Palffy (Geza)_The Origins and Development of the Border Defence System Against the Ottoman Empire in Hungary Up to the Early 18th Century (Ottomans, Hungarians, And Habsburgs in Central

8/20/2019 Palffy (Geza)_The Origins and Development of the Border Defence System Against the Ottoman Empire in Hungar…

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T H E

O T T O M A N EMPIRE

A N D I T S H E R I T A G E

Politics; Society

and

conomy

E D I T E D

B Y

S U R A I Y A

F A R O Q H I A N D

H A L I L

I N A L C I K

Advisory Board

F i k r e t A d a n i r • I d r i s

B o s t a n

• A x n n o n

C o h e n

•

C o r n e ll

Fleischer

B a r b a r a F l e m m i n g

•

A l e x a n d e r d e G r o o t

•

K l a u s K r e i s e r

H a n s G e o r g M a j e r

•

I r e n e

M e l i k o f f •

A h m e t Y a § a r O c a k

A b d e l j e l i l

T e m i m i

•

G i l l e s V e in s t e in

•

E l i z a b e th Z a c h a r i a d o u

V O L U M E 20

O T T O M A N S ,

H U N G A R I A N S ,

A N D HABSBURGS

I N

C E N T R A L

EUROPE

The Military

Confines

in the Era of Ottoman Conquest

E D I T E D B Y

G É Z A D Á V I D A N D P Á L F O D O R

B R I L L

L E I D E N •

B O S T O N

•

K Ö L N

2000


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This book is

p r i n t e d

on acid-frcc paper.

L i b r a r y of Congress Cataloging-in-Pu blication Data

Ottomans, Hungarians, and Habsburgs in Central Europe : the m i l i t a r y confines

in the era of Ottoman conquest / edited by Géza Dávid and Pál Fodor.

p. cm. — (The Ottoman Empire and its heritage, ISSN 1380-6076 ;

v. 20)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 9004119078 (alk. paper)

1. Europe, Central—History—To 1500. 2. Europe, Central—Hi story— 16th

century. 3. Europe, Centr al—Hi story —1 7th century. 4. Europe, Central—

H i s t o r y , M i l i t a r y . I . Fodor, Pál. I I. Dávid, Géza. I I I . Scries.

D A W

1038 .0 88 2000

943—dc21 00-034284

CIP

D ie Deutsche

Bibliothek

-

C I P - E i n h e i t s a u f n a h m e

Ottomans, Hungarians, and Habsburgs in Central Europe : the m i l i t a r y

confines

in the era of Ottoman conquest / ed. by Gcza D a v i d and Pal Fodor

- Leiden

;

Boston

;

Köln

: B r i l l , 2000

(The Ottoman Empire and its heritage ; Vol. 20)

ISBN 90-04-11907-8

ISSN 1380-6076

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P R I N T E D IN T HE N E T H E R L A N D S

CONTENTS

LIST OF MAPS V I I

NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION AND USAGE V I I I

PREF CE (PÁL

FODOR)

I X

INTRODUCTION

(GÉZA DÁVIDand PÁL

FODOR)

XI

PART ONE: THE H U N G A RI AN-H AB SB UR G FR ONTIER

GÉZA PÁLFFY The Origins and Development of the Border

Defence System Against the Ottoman Empire in

Hungary (Up to the Early Eigh teenth Centur y) 3

A N D R Á S

K U B I N Y I The Battle of Szávasze ntdemeter -Nagyolaszi

(1523).

Ottoman Advance and Hungarian Defence

on the Eve of Moh ács 71

J Ó Z S E F

K E L E N I K The

Military

Re volution in Hu ngar y 117

PART TWO: THE O T T O M A N FRONTIER

KLÁRA HEGYI The Ot tom an Network of

Fortresses

in Hu ngar y ... 163

GÁBOR ÁGOSTON The Costs of the Ottoman Fortress-System m

Hungary

in the Sixteenth and

Seventeenth

Cen

turies 195

PÁL FODOR Making a

L i v i n g

on the Frontiers: Volunteers in

the Sixteenth-Century Ottoman

A r my

229

GÉZA DÁVID A n Ottoman Military Career on the Hungarian

Borders: Kasim Voyvoda, Bey, and Pasha 265

SELECTED

BIBLIOGRAPHY

299

INDEX 315


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LIST OF MAPS

1 . T he castles of the Croatian and Wendish-Bajcsavar confines in

1582 65

2. The castles of the

Bajcsavar,

Kanizsa , and Gyo r confi nes in 1582 67

3. The castles of the M i n i n g Town's and Upper H u n g a r i a n confines

in 1582 69

4. Southern H u n g a r y at the end of the f i f t e e n t h century 82

5. The battl e of Szava szen tdemet er, 1523 106

6. Otto man fortresses in

H u n g a r y

173


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E O R I GI N S A N D D E V E L O P M E N T OF THE B O R D E R D E F E N C E

S YS T E M A G A I N S T

TH E

O T T O M A N E M P I R E

I N

H U N G A R Y

U P TO THE E A R L Y E I G H T E E N T H C E N T U R Y )

GÉZA PÁLFFY

T h e s y s te m

of

fortresses

is the o n l y

m e a n s

by

w h i c h Y o u r M a j e st y

w i l l

be able to c o n t a i n the p o w e r a n d the a d v a n c e of the e n e m y , and b e h i n d

w h i c h

Y o u r c o u n t r i e s a n d p e o p le s

w i l l

be

s e c u r e .

1

T h i s

is

h o w H a b s b u r g

m i l i t a r y

l e a d e r s s u m m a r i z e d t h e i r

o p i n i o n

a b o u t

the

s i g n i f i c a n c e

of the

H un g a r i a n b o r d e r d e f e nc e s y s te m p r o t e c t i n g

the

i m p e r i a l

c i t y of

V i e n n a ,

th e A u s t r i a n h e r e d i t a r y l a n d s , and the G e rm a n E m p i r e in 1577. It w o u l d

be

d i f f i c u l t to f i n d a

b e t te r e x p r e s s i o n

to

d e f i n e

the

r o l e

of the

d e f e nc e

system establ ished

by the

l at e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y

on the f r o n t i e r

z o n e

of

H u n g a r y

and its s o u t h e r n a n n e x e d p r o v i n c e s ( S l a v o n i a and C r o a t i a )

against the

O t t o m a n

E m p i r e . Ev e n t h o u g h the

H u n g a r i an

d e f e nc e s y s te m

c o n s t i t u t e d

o n l y a

s e c t i o n

of the l o n g and

v a r i e d

f r o n t i e r

z o n e w h i c h

stretched

f r o m

N o r t h e r n A f r i c a via the M e d i t e r r a n e a n i s l an d s , I t a l y , and

H u n g a r y

to the P o l i s h - L i t h u a n i a n and Ru s s i a n t e r r i t o r i e s and p r o t e c t e d

E u r o p e a g a i ns t

the

O t t o m a n a t ta c k s ,

it is

e v i d e n t t h a t

the

d e c i s i v e e v e n t s

o f the

c e n t u r y l o n g O t t o m a n - H a b s b u r g c o n f r o n t a t i o n o c c u r r e d

on the

terri tory of M e d i e v a l H u n g a r y .

