institutional self1evaluation, :uality inspection, use of

:uality indicators and benchmar6s, survey of 6ey sta6eholdersB satisfaction, accountability

reporting to the community, parental and community involvement in governance, institutionaldevelopment planning, school charter, and performance1based funding are some typical

measures used to ensure interface :uality in education *>ac6son und, -??? Smith

Armstrong, ant;i, -??3 Sunstein, ovell, -??? !eadington, -??? Cheng, 3//2b.5 !o9 to improve

the e(isting structures, processes, and practices in education at different levels to meet

sta6eholdersB needs and e(pectations is a ma=or concern in the interface :uality assurance5

*odels of Interface Quality )ssurance

As discussed previously, there are eight models of :uality assurance in education

*Cheng, 3//a Cheng #am, 3//2.5 Among these models, the resource1input model, the

satisfaction model, the legitimacy model, the organi;ational learning model and the total

:uality management model focus mainly on the interface :uality assurance concerning

resource input from interface, satisfaction of strategic sta6eholders, legitimacy and

accountability in the local community, adaptation to the changing interface environment

through continuous learning, and total management of internal people and process to meet the

strategic sta6eholdersB needs5 #he characteristics of :uality assurance of these models are

summari;ed as sho9n in #able 0 and discussed as in the follo9ing paragraphs)

The Resource-nput Model#his model assumes that scarce and :uality resources

are necessary for education institutions to achieve diverse ob=ectives and provide :ualityservices in a short time5 #herefore, education :uality is perceived as the natural result of

achievement of scarce resources and inputs for the institution5 Quality assurance refers to the

efforts for ensuring different types of :uality resource inputs and appropriate environment

available to education services and practices5 #he education :uality indicators may include

high :uality student inta6e, more :ualified staff recruited, better facilities and e:uipment,

better staff1students ratio, and more financial support procured from the central education

authority, alumni, parents, sponsoring body or any outside agents5 #he capacity of ac:uiring

scarce and :uality resources from the interface or outside community represents the potential

of an education institution that can promise high education :uality particularly in a conte(t of

great resource1competition5 #o some e(tent, the model redresses the limitation of the above

three models of internal :uality assurance, lin6ing education :uality to the interface of theeducation institution and the resources input from e(ternal environment5 #herefore, this

3F


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model represents a type of interface :uality assurance5

The Satisfaction Model #his model assumes that the satisfaction of strategic

constituencies of an education institution is critical to its survival in the community5

#herefore education :uality mainly refers to the e(tent to 9hich the performance of an

education institution can satisfy the needs and e(pectations of its po9erful sta6eholders5Education :uality may be a relative concept, depending on the e(pectations of concerned

sta6eholders5 If e(pected education :uality is high and diverse, it 9ill be difficult for

institutions to achieve it and satisfy the needs of multiple sta6eholders5 If e(pected education

:uality is lo9 and simple, of course it 9ill be easier for education institutions to achieve it

and satisfy the e(pectations of constituencies sta6eholders such that education institutions

may be perceived as high :uality more easily5 'urthermore, the ob=ective measurement of

:uality achievement is often technically difficult and conceptually controversial5 #herefore

satisfaction of po9erful sta6eholders instead of some ob=ective indicators is often used as the

critical element to assess :uality in education institution5 Survey of sta6eholdersB satisfaction

is often used to assess the :uality of an institution5 Quality assurance by this model relies

heavily on the efforts to ensure education practices and services satisfying sta6eholdersBneeds or even beyond their e(pectations5

Ta-le 74 *odels of Interface Quality )ssurance

Conception of

Quality )ssurance

Conditions for

*odel &sefulness

Indicators 5 +ey )reas for

Quality Evaluation ,e4g4.