2

On the basis of r e c e n t a r c h i v a l r e s e a r c h

a n d the

a c h i e v e m e n t s

of A u s t r i a n ,

S o u t h e r n S l a v ,

and

H u n g a r i a n

h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , t h i s s t ud y a t t e m p t s

to p r o v i d e an

o u t l i n e

of the

s y s t e m

a n d its d e v e l o p m e n t , c o n c e n t r a ti n g on the s i x t e e n t h an d s e v e n t e e n t h

c e ntu r i e s .

T o w a r d s th e e n d of the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y it is e v e n m o r e t i m e l y

as, w h i l e s e v e r a l m o n o g r a p h s h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d

in

d i f f e r e n t

w o r l d

l a ng u a g e s a b o u t the d e f e nc e s y s te ms on the C r o a t i a n and S l a v o n i a n

1

Pál S z e g ő , Véváaink szervezete

a

török bet eleped ééől

a

t i zenö ées háború kezdetég

(1541-1593) [The O r g a n i z a t i o n of the H u n g a r i a n B o r d e r Fortresses f r o m the E s t a b l i s h m e n t

of the O t to m a n R u l e to the O u t b r e a k of the F i f t e e n Y e a r s ' War], B u d a p e s t , 1911, 52.

2

Cf. Pál F o d o r , " O t t o m a n P o l i c y T o w a r d s H u n g a r y , 1520-1541," A c t a O r i e n tá ta

Academiae

cienti arum

Hungancae

45:2-3 (1991) 271-345.


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4

GÉZA PÁLFFY

t e r r i t o r i e s ,

3

no w e l l documented study has been w r i t t e n about the system

of th e H u n g a r i a n defence districts and border fortresses w h i c h played a

m u c h more i m p o r t a n t role than the above mentioned

areas

in the whole

s t r u c t u r e .

4

E a r l i e r investigations have o n l y discussed the Croatian-Slavonian

p a r t , that is a special section of the defence system established in the

s i x t e e n t h century to resist the Ottoman advance,

w h i c h

was less decisive

f r o m the

p o i n t

of

v i e w

of the whole area, and have treated it s i m p l y as

t h e antecedent of the m i l i t a r y f r o n t i e r Militdrgrenze) organ ized at the

b e g i n n i n g of the eighteenth century.

5

But the development of the defence

3

The most important works in chronological order: Fr[antisek] Vanicek, Special geschicht e

der Militägrenze. I-IV . Wien, 1875. Jakob Arnstadt, D ie k. k. Mili tdrgrenze 1522-1881 (mit e ner

Gesamtbibliographie). (Inaugural-Diss.) Würzburg, 1969. Gunther

E r i c h

Rothenberg, The Austrian

M i l i t a r i / Barder in Croatia, 1522-1747. (Illinois Studies in the Social Sciences, 48.) Urbana,

1960, and idem, The Milttan/ Border in Croatia 1740-1881: A Study of an Imper ial Ins t itut ion.

Chicago, 1966, and the two volumes together in German: Gunther Ejrich] Rothenberg, Die

österrechische Mi li tdrgrenze in Kroatien 1522 bis 18S1. Wien-München, 1970. Die k . k . Mil i tä

grenze. Bet rage

zu ihrer Geschickte. (Schriften des Heeresgeschichtlichen Museums in Wien,

6.) Wien, 1973.

Di e österrechische Mi lit ägrenze. Geschichte und Auswirkungen.

Ed. by Gerhard

E m s t . (Schriftenreihe des Regensburger Osteuropainstituts, 8.) Regensburg, 1982.

Vojna Kra

j i n a . Povijesni pregled-histonografija-rasprave.

Ed. by Dragurin Pavlicevic. Zagreb, 1984. Cf

also Winfried Schulze, Landcsdefension und Staat sbil dung. St udien zum Kri egswesen des inner

österrechischen Temtorialstaat es

1564-1619).

(Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für neuere

Geschichte Österreichs, 60.) Wien-Köln-Graz, 1973.

K a r l

Käser, Freer Bauer und Soldat. Die

Militarisierung der agrari schen Gese lschaft m der kroati sch-slawoni schen Mi li tä grenze 1535-

1S81). (Habilitationsschrift) Graz, 1985, and the most recent work by Jean Nouzille (Histoire

de fronti èes. L Autri che et l Empire ottoman. Pré face par Jean Bérenger. Paris , 1991) w hich is,

however, a d u l l summary of earlier results.

4

So far Kurt Wessel y has been the only one to realize that for an understanding of the

whole defence system against the Ottoman Empire it is indispensable to know the history

of the Hungarian border defence zones as w e l l : Kurt Wessely, The Development of the

H u n g a r i a n Military Frontier

U n t i l

the Middle of the Eighteenth Century, Austr ian His tory

Yearbook

9-10

(1973-1974)

55-110, and

idem,

Die Regensburger 'harrige' Reichshilfe 1576,

in Die

russische Gesandschaft am Regensburger Re chstag 1576.

Mit Beiträgen von Ekkehard

Völkl und Kurt Wessely. (Schriftenreihe des Regensburger Osteuropainstituts, 3.) Regens

burg, 1976,

31-55.

Cf. also István Sinkovics, Obrana madarsk og pogranienog teritorija od

T u r a k a

u XVI i X V I I stoljecu, in Vopna K raj ina, 163-174. The most important Hungarian

monographs: Szegő, op. cit., and Imre Szántó, A vévái rendszer kiéíée é é/k ora M agya r-

orszáon 1541-1593 [The Organization and Golden Age of the Border Defence System in

H u n g a r y ] .

Budap est, 1980.

5

In Austria n, German, Croatian— and sometimes even Hungarian —work s, the Croa

t i a n - S l a v o n i a n defence zones are called military frontiers Mi l i tägrenze) alread y from the

middle of the sixteenth century, which is, in my opinion, a capital mistake. The units of

the defence system of the sixteenthth and seventeenth centuries, the respective

areas

of the

T H E H U N G A R I A N - H A B S B U R G B O R D E R D E F E N C E S Y S T E M S

5

l ine against the Ottomans

1

can o n l y be understood m the knowledge of

the whole— Hunga ria n and Croatian-Sla vonian—bo rder defence system

an d this is true for the history of its subsequent perio ds, too. Below this

system w i l l be examined as a w h o l e , v i e w e d f r o m the admin istrat ive

centres, that is f r o m Buda u n t i l 1526, then t e m p o r a r i l y f r o m Pozsony and

V i e n n a ,

and f r o m 1556 up to the

a b o l i t i o n

of the m i l i t a r y f r o n t i e r in the

n i n e t e e n t h century, f r o m the

I m p e r i a l

C i t y and—for an intermediary

p

e r

i o d f r o m Graz (1578-1705) respectively. This is the

o n l y

aspect w h i c h

can

p r o v i d e

us w i t h a more coherent and complete picture about the

strategy of defence of the medieval

H u n g a r i a n

K i n g d o m and that of the

H a b s b u r g m i l i t a r y leadership, and about how the system was contro lled.

THE PERIODIZATION O THE HISTORY O THE DEFENCE SYSTEM

I N

HUNGARY AGAINST THE OTTOMANS

The new approach makes it

necessary

to establish a new penodization for

the history of Croatian and Slavonian territories

w h i c h

defines the most

important shifts based on the qualitat ive changes w i t h i n the whole system.

The former penodization advanced in 1960 by Fedor Moacanin, and o n l y

partly

corrected by those w o r k i n g on the problem later on, can

h a r d l y

be

used for the H u n g a r i a n territories in the n a r r o w sense c o n s t i t u t i n g the major

an d

more decisive p a r t of the defence system.

7

The Croatian author d i v i d e d

the nearly 500-year-old histo ry of the Croatian-Slav onian defence region

i n t o

the f o l l o w i n g two major and some m i n o r periods:

1. p e r i o d : From the beginning to 1593, the outbreak of the so-called

'Fifteen

Years War or ' L o n g War .

W i t h i n t h i s ,

he differentiated three

subper iods :

border fortresses (Grenzgebiet. Grenze, Grenzfestungen) were qualitatively different from the

m i l

itary frontiers organ ized in the early eighteenth century . Anot her rema rkabl e mistake of

A u s t r i a n

historiography is to call the Croatian-Slavonian border territories Austrian Militarv

Frontiers österrechische Mil i tä grenze, see notes 3 and 25), as in the sixte enth-se ventee nth

centuries it was not

these

that were called Aust rian border fortress zone

österre chische

Grenze),

but the border castles subordinated to Györ. Therefore it is

more accurate

to use

the term 'the Habsburg defence system against the Ottoman Empi re' in the si xteenth-s even

teenth centuries for the imperial-royal border defence system in Hungary. Cf. Kurt Wessely,

"Reply

to Rothenberg's Comments,

Austrian History Yearbook

9-10

(1973-1974)

119.

f

It

is to be noted

that

scholarly works have so far identif ied the border defen ce s yste m

against the Ottomans with the chain of fortresses, but this latter was, besides the mobile

field

troops and soldiery kep t by the counties, etc., onlv one, though decis ive element in

it.

7

Fedor Moacanin, Periodizacija histonje Vojne Krajine (XV -XI X S t . ) , " Histori j ski zbornik

13

(1960) 111-117.


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6

G É Z A P Á L F F Y

1 . 1 . F r o m t h e o u t s e t t o 1 5 22 , w h e n F e r d i n a n d I , A r c h d u k e o f A u s t r i a ,

sent

a n a r m y a t h i s o w n expense t o h e l p t h e

defence

o f t h e A u s t r i a n

t e r r i t o r i e s t h r e a t e n e d b y t h e O t t o m a n s .

1 . 2. F r o m 1 5 22 t o 1 5 7 8, w h e n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e C r o a t i a n a n d

S l a v o n i a n b o r d e r

fortresses

w a s s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e n e w l y e s t a b l i s h ed

I n n e r A u s t r i a n W a r C o u n c i l

(Innerösterreichischer Hofkriegsrat,

G r a z ) ,

sep

a r a t i n g

t h e m

f r o m

t h e H u n g a r i a n

defence

d i s t r i c t s .

1 . 3 . F rom 1578 to 1593.

2 . p e r i o d : F r o m 1 5 93 t o 1 8 8 1 , t he e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e s y s t e m o f m i l i t a r y

f r o n t i e r s . W i t h i n t h i s p e r i o d M o a c a n i n d e f i n e d f i v e s m a l l e r sections, o u t

o f w h i c h t w o s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e e r a d i s c u s s e d

in

t h i s p a p e r .

2 . 1 . F r o m 1 5 9 3 t o 1 6 8 3 , t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s o - c a l l e d r e c o n q u e r i n g

T u r k i s h w a r

(1683-1699).

T h i s w a r m a d e i t p o s s i b l e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e

n e t w o r k

o f b o r d e r

fortresses

a n d

m i l i t a r y

f r o n t i e r a l o n g t h e Sava, T i s z a ,

D a n u b e , a n d M a r o s .

2 . 2 . F ro m 1683 to 1755 , the

f i r s t

r e f o r m o f t h e

m i l i t a r y

f r o n t i e r s

c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t b y M o a c a n i n .

8

T h o u g h t h e a u t h o r s o f m o n o g r a p h s p r e p a r e d a f t e r 1 9 60 c o r r e c t e d

M o a c a n i n ' s p e r i o d i z a t i o n i n

some

p o i n t s / t h e i r a p p r o a c h t o t h e b o r d e r

defence s y s t e m s h o w s n o r e a l change a t a l l . T h i s state of a f fa i r s can be

a s c r i b e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t , d u e t o l a n g u a g e p r o b l e m s a n d a l a c k o f a r c h i v a l

research,

t h e y k n e w p r a c t i c a l l y n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e H u n g a r i a n b o r d e r

defence

s y s t e m a n d t h e r e f o r e n e g l e c t ed i t . S o t h e p e r i o d i z a t i o n t o b e p r e s e n t e d here

i s the f i rs t a t t e m p t t o d e f i n e n e w p e r i o d s f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e w h o l e

defence s y s t e m i n H u n g a r y a g ai n s t t he O t t o m a n E m p i r e , a n d also a p p l i c a b l e

t o t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e C r o a t i a n - S l a v o n i a n r e g i o n . I n m y o p i n i o n t h e

f o l l o w i n g

t h r e e m a j o r a n d s e v e r a l m i n o r p e r i o d s c a n b e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d :

T h e

f i r s t

o n e l a s t e d

f r o m

t h e b e g i n n i n g t o 1 5 2 6 , t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f

t he m e d i e v a l H u n g a r i a n K i n g d o m . D u r i n g t h i s e r a , t h e s o u t h e r n

defence

n e t w o r k

s t r e t c h i n g

f r o m

t h e A d r i a t i c S ea t o T r a n s y l v a n i a w a s a n o r g a n i

c a l l y c o h e r e n t defence l i n e o f th e H u n g a r i a n K i n g d o m .

T h e

second

p e r i o d b e g a n i n 1 5 2 6 ( t h e y e a r o f t h e b a t t l e a t M o h á c s )

a n d c o n t i n u e d t i l l th e

peace

t r e a t y o f K a r l o v i t z i n 1 6 9 9 , w h i c h c l o s e d t h e

e p o c h o f t h e r e c o n q u e r i n g T u r k i s h w a r s (1683-1699) a n d O t t o m a n r u l e i n

H u n g a r y . A f t e r t h e

peace

h a d

been

c o n c l u d e d i t a g a i n became p o s s i b l e

8

F u r t h e r p e r i o d s : 2 . 3.