(esource%Input

*odel


needed :uality resources inputs for the

institution

7hen there is a clear relationship

bet9een inputs and outputs

7hen :uality resources for the

institution are scarce5

Resources procured for

institutional functioning, e5g5:uality of student inta6e,

facilities, financial support, etc5

Satisfaction

*odel

Ensuring satisfaction of

all po9erful

constituencies

7hen the demands of the

constituencies are compatible and

cannot be ignored

Satisfaction of education

authorities, management board,

administrators, teachers,parents, students, etc5

/egitimacy

*odel


the institutionBs

legitimate position andreputation

7hen the survival demise

among education institutions must

be assessed

7hen the environment is very

competitive and demanding

Public relations, mar6eting,

public image, reputation, status

in the community, evidence ofaccountability, etc5

'rgani8ational

/earning

*odel

Ensuring adaptation to

environmental changes internal barriers

Continuous

improvement

7hen institutions are ne9 or

changing

7hen the environmental change

cannot be ignored

A9areness of e(ternal needs

and changes, internal processmonitoring, program evaluation,

development planning, staff

development, etc5

Total Quality

*anagement

*odel

Ensuring total

management of

interface, internal people

process 9ith outputs

meeting strategic

sta6eholdersB needs

#he constituenciesB needs are

compatible the technology

resource are available for total

management

eadership, people

management, strategic planning,

process management, :uality

results, constituenciesB

satisfaction, impact on society,

etc5

The !e"itimacy Model Since the education environment is no9 very challenging,

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demanding and competitive, education institutions have to face the e(ternal challenges and

demands for accountability and Gvalue for moneyH5 It is hardly possible for education

institutions to continue or survive 9ithout ensuring legitimacy in the community5 #his model

assumes that in order to gain legitimacy for survival and to ac:uire critical resource,

education institutions have to 9in support of the community, build up good public image and

sho9 evidence of accountability5 #herefore, education :uality mainly refers to theachievement of an educationBs legitimate position or reputation in the community5 Quality

assurance by this model often relies on the interface activities and achievements such as

building up public relations, mar6eting institutional strengths, ensuring institutional

accountability to the public, and promoting institutional image, reputation and status in the

community5 Also, education institutions should operate educational programs 9hich conform

to the ethical and moral norms of the community in order to gain legitimacy5 Education

institutions are of high education :uality if they can survive in a competing environment5 #he

current emphasis on parental choice and accountability in educational reforms in both

7estern and Eastern Societies seems to support the importance of the legitimacy model to

assessing school education :uality5

The #r"ani$ational !earnin" Model #he changing education environment is producing

great impacts on nearly every aspect of functioning in education institutions5 #his model

assumes that responding to changing environment, education :uality is a dynamic concept

involving continuous improvement and development of members, practices, process, and

outcomes of an education institution5 A number of researchers have indicated that

organi;ations, li6e human beings, can be empo9ered to learn and innovate to provide :uality

services *'ullan, 3//F Senge, 3//? Schmuc6 and Run6el, 3/+.5 Quality assurance of this

model emphasi;es the importance of organi;ational learning behavior to ensuring :uality in

education5 #herefore, strategic management, development planning, and staff development

are important tools for :uality assurance in education *Dempster, et al5 3//F !argreaves

!op6ins, 3//3.5 #he indicators of education :uality may include a9areness of community

needs and changes, internal process monitoring, program evaluation, environmental

analysis, professional development, and development planning, etc5

The Total Quality Mana"ement Model

Recently there is a rapidly gro9ing emphasis on total :uality management in education5

are believed to be a po9erful tool to enhance education :uality and increase school

effectiveness *


16/35


internal constituenciesB satisfaction, e(ternal constituenciesB satisfaction, operational results,

studentsB educational results, and impacts on society *'isher, 3//0 &eorge, 3//-. 5

(elationship -et$een Internal and Interface Quality )ssurance

Each of the above eight models of internal and interface :uality assurance *#ables Fand 0. has its o9n characteristics, and yet they are inherently lin6ed to each other5

Institutional goals can reflect the e(pectations, needs, and specifications of sta6eholders5

Ensuring smooth and health internal process and fruitful learning e(periences *i5e5 the process

model. is critical to achieve the institutional goals and produce high :uality educational

outcomes5 #he achievement of stated school goals and conformance to given specifications

*i5e5 the goals and specifications model. can bring satisfaction to the sta6eholders *i5e5 the

satisfaction model.5 Also, by establishing relationship 9ith the community, building up

institutional image, and sho9ing accountability, the education institution can achieve its

legitimate position *i5e5 the legitimacy model. for institutional survival and :uality reputation5