1755-1807,

2.4.

1807-1848,

f ina lly 2 .5 .

1848-1881.

9

S e e th e w o r k s c i t e d i n

note

2.

T H E

H U N G

A R I

A N - H A B S B U R G B O R D E R

D E F E N C E

S Y S T E M S

7

to create

a q u a l i t a t i v e l y n e w

defence

s y s t e m c a l l e d t h e

' m i l i t a r y

f r o n t i e r '

(Mditdrgrenze).

In th e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s u b p e r i o d s o f t h e

t h i r d

phase

(1699-1881),

h i s t o r i a n s a r e m o r e o r

less

o f t h e same o p i n i o n , so i t i s

w o r t h

a c c e p t i n g

t he p e r i o d i z a t i o n o f M o a c a n i n a n d R o t h e n b e r g .

In th e f o l l o w i n g I w o u l d l i k e t o s u m m a r i z e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e

b o r d e r defence s y s t e m u p t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e m i l i t a r y f r o n t i e r s i n

t h e e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . B y s h o w i n g b r i e f ly t h e s u b p er i o d s I w i l l

m a k e a n a t t e m p t t o a n a l y z e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t sections o f t h e c o n t i n u a l l y

c h a n g i n g n e t w o r k a n d t o e v a l u a t e i t s l a n d m a r k s g i v e n t he c o n s t r a i n t s o f

t i m e a n d space. A t t h e same t i m e I w o u l d l i k e t o j u s t i f y t h e s i g n i f i c a n t

changes

I ha v e a p p l i e d i n t h e p e r i o d i z a t i o n u s e d s o f a r .

1

T H E D E F E N C E S Y S T E M O F T H E

M E D I E V A L

H U N G A R I A N

K I N G D O M

( F R O M T H E O U T S E T T O T H E B A T T L E O F M O H A C S I N 1526)

1. The origins of the

defence

system

against

the Ottomans

late fourteenth

century-mid-M70s)

In

th e

1360s,

th e m i l i t a r y a n d p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e H u n g a r i a n

K i n g d o m d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e d a n g e r i t f a c e d

w i t h

th e

appearance

o f

t h e O t t o m a n t r o o p s i n E u r o p e . A l t h o u g h th e

conquests

o f t h e g r o w i n g

m i l i t a r y state w e r e f a r a w a y f r o m t h e b o r d e r s o f t h e s u b s i d i a r y p r o v i n c e s

of K i n g L o u i s A n j o u I

(1342-1382),

t h e c o n s p i c u o u s p o l i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y

e x p a n s i o n o f t h e O t t o m a n s w a s a clear s i g n a l t h a t t h e y w o u l d h a r d l y

s t o p o n t h e s o u t h - e a s t e r n Balkans a f t e r g a i n i n g t h e u p p e r h a n d i n t h e

s t r u g g l e a m o n g t h e S o u t h e r n Slav r u l e r s a s t h e i r a u x i l i a r y t r o o p s . T h o u g h

L o u i s I a t t e m p t e d — e v e n i f i n a s o m e w h a t u n p r e p a r e d m a n n e r — t o

c o n t a i n t h e c o n q u e r o r s b y e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e B u l g a r i a n

banate

o f

V i d i n

b e t w e e n 1 3 65 a n d 1 3 69 a n d b y p l a c i n g H u n g a r i a n s o l d i e r s i n t h e

castles

t h e r e , t h e s t r i k e s b y t h e O t t o m a n s i n t h e

1370s

a n d

1380s

d i r e c t l y

t h r e a t e n e d t h e s o u t h e r n f r o n t i e r s o f H u n g a r y . T h e s i t u a t i o n w a s m a d e

w o r s e b y t h e f a c t t h a t , t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f h i s r u l e , K i n g L o u i s d i d n o t

p a y t o o m u c h a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e s o u t h e r n b o r d e r

fortresses a l o n g t h e L o w e r D a n u b e , a n d t h e c o n f u s e d years a f t e r h i s d e a t h

f u r t h e r a c c e n t u a t e d t h e p r o b l e m s o f s o u t h e r n defence.

10

1 0

O n the history of the organiz atio n of the

defence

s y s t e m

before

1526, cf. Ferenc S z a k á l y ,

Phases o f T u r c o - H u n g a r i a n

Warfare Before

th e

Battle

o f M o h á c s

(1365-1526),

A c t a


8/36

8


A f t e r

S i g i s m u n d o f L u x e m b u r g , t h e H u n g a r i a n K i n g (1387-1437)

later H o l y R o m a n E m p e r o r

(1410-1437),

e x p e r i e n c e d t h e i m m e d i a t e t h r e a t

by t h e O t t o m a n s o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d o f N i c o p o l (1396) a n d h i s w e s t e r n

n e i g h b o ur s d i d s o b y means o f t h e c o n s t a n t a t t a c k s , t h e r e r e m a i n e d

o n l y o n e p o s s i b i l i t y to d e f e n d H u n g a r y . It became i m p e r a t i v e t h a t t h e v

la y t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a b o r d e r d e f e n c e s y s t e m c a p a b l e o f c o m p e t i n g

effec t ive ly w i t h t h e e n e m y a t t h e f r o n t i e r s i n t h e

l o n g

r u n . B e a r i n g t h i s

p ur p o s e i n m i n d , S i g i s m un d o r d e r e d t h a t t h e b o r d e r f o r t r e s s e s a l o n g t h e

L o w e r D a n ub e s h o ul d b e g i v e n

i n t o

r o y a l h a n d s , t h e y s h o ul d b e

r e i n f o r c e d , a n d t h a t n e w castles s h o u l d b e b u i l t b e t w e e n S z ö r é n y a n d

N á n d o r f e h é r v á r ( f o r e x a m p l e S z e n t l á s z l ó ) . I n

a d d i t i o n ,

he s tar ted to place

t h e m o b i l e t r o o p s o f t h e s o ut h e r n c o un t i e s , o f t h e

banates

e x i s t i n g since

t h e t i m e o f th e r u l e r s o f t h e Á r p á d H o u s e , a n d t h e s o l d i e r s s e r v i n g i n

the border for tresses un der cen tra l co ntr ol . In the d ie t of 1397 , h e ld in

T e m e s v á r ,

w h i c h

w a s o f c r uc i a l i m p o r t a n c e c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e f e n c e o f t h e

southern borders , he

t r ied

t o e n f o r c e h i s i n t e n t i o n o f

q u a l i f y i n g

the

H u n g a r i a n

m i l i t a r y

o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r d e f e n c e p ur p o s e s b y means of

several

m i l i t a r y

l a w s .

12

The reforms led to the es tab l i shment of the so-ca l led militia portalis

by w h i c h

t h e r u l e r i n t e n d e d t o create a l i g h t c a v a l r y o f c o n s i d e r a b l e

n u m b e r w h i c h c o u l d b e d e p l o y e d o n t h e f r o n t i e r s . I n o r d e r t o increase

the number of s o l d iers on the borders , Serb ian refugees w ere mo re an d

Or i en tá ta Academiae Scient i aru n i Hungancac 33 (1979) 65-111. I d em , " T h e H u n g a r i a n - C r o a t i a n

Border Defense System and Its Collapse," in From H uny ad i t o Ráóc z i . Wa r and Soci e t y m

late Med i e v a l and Ea r l y Mode rn Hungary. ( W a r a n d S o c i e t y i n E a s t e r n Ce n t r a l E u r o p e , 3 . )

Ed . by János M. Bak-Béla K. Király . Brooklyn, 1982, 141-158. Cf . a l s o L e o p o l d K u p e l w i e s e r ,

D ie K ampfe Ungarns mi l den Osmanen bis zur Schlacht bei M ohás, 3526. W i e n , 1899

2

. (I used

these works in presenting all three s u b p e n o d s , s o I a m n o t g o i n g t o refer t o t h e m s e p a r a t e l y

below.)

11 For the earliest

attacks

a g ai n s t H u n g a r y , c f . B ó d o g M i l l e k e r ,

A törököknek első betöréei

Dé-M agyar országba Zsigmond é Al bert k irá yok i dejéen é Keve é Kr assó vámegyé megszűnée.

1393-1439

( T h e F i r s t A t t a ck s b y t h e O t t o m a n s A g a i n s t H u n g a r y i n t h e T i m e o f K i n g s

S i g i s m u n d

a n d A l b e r t , a n d t h e E n d o f Co u n t i e s K e v e a n d K r a s s ó f T e m e s v á r , 1 9 1 4 . O n t h e

attacks a g ai n st T r a n s y l v a n i a , cf . G u s t a v G u n d i s c h , Z » r Überl ieferun g d er Turkenemfallc in

Siebenbürgen. Kolozsvár , 1947. On the first raids in Au stria n territories , see Han s Pirch egger,

" D i e

ers ten Türkeneinfálle (1396, 1415, 1418)," Zeüschnf t des His to nschen

Veremes

f u r

Steerrrmrk

18

(1922)

63-73. See also the latest s u m m a r y o f t h e S o u t h e r n S l a v l i t e r a t u r e b v

V a s k o Simoniti,

Vo jaskn organtzaa ja na Slovenskem v 16. s to le t j u .

Ljub ljana , 1991, 5-23.

12 Elemér Mály usz, Ka i ser Sigismund in Ungarn 1387-1437. Budapest, 1990, 136-166

13

I t meant that well-to-do nob lemen had to field one moun ted archer for every 20, later ,

after 1435, for every 33 peasants . A ndr ás Borosy, " The M i l i t i a P o r t a l t s i n H u n g a r y B e f o r e

1526,"

in

From Huny ad i t o Ráóc z i , 63-80.


9

m o r e f r e q u e n t l y

h i r e d

as l i g h t hussars, b o a t m e n [naszádos) o n t h e D a n ub e

or

m o r e i n c r e a s i n g l y , t h o ug h t e m p o r a r i l y , a s p e as a n t s o l d i e r s (vopiiks,

Soidatenbauer) i n

r e t u r n

f o r c e r t a i n e x e m p t i o n s . T h e i n c o m e s o f t h e

c o u n t r y d i d n o t r e n d e r i t p o s s i b l e t o m a i n t a i n a r e g u l a r a r m y

p a i d

b y

th e k i n g p r o t e c t i n g t h e f r o n t i e r s , a p a r t f r o m th e bandérium of the r u l e r .

In p a r a l l e l t o t h e e n l a r g e m e n t o f t h e d e f e n s i v e m i l i t a r y forces, the

o r g a n i z a t i o n

o f b o r d e r d e f e n c e w a s m a d e m o r e c o h e r e n t . T h e

m i l i t a r y

f o r c e s o f t h e c o un t i e s o f t h e T e m e s k ö z w e r e s ub o r d i n a t e d — t h o ug h o n l y

t e m p o r a r i l y , f o r s o m e m a j o r a c t i o n s — t o t h e h i g h s h e r i f f o f c o un t y Temes

(comes Temesiensis), w h o , a t t h e same t i m e , w a s a p p o i n t e d c a p t ai n o f t h e

g a r r i s o n

s o l d i e r s ,

besides

h e a d i n g h is o w n bandérium. A s i m i l a r

process

s t ar t e d i n th e n e i g h b o u r i n g

banate

o f M a c s ó ,

l y i n g

w e s t o f t h e T e m e s k ö z .

14

T h r o u g h p e r s o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n , S i g i s m u n d , un d e r t h e t e r m s o f t h e t r e a t y

o f T a t a i n 1 4 2 6, a c q u i r e d f r o m D j o r d j e B r a n k o v i c t h e castle o f N á n

d o r f e h é r v á r ( B e l g r a d e ) ,

w h i c h

w a s e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e

defence . Ten years la ter he a ttached the

castle

to the banate o f M a c s ó , a n d

a s a r e s u l t a d e f e n c e z o n e s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e i n T e m e s k ö z came

i n t o

b e i n g ,

since th e ban o f M a c s ó d i s p o s e d o f t h e m i l i t a r y f o r c e s o f t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g

c o un t i e s o f B a r a n y a , B o d r o g , B á c s , S z e r e m , a n d V a l k ó . T h e t w o

ban

o n

t h e C r o a t i a n - S l a v o n i a n t e r r i t o r i e s h a d s i m i l a r

m i l i t a r y

a u t h o r i t y , w h a t i s

m o r e , t h e f a v o u r a b l e n a t u r a l e n d o w m e n t s w e r e f u r t h e r e n h a n c e d b y

r e i n f o r c i n g t h e f o r d s o n t h e Sava w i t h w o o d e n f o r t s . A t t h e same t i m e ,

in

t h e T e m e s k ö z , a c h a i n o f a b o ut t w e n t y f o r t re s s e s h a n d l e d b y t h e k i n g

secured the defence of the border .

Th e

f o r m a t i o n

o f t h e d e f e n c e n e t w o r k un d e r r e l a t i v e l y c a l m

c o n d i t i o n s w a s f a c i l i t a t e d b y t h e f ac t t h a t th e O t t o m a n

state

u n d e r w e n t

o n e o f t h e m o s t c r i t i c a l p e r i o d s o f i t s h i s t o r y d u r i n g the so-ca l led

interregnum b e t w e e n 14 02 a n d 1 41 3 . T h e H un g a r i a n m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p ,

h o w e v e r ,

d i d n o t m a k e us e o f t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to chase o ut t h e O t t o m a n s .