#hen, by carefully monitoring its programs and chec6ing signs of pitfalls and ineffectiveness,

the education institution can ensure that no endemic problem is threatening the :uality ofeducation program *i5e5 the absence of problems model.5 'inally, the education institution

continues to improve and develop itself in important aspects through learning from its errors

and its environment *i5e5 the organi;ational learning model.5 7ith the total management of

the interface, internal people and process * the total :uality management model., then it can

achieve all around education :uality for students, parents and the community5

In sum, the goal and specification model, the process model and the absence of

problem model provides alternative models to conduct internal :uality assurance that is the

ma=or focus of the first 9ave reforms5 Clearly, as education institutions are in a larger

changing social conte(t and education is a service, education :uality has to be defined,

assessed and managed at the interface of the education institution 9ith the community and

diverse 6ey sta6eholders5 #herefore, the interface :uality assurance becomes the core concern

of the second 9ave reforms5 #he other models including the resource1input model, the

satisfaction model, the legitimacy model, the organi;ational learning model and the total

:uality management model can provide a 9ide spectrum of important concepts and

approaches to interface :uality assurance for meeting diverse needs of strategic sta6eholders

in the community5

3


17/35


Third Wave: Future Quality )ssurance

To$ards the Third Wave

In the past decade, there have been numerous education reforms and initiativesfollo9ing the paradigm of second 9aves of education reforms5 #he use of the interface

:uality assurance models to ensure education :uality and effectiveness in a changing and

demanding environment and meet the needs of 6ey sta6eholders has been very evident and

popular in different parts of the 9orld5 Even no9 at the beginning of the ne9 millennium, the

second 9ave is still the ma=or trend of education reforms5 Accountability to the public,

:uality assurance for sta6eholdersB satisfaction, school monitoring and revie9, parental

choice, student coupon, parental and community involvement in governance, school charter,

and performance1based funding have become popular initiatives in education policy ma6ing5

'or e(ample, many countries are no9 promoting school1based management as the ma=or

school reform that include most of these initiatives for ensuring interface :uality and

effectiveness bet9een the school and the community *Cheng, 3//a.5

Recently, the rapid globali;ation, long lasting impacts of information technology,

drastic shoc6s of the 3//2 economic do9nturn, and strong demands for economic and social

developments in both international and regional competitions have stimulated deep reflection

on current education reforms in the Asia1Pacific region and other parts of the 9orld5 Policy1

ma6ers and educators in each country have to thin6 ho9 to reform curriculum and pedagogy

and to prepare their young people to more effectively cope 9ith the ne9 era *Dalin Rust,

3// &ardner, 3///.5 nfortunately, the environment is changing too fast and full of

uncertainties and ambiguities5 In such a conte(t, most policy1ma6ers and educators get

confused 9ith numerous novel but conflicting ideas and lose their directions in the rapid

globali;ation5

#hey begin to doubt 9hether the second 9ave of education reforms can meet the

challenges in a ne9 era of globali;ation, information technology, and ne9 economy5 #hey are

concerned 9ith ho9 interface education :uality and internal effectiveness are relevant to

these challenges5 Even though the e(isting sta6eholders are satisfied 9ith the :uality of

education services and the education institutions are accountable to the community, education

is still ineffective or GuselessH for our ne9 generations in the ne9 millennium if the aims,

content, practices, and outcomes of education are nothing to do 9ith the future needs and

challenges in such a rapidly changing environment5 #herefore, education relevance to the

futureis one of the critical elements in the discussion of education :uality5 It means that in

addition of internal :uality and interface :uality, 9e should have education :uality for the

future in terms of education relevance5 7e may define future education quality as the

relevance of education to the future needs of individuals and the community to meet the

coming challenges in the ne9 millennium5 #herefore,future quality assurancerefers to the

efforts to ensure the relevance of aims, content, practices, and outcomes of education to the

future of ne9 generations in a ne9 era5

In recent fe9 years, more and more countries have started the revie9 of their

education systems in the light of future challenges and needs in the ne9 century and initiated

the third 9ave of education reforms5 #hey urged paradigm shift in learning and teaching and

promoted reform of different aspects of education in order to ensure the relevance to the ne96no9ledge1driven economy, information technology and globali;ation and pursue education

32


18/35


:uality for the future *Cheng #o9nsend, -???.5 #his is the start of the third 9ave of

education reforms that is in need of a ne9 theoretical base of future :uality assurance5 #he

follo9ing paragraphs of this paper intend to clarify 9hat education relevance is important to

ensuring future :uality in education5 In the discussion of future :uality and its assurance,

there may be t9o important types of education relevance) GRelevance to $e9 School

'unctionsH and GRelevance to Paradigm Shift in EducationH in the ne9 century5

(elevance to School Functions in the e$ Century

In the ne9 century, schools have different ne9 functions such as technical1economic,

human1social, political, cultural, and educational at individual, institutional, community,

society, and international levels as sho9n in #able *Cheng, 3//a.5 #o a great e(tent,

education :uality should be intimately lin6ed 9ith the achievement of these school functions5

If schools can perform and achieve these school functions, the education service provided by

these schools can be perceived as effective and their :uality as high5 #herefore the effort of

:uality assurance aims at enhancing effectiveness of teachers and schools to achieve these

school functions *Cheng 7al6er, 3//2 Cheng, 3//+.5

Technical-economic functions refer to the education systemBs contribution to the

technical or economic developments and needs at each of the five levels5 At the individual

level, education helps students ac:uire the 6no9ledge and s6ills necessary to survive and

compete in a modern society5 At the institutional level, educational institutions provide

:uality services for clients, employers and others connected 9ith the organi;ation5 At

community and societal levels, schools and education institutions aid the economic and

instrumental needs of their local community and economy, modify or shape economic

behaviors and contribute to the development and stability of the broader society5 #hese then

feed the international level through the education system and subsystems providing

economically, technologically and environmentally sensitive adults to the constantlyshrin6ing 9orld community5 Education relevance to technical1economic functions should be

one of the ma=or concerns in current education reforms5

&uman-social functions refer to the contribution of the education system to human

development and social relationships at different levels of the society5 At the individual level,

education helps students to develop as fully as possible psychologically, socially and

physically5 At the institutional level, schools or education institutions help invent and

reinforce the :uality human relationships 9hich frame organi;ational behavior5 'rom a

'unctionalist perspective, education serves certain social functions in their local community5

#hese functions include social integration of diverse constituencies, facilitation of social

mobility 9ithin e(isting class structures and reinforcement of social e:uality5 'rom thealternative vie9point of Conflict #heory, education reproduces the e(isting social class

structure and perpetuates social ine:uality *Cheng, 3//a


19/35


Ta-le 94 (elevance to *ultiple School Functions at *ulti%levels

Technical%Economic

Functions

Human%SocialFunctions

Political

Functions

Cultural

Functions

Educational

Functions

Individual

"no9ledge s6ills training

Career training

Psychological developments

Social developments

Potential developments

Development of civic

attitudes and s6ills

Acculturation

Sociali;ation 9ith values,

norms, beliefs

earning ho9 to learn

develop

earning ho9 to teach

help

Professional development

Institutional

As a life place

As a 9or6 place

As a service organi;ation

As a social entity8system

As a human relationship

As a place for political

sociali;ation

As a political coalition

As a place for political

discourse or criticism

As a centre for cultural

transmission

reproduction

As a place for cultural re1

vitali;ation integration

As a place for learning

teaching

As a centre for

disseminating 6no9ledge

As a centre for educational

changes developments

Community

Serving the economic or

instrumental needs of the

community

Serving the social needs of

the community

Serving the political

needs of the

community

Serving the cultural needs

of the community

Serving the educational

needs of the community

Society

Provision of :uality labor

forces

odification of economic

behavior

Contribution to the manpo9er

structure

Social integration

Social mobility8 social class

perpetuation

Social e:uality

Selection allocation of

human resources

Social development

change

Political legitimi;ation

Political structure

maintenance

continuity

Democracy promotion

'acilitating political

developments

reforms

Cultural integration

continuity

Cultural reproduction

Production of cultural

capital

Cultural revitali;ation

Development of the

education professions

Development of education

structures

Dissemination of

6no9ledge information

earning society

International

International competition

Economic co1operation

International trade

#echnology e(change

Earth protection

Sharing information

&lobal village

International friendship

Social co1operation

International e(changes

Elimination of national

8regional 8racial 8gender

biases

International coalition

International

understanding

Peace8 against 9ar

Common interests

Elimination of

conflicts

Appreciation of culturaldiversity

Cultural acceptance across

countries8regions

Development of global

culture

Development of globaleducation

International education

e(changes co1operation

Education for the 9hole

9orld

adopted from Cheng *3//a.