St i l l ,

due to the a c t i v i t y of the comes

Temesiensis,

P i p ó o f O z o r a ( F i l i p p o

S c o l a ri ) , w h o i m p l e m e n t e d th e m i l i t a r y r e f o r m s o f S i g i s m un d a n d t h e

T h a l l ó c z i b r o t h e r s ( M a t k ó a n d F r a n k ó ) , a n d o w i n g t o t h e c a m p a i g n s a n d

1 4

At the turn of the

1430s

S i g i s m u n d p u t t h e T e u t o n i c O r d e r i n

charge

of the

bannte

of

S z ö r é n y d e f e n d i n g t h e entrance a t th e L o w e r D a n u b e . B u t h i s h o p e s i n co n n e c t i o n w i t h

t h i s p l a n s o o n f a i l e d . E r i c h J o a ch i m , " K ö n i g S i g m u n d u n d d e r D e u t s c h e Ri t t e r o r d e n i n

U n g a r n 1429-1432. M i t t e i l u n g e n a u s d e m S t a a t s a r c h i v K ö n i g s b e r g , " M i t t e i l u ngen des I n s t i t u t s

für Österre i ch i sche G eschichts forschung 33 (1912) 87-119, a n d r e c e n t l y J e n ő G l ü c k , " A n é m e t

l o v a g r e n d a X V . s z á z a d i B á n s á g b a n [ T h e T e u t o n i c O r d e r i n t h e F i f t e e n t h -Ce n t u r y B a n a t e ] , "

Z ounuk . A Jáz -Nagy k un -Sz o l no k Megye Levétá Évk önyv e

8

(1993)

33-44


9/36

10

GÉZA PÁLFFY

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

a c t i v i t y

of János H u n y a d i in the 1440-1450s, the medieval

H u n g a r i a n

K i n g d o m

managed to b u i l d up a system on the southern

t e r r i t o r i e s of the country, w h i c h was

s t i l l

not coherent enough but

adequate for permanent defence.

1.2. The furination of a

coherent

defence system: the military

reforms

of

Matthias Corvinus and

their aftermath

147ÖS-152V

T h o u g h the foundations of the border defence system were l a i d d u r i n g

S i g i s m u n d ' s r e i g n , the

siege

of Nándorfehérvár in 1440 indicated that those

b u f f e r states

in the Balkans

w h i c h

had previously served to protect H u n g a r y

w o u l d soon be

r u i n e d

by the Ottoman advance. In the

l o n g

run, neither the

so-called

w i n t e r

campaign (1443-1444) by János

H u n y a d i ,

nor his success in

Nándorfehérvár in 1456, nor even the Bosnian actions by Matthias Corvinus

in 1463-1464 c o u l d stop the

process

by

w h i c h

the H u n g a r i a n

m i l i t a r y

force

was once and for all

d r i v e n

back to the frontiers of the country by the 1460s,

except for the north-western Bosnian fortresses around

Jajca.

The nearly

f i f t y

years' 'peace-time' starting in the mid-1460s,

w h i c h

was characterized by the clashes of the

r a i d i n g

troops of the contending

p a r t i e s , offered an excellent

o p p o r t u n i t y

for the H u n g a r i a n

K i n g

to

u n i f y

a n d r e f o r m the defence system const ructed by his predecessors, th at is

to make preparations for permanent defence. The

s h i f t

in the

f o r e i g n

p o l i c y

of Matthias Corvinus

(1458-1490)

f r o m the South-East to the West

m i g h t have served the same purposes.

15

Presuma bly, he intended to create

a n Eastern-Central-European great power w i t h material resources to be

able to finance the reorganized defence

l i n e

and to compete successfully

w i t h the Ottoman Empire that had changed i n t o a European great power

w i t h the capture of Constantinople in 1453.

The reorganization of the defence system was accomplished in the

m i d d l e of the 1470s. The aims of the innovations were to create a more

coherent defence system,

w h i c h

c o u l d

be controlled

f r o m

the centre and was

n o t d i v i d e d i n t o many p o l i t i c a l , m i l i t a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e centres, furthermore

to establish an army that

c o u l d

be

m o b i l i z e d

faster and in a more u n i f i e d

w a y to protect the borders. In the southern regions f r o m the A d r i a t i c to the

Eastern-Carpathians, Matthias Corvinus u n i t e d and integrated under the

c o m m a n d

of three m i l i t a r y officials the two basic elements of the defence

system: on the one hand, the m i l i t a r y forces and the n e t w o r k of the border

1 3

G y u l a Rázsó, Hun yad i Mátyás török politikája [The Ottoman Policy of Matthias

C o r v i n u s ] ,

Hadtö tée mi Közleméyek 22 (1975) 305-348.


11

fortresses, and on the other, the bandena, county and noble troops, that is

th e m i l i t a r y of the

areas

nei ghbo urin g the frontiers. This was the most

decisive and most significant p a r t of his reforms.

A s a f i rs t step, in 1476 Matthias u n i t e d the offices of the

ban

of Croatia-

D a l m a t i a and Slavorua. His i n t e n t i o n was to subordinate the commanders of

b o r d e r fortresses, as w e l l as the mobile troops of the counties, barons and

nobles of the area, under the u n i f i e d c o n t r o l of the Croatian-Slavonian

ban

banus Croatuie et Slavoniae) f r o m the sea to the Lower Danube. Tho ugh he had

al ready attempted to u n i f y the two offices as early as in the mid-1460s, his

endeavours were frustrated for a decade by the pursuits for independence of

th e ban of Macsó, Miklós Újlaki, who was appointed K i n g of Bosnia in 1471. '

After

the occupation of Szabács in 1476 and the death of Újlaki in 1477,

n o t h i n g

cou ld prevent him f r o m i m p l e m e n t i n g his

p l a n .

A t the same

time,

he organized

th e region of the Lower Danube

i n t o

a u n i f i e d border defence system, similar

to the Croatian-Slavonian terntones. To this end he created the office of the

captain-general of the Lower Parts supremus capitenus paiiium

regra

Hungaruie

inferiorum),

w h i c h

was, w i t h a few exceptions,

17

assumed by the h i g h sheriffs

of county Temes. From that time on, besides their

bandena

of considerable

n u m b e r s , the captain-generals disposed of the m i l i t a r y forces of b o t h the border

fortresses and the n e i g h b o u r i n g counties. At the

same t i m e ,

as

h i g h

sheriffs of

c o u n t y

Temes, they were also responsibl e for the c i vi l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the

area. W h i l e the Croatian-Slavonian ban was personally m charge of the m i l i t a r y

an d

c i vi l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of Dalmatia, Old Croatia,

lh

and the Slavonian counties

A ndr ás K u b i n y i , Die Fragen des bosnischen Königtums von N. Újlaki, Studui Slavica

Acadermae Scientmrum Hungancae

8

(1958) 373-384

1 7

The captaincy-general of Pál Tomori (1523-1526), the Archbishop of Kalocsa, who had

hi s

residence in Pétervárad and died in the battle of Mohá cs, has to be ranke d among these.

'8 It is appropriate to note here that Croatia and Slavonia as administrative and territorial

notions had different meanings during the middle

ages

and in the sixteent h-eightee nth

centuries. The medieval 'O ld' Croatia was situated south-west of the river Sava, and its

territory extended between the Kapella Mountain and the Adriatic Sea, bordering on

S l a v o n i a in the north-east Slavonia proper w as located between the Drav a valley and the

K a p e l a Mountain, extending as far as the river Vrbas in the

east.

The Ottoman advance

created a completely new situation by the second half of the sixteenth century. By that time

the southern parts of Old Croatia were lost, its population sought refuge in the north, and

for this reason in the sixteen th-seve nteenth centuries the name Croa tia design ated the areas

stretching from the Adriatic to the Sava, then, in the eigtheenth century, to the Drava, which

was formerly named Slavonia, then Upper Slavonia. For Slavonia proper shrank to the

territory between Drava, Sava, and Csázma by the 1570s. In the second half of the eighteenth

century, however, it included the counties Pozsega, Valkó, and Szerem (the so-called Lower

S l a v o n i a ) , and from

that

time on, Slavonia meant exclusively

that

territory.


10/36

12


of

Z á g r á b , V á r a s d , K ő r ö s , V e r ő c e , D ub i c a , Szana, and Orbász , due to the

r e f o r m s o f M a t t h i a s , t h e c a p t a i n - g e n e r a l o f t h e L o w e r Par t s h a d t h e

same

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o v e r t h e s i x c o un t i e s o f T e m e s k ö z ( K e v e , K r a s s ó , Temes,

T o r o n t á l , A r a d , a n d C s a n á d ) , o v e r th e n e i g h b o u r i n g s i x c o un t i e s o f

B o d r o g , B á c s , C s o n g r á d , B é k é s , Z a r á n d , a n d B i h a r , a n d o v e r t h e c o un t i e s

of

Pozsega, V a l k ó , a n d S z e r e m b e t w e e n t h e D r a v a a n d Sava, that is all

th e

m i l i t a r y

a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d ut i e s o v e r t h e t e r r i t o r i e s c a l l e d t h e L o w e r

Pa r t s . '

9

Th e t h i r d great u n i t o f t h e d e f e n c e l i n e w a s l e d b y t h e V o i v o d e

o f T r a n s y l v a n i a (vajvoda Transilvaniae/Transilvaniensis) w i t h th e same

a u t h o r i t y .

20

A s a r e s u l t o f t h e r e f o r m s o f M a t t h i a s C o r v i n u s , t h e bases of the

d e f e n c e s y s t e m a g a i n s t t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e

l a i d d o w n

b y S i g i s m un d o f

L u x e m b u r g w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d a n d c h a n g e d

i n t o

a c o h e r e n t s y s t e m . A t

t h e e n d o f t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t ur y t h e H un g a r i a n

K i n g d o m

w a s s u r r o u n d e d

b y a v e r t i c a l l y a n d h o r i z o n t a l l y d i v i d e d , u n i f i e d n e t w o r k o f d e f en c e . I n

d e p t h i t cons i s ted of tw o para l le l l ines of bord er for tresses . The southern

l i n e s t r e t c h e d

f r o m

S z ö r é n y v i a O r s o v a , S z e n t l á s z l ó , N á n d o r f e h é r v á r , Z i -

m o n y , S z a b á c s , S z r e b e r n i k , Jajca, an d K n i n up to Skardo na an d Ki i ssza ,

t h e s e c o n d , n o r t h e r n l i n e f r o m L úg o s , K a r á n s e b e s , a n d T e m e s v á r v i a

Pé t e r v á r a d , t h e m i n o r castles o f t h e S z e r é m s é g a n d D ub i c a ,

K r u p a ,

and

B i h á c s t o Z e n g g o n t h e D a l m a t i a n coast. T he same s y s t e m w a s d i v i d e d

i n t o

t h r e e s e c t i o n s v e r t i c a l l y t o g e t h e r

w i t h

t h e T r a n s y l v a n i a n t e r r i to r i e s :

t h e C r o a t i a n - S l a v o n i a n p a r t w i t h B ih ács as i ts headq uarte rs , the

area

east

o f i t r a n g i n g t o W a l l a c h i a w i t h the centre of Tem esvá r ca l led Low er Parts

a n d t h e T r a n s y l v a n i a n b o r d e r area. A l l t hr e e p a r t s h a d t h e

f u n c t i o n

of

s e r v i n g a n d s up p o r t i n g t h e b o r d e r fo r t r es s e s, i n w h i c h there w ere severa l

t h o us a n d S o ut h e r n S l a v a n d H u n g a r i a n g a r r i s o n s o l d i e r s , b o a t m e n , a n d

' « F o r t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e c a p t a i n c y - g e n e r a l o f th e L o w e r P a r t s , se e r e c e n t l y L á s z l ó F e n y v e s i ,

" A t e m e s k ö z i - s z ö r é n y s é g i v é g v á r v i d é k f u n k c i ó v á l t o z á s a i (1365-1718) [ T h e C h a n g e s i n

F u n c t i o n o f t h e B o r d e r F o r t r e s s A r e a o f t h e T e m e s k ö z a n d S z ö r é n y s é g ] , " i n

Véváak é

réiók a X V I - X V I I . s záadban . ( S t u d i a A g r i e n s i a , 1 4 .) E g e r , 1 9 9 3, 238-246.

2 0

T h e o n l y debatable e l e m e n t o f th e r e f o rm i s w h y N á n d o r f e h é r v á r d i d n o t become the

seat o f th e n e w l y n o m i n a t e d c a p t a i n - g e n e r a l o f t he L o w e r P a r t s . A l l t h i s m i g h t be i n

c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e d e v a l u a t e d o f f i c e of th e

b an

o f M a c s ó h e l d b y L ő r i n c , t h e s o n o f M i k l ó s

Ú j l a k i . T h o u g h i t m i g h t h a v e s e e m e d w i s e r to s e n d t h e c a p t a i n - g e n e r a l o f t he L o w e r Parts

t o N á n d o r f e h é r v á r , t h e e v e n t s a f t e r w a r d s j u s t i f i e d t h e d e c i s i o n b y M a t t h i a s C o r v i n u s as t h e

o f f i c e w i t h t h e seat i n T e m e s v á r s u r v i v e d t h e fal l o f N á n d o r f e h é r v á r i n 1 5 21 , a n d c o n t i n u e d

to function until 1556 with different centres as

wi l l

b e d i s c u s s e d later on. C f . the dif ferent

o p i n i o n b y F e r e n c S z a k á l y , A mohá s i c s at a [ T h e Battle o f M o h á c s i ( S o r s d ö n t ő t ö r t é n e l m i

n a p o k , 2 . ) B u d a p e s t , 1977,

55-56.

T H E H U N G A R I A N - H A B S B L ' R G B O R D E R D E F E N C E S YS T E M S

13

peasant sold iers

p a i d

by the k i n g .