3/


20/35


Political functions refer to the contribution of the education system to the political

developments at different levels of society5 At the individual level, education helps students

to develop positive civic attitudes and s6ills and to e(ercise the rights and responsibilities of

citi;enship5 At the institutional level, education institutions act as places for encouraging

critical discussion of political issues5 At the community and societal levels, education plays

an important role in promoting a9areness of democracy and facilitating politicaldevelopments and changes5 #he gro9ing a9areness of international dependence reinforces

the need for education to contribute to international understanding and elimination of

international conflict5 Responding to the increasing emphasis on democracy and harmony at

different levels in the ne9 century, the education relevance to political functions become a

necessary part of future :uality assurance5

Cultural functionsrefer to the contribution of the education system to the cultural

transmission and development at different levels of society5 At the individual level, education

helps students to develop creativity and aesthetic a9areness, and to become familiar 9ith the

dominant values underpinning their society5 At an institutional level, education institutions

act as agents for systematic cultural transmission, cultural integration among their multipleand diverse constituencies, and cultural re1vitali;ation5 At the community and society levels,

education institutions often serve as a cultural unit carrying the e(plicit norms and

e(pectations of the local community5 Again, Conflict #heory provides an alternative vie95 It

suggests that schools and teachers sociali;e students from different levels of society 9ith

different sets of values and beliefs and, in the process, benefit some groups more than others5

At the international level, education can encourage appreciation of cultural diversity and

acceptance of different norms, traditions, values, and beliefs in different countries and

regions5 'or the long term development of individuals, the community, the society or the

9hole 9orld, the education relevance to cultural functions is inevitably a 6ey concern in

future :uality assurance5

'ducation functions refer to the contribution of the education system to the

development and maintenance of education at different levels5 #raditionally, education has

been perceived as a means to achieving the economic, social, political, and cultural values

only5 Rapid and 9idespread change, ho9ever, has prompted no9 an acceptance that

education in and of itself is a crucial goal5 #he content, system, and structure of education,

then, need to be developed and maintained5 At the individual level, education helps students

to learn ho9 to learn, and teachers to learn ho9 to teach5 At the institutional level, education

institutions serve as a place for professionals 9or6ing together to improve learning and

teaching through mutual support and shared innovation5 At the community and society levels,

education provides services for different educational needs 9ithin their communities,facilitate developments of education as a profession, disseminate 6no9ledge and information

to the ne(t generation, and contribute to the formation of a learning society5 In order to

encourage mutual understanding among nations, education can contribute to the development

of global education and international education e(change and co1operation5 #he increasing

importance of continuous life long learning to the future development reinforces the

relevance to education functions as necessary component in :uality assurance5

#he 6no9ledge of above school functions and accompanying levels is crucial for

:uality assurance5 It provides a frame for school managers and teachers to understand and

operationally education programs relevant to the ne9 school functions at different levels5$o9 many education institutions narro9 their focus only on some of school functions such

-?


21/35


as technical1economic functions or human1social functions but ignore the other5 Some

emphasi;e school functions only on the individual and institutional levels but neglect the

community, society and international levels5 #he biased emphasis or narro9ed focus may

hinder their efforts to pursue future :uality in education5

(elevance to Paradigm Shift in Education

(e) Paradi"m* Tripli$ation in 'ducation

Different parts of the 9orld are no9 in the process of globali;ation in technological,

economic, social, political, cultural, and learning aspects *Cheng, 3///.5 #he 9orld is moving

very fast to become a global village, in 9hich different parts of the 9orld are rapidly

net9or6ed and globali;ed through internet and different types of I#, communications, and

transportation *Albro9, 3//? $aisbitt, Aburdence, 3//3.5 ost countries and regions

have more and more common concerns and sharing5 Also, the interactions bet9een nations

and people become boundless, multi1dimensional, multi1level, fast, and fre:uent5 #heybecome more and more mutually dependent 9ith international collaborations, e(changes, and

interflo9s5 According to Cheng *3///, -???., the human nature in a social conte(t of the ne9

millennium 9ill be a multiple person, as technological person, economic person, social

person, political person, cultural person, and learning person in a global village of

information, high technology, and multi1cultures5


22/35


9eb1site learning learning from the Internet international visit8immersion programs

international e(change programs international partnership in teaching and learning at the

group, class, and individual levels interactions and sharing through video1conferencing

across countries, communities, institutions, and individuals and ne9 curriculum content on

technological, economic, social, political, cultural, and learning globali;ation5

ocali;ation) It refers to the transfer, adaptation, and development of related values,

6no9ledge, technology, and behavioral norms from8to the local conte(ts5 It has t9o types of

meanings) first, it can mean the adaptation of all related e(ternal values, initiatives, and

norms to meet the local needs at the society, community, or site levels second, it can also

mean the enhancement of local values, norms, concern, relevance, participation, and

involvement in the related initiatives and actions5 Some characteristics and e(amples of

locali;ation are as follo9s) local net9or6ing adaptation of e(ternal technological, economic,

social, political, cultural, and learning initiatives to local communities decentrali;ation to the

community or site level development of indigenous culture meeting community needs and

e(pectations local involvement, collaboration, and support local relevance and legitimacyand concern for school1based needs and characteristics and social norms and ethos *#am,

Cheng, Cheung, 3//2 "im, 3/// Cheng, 3//+.5

#he implications of locali;ation to education are to ma(imi;e the local relevance,

community support, and initiative in schooling, teaching, and learning5 Some e(amples for

practice of locali;ation include community and parental involvement in school education

home1school collaboration assurance of school accountability implementation of school1

based management, school1based curriculum, and community1related curriculum and

development of ne9 curriculum content on technological, economic, social, political,

cultural, and learning locali;ation5

Individuali;ation) It refers to the transfer, adaptation, and development of related

e(ternal values, 6no9ledge, technology, and behavioral norms to meet the individual needs

and characteristics5 #he importance of individuali;ation to human development and

performance is based on the concerns and theories of human motivation and needs * e5g5

aslo9, 3/2? an;, 3/+ an; Sims, 3//? Alderfer, 3/2-.5 Some e(amples of

individuali;ation are the provision of individuali;ed services emphasis of human potentials

promotion of human initiative and creativity encouragement of self1actuali;ation self1

managing and self1governing and concern for special needs5 #he ma=or implication of

individuali;ation in education is to ma(imi;e motivation, initiative, and creativity of students

and teachers in schooling, teaching, and learning through such measures as implementingindividuali;ed educational programs designing and using individuali;ed learning targets,

methods, and progress schedules encouraging students and teachers to be self learning, self

actuali;ing, and self initiating meeting individual special needs and developing studentsB

conte(tuali;ed multiple intelligences5

7ith the concepts of tripli;ation, students, teachers, and schools can be considered to be

"lobali$ed+ locali$ed+ and individuali$ed durin" the process of tripli$ation5 %r, simply, they

are tripli$ed5

--


23/35


Paradi"m Shift in !earnin"

7ith the concept of tripli;ation in education, there is a clear paradigm shift in

learning5 Some 6ey features of the ne9 and traditional paradigms in learning are summari;ed

in #able *Cheng, 3///, -???a.5

$e9 Paradigm of earning5 #he ne9 paradigm of school education prescribes that

students and their learning should be individuali;ed, locali;ed, and globali;ed5 Student is the

centre of education5 GIndividuali;ed Student and earningH means that students and their

learning should be facilitated in a 9ay such that all types of transfer, adaptation, and

development of related values, 6no9ledge, technology, and norms during learning process

can meet their needs and personal characteristics, and that their potentials, particularly CI,

can be optimally reali;ed5 Different students can learn in different style5 Individuali;ed and

tailor1made programs *including targets, content, methods, and schedules. for different

students is necessary and feasible5 Students can be self1motivated and self1learning 9ith

appropriate guidance and facilitation5 earning is a process of self1actuali;ing, discovering,

e(periencing, and reflecting5 Since the information and 6no9ledge are accumulated in aunbeliverable speed but outdated very :uic6ly, it is almost impossible to ma6e any sense if

education is mainly to deliver s6ills and 6no9ledge, particularly 9hen students can find out

the 6no9ledge and information easily 9ith the help of I# and the Internet5 #herefore, the

ne9 century paradigm emphasi;es that the focus of learning is on ho9 to learn, thin6, and

create5 In order to sustain learning as life long, learning should be facilitated as en=oyable and

self1re9arding5

Ta-le : Paradigm Shift in /earning

e$ Tripli8ation Paradigm Traditional Site%;ounded Paradigm

Individuali8ed /earning: (eproduced /earning) Student is the centre of education Student is the follo9er of teacher Individuali;ed programs Standard programs Self1learning 9ith appropriate guidance and

facilitation Absorbing 6no9ledge from their teachers

Self1actuali;ing process Receiving process 'ocus on ho9 to learn 'ocus on ho9 to gain Self1re9arding and en=oyable E(ternal re9arding and punishment avoiding

/ocali8ed and !lo-ali8ed /earning: School%;ounded /earning: ultiple local and global sources of learning #eacher1based learning $et9or6ed learning Separated learning ife1long and every9here 'i(ed period and 9ithin school nlimited opportunities imited opportunities 7orld1class learning School bounded learning ocal and international outloo6 School e(periences

Students and their learning should be globali;ed and locali;ed in such a 9ay that local

and global resources, support, and net9or6s can be brought in to create and materiali;e the

opportunities for studentsB developments during their learning process5 #hrough locali;ation

and globali;ation, students can learn from multiple sources inside and outside their schools,

locally and globally, not limited to a small number of teachers in their schools5 Participation in

local and international learning programs can help them achieve the community e(periences

and global outloo6 beyond schools5 Also their learning is a type of net9or6ed learning5 #hey9ill be grouped and net9or6ed locally and internationally5 earning groups and net9or6s

-F


24/35


9ill become a ma=or driving force to sustain the learning climate and multiply the learning

effects through mutual sharing and inspiring5 7e can e(pect that each student can have a

group of life1long partner students in different corners of the 9orld to share their learning

e(periences5

It is e(pected that learning happens every9here and is life long5 School education is=ust the start or preparation for life1long learning5 earning opportunities are unlimited5

Students can ma(imi;e the opportunities for their learning from local and global e(posures

through the Internet, 7eb1based learning, video1conferencing, cross1cultural sharing, and the

using of different types of interactive and multi1media materials *Education and anpo9er


25/35


Paradi"m Shifts in Quality Assurance

&iven the paradigm shifts in learning, teaching, and schooling, there is also

corresponding paradigm shift in :uality assurance5

Since the traditional paradigm emphasi;es the delivery of 6no9ledge and s6ill, the

:uality assurance of education is often focused on the follo9ing :uestions)

35 !o9 9ell learning and teaching be organi;ed to deliver the necessary 6no9ledge

and s6ills to students

-5 !o9 9ell the delivery of 6no9ledge and s6ills to students can be ensured through

the improvement of teaching and learning

F5 !o9 9ell teachersB teaching can be improved in a given time period

05 !o9 9ell students can arrive at a given standard in teaching e(aminations

5 !o9 9ell the performance of teaching and the outcomes of learning can satisfy

the 6ey sta6eholdersB e(pectations and needs and

5 !o9 accountable the education services can be to the public and sta6eholders5

Clearly, the first four :uestions are concerned 9ith internal :uality assurance that

focus on the internal improvement in teaching, learning, and delivery of 6no9ledge and

s6ills5 #he last t9o :uestions come from the concern of interface :uality assurance that

focuses on the sta6eholdersB satisfaction 9ith the performance and learning outcomes and the

education accountability to the public5 In other 9ords, the traditional paradigm reflects the

line of thin6ing of the first and second 9aves5


26/35


satisfaction may not be so important and relevant to the future of students if students

themselves cannot sustain their learning as a life long process5

3% &o) )ell students/ ability to tripli$e their self learnin" is developed

#his :uestion aims to ensure the relevance of student learning to the development of

their ability of tripli;ing self1learning5 It is very important and necessary for students toachieve their o9n ability for ma(imi;ing learning opportunities and sustaining their self

learning through globali;ation, locali;ation and individuali;ation5

4% &o) )ell students/ CM is continuously developed by themselves

#he :uestion focuses on ensuring the outcomes of learning and teaching

fundamentally relevant to the development of studentsB conte(tuali;ed multiple intelligences

including technological, economic, social, political, cultural, and learning intelligences that

are crucial for them to meet the challenges in the future5 #his is the main concern5

'rom the above discussion, the implications for paradigm shift in :uality assurance

are substantial5 In order to ensure education relevance to the future for the ne9 generations inthe ne9 century, education should move to9ards development of studentsB conte(tuali;ed

multiple intelligences and tripli;ation in education including globali;ation, locali;ation, and

individuali;ation5

Theory of 6alue%Created in Education Quality

5alue added to nternal and nterface Quality%As discussed previously, the :uality

assurance of the first 9ave is based on the theory of value added, that is dependent of the

improvement of internal process including learning, teaching and management to ma(imi;e

the achievement of planned goals5 As sho9n in 'igure F, area A is the value added bet9een

time #3 and #- due to the improvement of internal process5 If the planned goals are

consistent 9ith the 6ey sta6eholdersB needs and e(pectations, then the internal :uality

assurance is consistent 9ith the interface :uality assurance5 And the value added to internal

:uality through internal improvement is also the value added to interface :uality5


27/35


Figure 3:

6alue Created and )dded in Quality

Conclusion

'rom the above discussion, 9e can see that the three 9aves of education reforms in fact

represent different paradigms in conceptuali;ation and assurance of education effectiveness

and :uality5 #he ma=or characteristics of these three paradigms can be summari;ed as sho9n

in #able 25

Three Paradigms of Quality )ssurance

#he first 9ave of education reforms emphasi;es internal improvement and effectiveness5

#herefore the paradigm of :uality assurance in education conceptuali;es education :ualitymainly as the internal effectiveness of management, teaching, and learning to achieve the

planned goals5 Quality assurance is defined as the efforts to improve internal environment

and processes such that the effectiveness of learning and teaching can be ensured to achieve

the planned goals of the education institution5


28/35


to manage internal improvement for :uality in education5


29/35


Ta-le or

)pproach5*odel ofQuality )ssurance

)pproaches)

Component Quality Approach

Relationship Quality Approach

Internal *odels:

&oal and specification model

Process model

Absence of problem model

Interface *odels:

Resource1input model

Satisfaction model

egitimacy model

%rgani;ational learning model

#otal :uality management model

(elevance to e$ School

Functions: #echnical1economic functions

!uman1social functions

Political functions

Cultural functions

Education functions

(elevance to Paradigm in

Education:

Development of

conte(tuali;ed multipleintelligences

#ripli;ation in education)

&lobali;ation, locali;ation and

individuali;ation

*ain Questions for

*anagement and

Practice

!o9 9ell learning, teaching,

and schooling are organi;ed todeliver 6no9ledge and s6illsJ

!o9 9ell the delivery of

6no9ledge can be ensured

through the improvement of

schooling, teaching, andlearningJ

!o9 9ell teachersB teaching can

be improved and developed in a

given time periodJ

!o9 9ell students can arrive at

a given standard in e(aminationJ

!o9 9ell the performance of

teaching and the outcomes oflearning can meet the

sta6eholdersB e(pectations and

needsJ

!o9 accountable the education

services can be to the public andsta6eholdersJ

!o9 9ell learning, teaching,

and schooling are tripli;edJ

!o9 9ell studentsB learning

opportunities are ma(imi;ed

through I# environment,

net9or6ing, CI teachers, and

CI schoolJ

!o9 9ell studentsB self1

learning is facilitated and

sustained as potentially life

longJ

!o9 9ell studentsB ability to

tripli;e their self1learning isdevelopedJ

!o9 9ell studentsB CI is

continuously developed by

themselvesJ

Tine Frame of Q) Short1term %rientation iddle1term %rientation ong1term %rientation

Theory of 6alue

)dded 5 Created

#heory of value1added in internal

:uality

#heory of value1added and value1

created in interface :uality

#heory of value1created in

future :uality

-/


30/35


Total Quality )ssurance in Education

Although internal :uality assurance, interface :uality assurance, and future :uality

assurance are based on different paradigms and they have different strengths and focuses, all

of them are important and necessary to provide us a comprehensive frame9or6 to consider

and manage education :uality in the ne9 century5 #hey are mutually supplementary to eachother, ta6ing internal improvement, interface satisfaction and accountability, and future

relevance into consideration5 7e can believe, if an education institution can ensure internal

:uality, interface :uality, and future :uality, they are in total quality assurancein education5

'rom this line of thin6ing, the efforts in ongoing education reforms should focus not

only on interface :uality assurance and internal :uality assurance but also on future :uality

assurance in order to achieve total :uality in education5

&iven the constraints of time frame9or6 and resources, it is often unrealistic to e(pect

an education institution to ma(imi;e the achievement of internal :uality, interface :uality,

and future :uality at the same time, in a short time, or all the time in such a rapidly changing

education environment5


31/35


'igure 05 a(imi;ing #otal Quality in Education through a Spiral Path

Interface Quality

'uture Quality

Internal

Quality

#ime 'rame

Driven by continuous

learning development

F3


32/35


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Documents

Paradigm Shifts in Quality Improvement in Education