2

' So in case o f d a n g e r , t h e c a p t a i n -

genera ls of the border terr i t or ie s , as the leaders of the mo re

secure i n t e r i o r

c o un t i e s , d i s p o s e d o f a s i g n i f i c a n t n um b e r o f banderia, c o u n t y a n d n o b l e

t roops,

a n d un a n i m o us l y c o n t r o l l e d b o t h t h e b o r d e r f or t r es s e s a n d t h e

mobi le f i e l d t r o o p s . T h e i r c o n c r e t e tasks w e r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e r u l e r ,

w n 0

— w i t h o u t h a v i n g a n i n d e p e n d e n t b o d y

c o n t r o l l i n g

th e m i l i t a r y

a f f a i r s — a r r i v e d

a t d e c i s i o n s o n t h e d e f en c e o f t h e c o u n t r y a f t er c o n s u l

tation w i t h t h e R o y a l C o u n c i l (consilium regis/regni) r e s i d i n g i n B ud a .

3.3. The fall of the

defence system

of the medieval Hungarian Kingdom

(1521-1526)

Before the

loss

o f N á n d o r f e h é r v á r , t h e k e y f o r t r e s s o f t h e D a n ub e

l i n e ,

in

1 5 2 1 ,

22

t h e s y s t e m o f b o r d e r d e fe n c e d i d n o t

seem

to

d i f f e r

m u c h f r o m

t h e n e t w o r k t h a t

came i n t o

b e i n g a f t e r t h e r e f o r m s o f M a t t h i a s C o r v i n us .

W h i l e o n e e l e m e n t o f t h e d e f e n c e , h o w e v e r , t h e c h a i n o f f o r t r e s s e s s t i l l

e x i s t e d , t h o ug h i n a b a d

state

o f r e p a i r , t h e o t h e r

m a i n

c o m p o n e n t , t h e

mobi le t r o o p s o f th e n e i g h b o ur i n g a n d i n n e r p a r t s o f t he c o un t r y became

prac t i cal ly un us a b l e . S o i n t h e d i s a s t r o us e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l , a n d p o l i t i c a l

c o n d i t i o n s o f H un g a r y i n t h e J a g e l l o n - e r a (1490-1526), the defence system

became

m u t i l a t e d

a lready before the f a l l o f N á n d o r f e h é r v á r . T h e loss o f

t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t castle t h e n l a un c h e d a process t h a t c u l m i n a t e d i n

total

c o l l a p s e . G i v e n t h e l a c k o f a f i e l d a r m y t h a t c o u l d b e m o v e d a n d

contro l led

q u i c k l y

a n d c o h e r e n t l y , N á n d o r f e h é r v á r c o u l d

o n l y

h a v e b e e n

replaced by a castle o f s i m i l a r s i z e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e a l o n g t h e D a n ub e . A

s t r o n g h o l d

o f s uc h s t r e n g t h , h o w e v e r , w a s t o b e

f o u n d o n l y

s e v e r a l

h u n d r e d k i l o m e t e r s f u r t h e r

n o r t h ,

i n t h e c e n t r e o f t h e c o u n t r y , i n B u d a .

Th e f a l l o f N á n d o r f e h é r v á r r e s u l t e d i n a h ug e b r e a c h i n t h e d e f e n c e

line a n d b r o ug h t a b o ut t h e loss of severa l n e ig hbo ur i ng for tresses :

Z i m o n y

an d

S z a b á c s w e r e c a p t ur e d i n t h e

same

y e a r , O r s o v a , K n i n , a n d S k a r d o n a

one year la ter , Szörény, the other

b u l w a r k

o f th e L o w e r D a n u b e , f e l l

i n t o

O t t o m a n

h a n d s i n 1 5 2 4 . T h e

p e r d i t i o n

of the

castles

e n t a i l e d t h e

loss

o f

21

C f . A n d r á s K u b i n y i ' s a r t i c l e in th e p r e s e n t v o l u m e

2 2

F e r e n c S z a k á l y h a s d e a l t w i t h t h e r e a s o n s a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e l o s s o f t h e k e y

fortress i n s e v e r a l s t u d i e s , w h i c h o b t a i n s v e r y u s e f u l p o i n t s o f reference F e r e n c S z a k á l y ,

" N á n d o r f e h é r v á r , 1 5 21 : T h e B e g i n n i n g o f t h e E n d o f t h e M e d i e v a l H u n g a r i a n K i n g d o m , "

•n

Hunga r i a n -O t t oman M i l i t a r y and D i p l om a t i c Re l a t i o n s i n t he Age o f Suleyman t he Magnificent.

Ed . by G é z a D á v i d a n d P á l F o d o r B u d a p e s t , 1 9 9 4 , 47-76. I d em , A mohás i cs a t a , 56-58, a n d

'áem,

" N á n d o r f e h é rv á r 1521-es o s t r o m á h o z . E g y k i r ál y i a d o m á n y l e v é l k ö z t ö r t é n e t i t a n u l s á

g a i [ O n t he S i e g e o f N á n d o r f e h é r v á r i n 15 2 1 . T h e H i s t o r i c a l L e s s o n t o B e D r a w n F r o m a

Royal Deed of G i f t ] , " Hadtörtéelmi Köz leméyek 25 (1978) 484-499.


11/36

14


t h o s e v i l l a g e s w h o s e i n h a b i t a n t s h a d p r e v i o u s l y s e r v e d a s p e a s a n t

s o l d i e r s f o r a p a y o f s om e m o n t h s a n d f o r d i f f e r e n t e x e m p t i o n s . S o

S ü l e y m a n t h e M a g n i f i c e n t , t h e n e w s u l t a n (1520-1566), e x t i n g u i s h e d t h e

s o u t h e r n

l i n e o f t h e f r o n t i e r f o r t r e s s e s — e x c e p t f o r Jajca a n d K i i s s z a — w i t h

in a p e r i o d o f s o m e y e a r s . These castles s e r v e d a s s t e p p i n g - s t o n e s f o r h i m

to d o a w a y w i t h t h e l a s t r e m n a n t s o f t h e s e c o n d l i n e as

w e l l ,

e x c e p t f o r

s o m e C r o a t i a n f o r tr e s s e s , i n t h e

decades

a f t e r t h e b a t t l e o f M o h á c s i n

1526.

W i t h t h e c o ll a p s e o f t h e s o u t h e r n c h a i n o f f o r t r es s e s , t h e H u n g a r i a n

m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p l o s t t h e z o n e t h a t w a s t o h a v e d e f e n d e d t h e w h o l e

k i n g d o m .

T h e s e c o n d , n o r t h e r n l i n e i n t h e

i n t e r i o r

o f t h e c o u n t r y w a s n o t

f a c i l i t a t e d

b y t h e n a t u r a l s u r r o u n d i n g s t o s u c h a n e x t e n t a s t h e p r e v i o u s

o n e t h a t w a s s i t u a t e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y a l o n g m o u n t a i n s a n d r i v e r s . T h e r e

w a s a t h r e a t t h a t i f t h e g a p s c o u l d n o t b e f i l l e d v e r y f a s t , P é t e r v á r a d ,

w h i c h

w a s c h o s e n t o s u b s t i t u t e N á n d o r f e h é r v á r , c o u l d n o t be r e i n f o r c e d ,

a n d n o m o b i l e t r o o p s w e r e

f i e l d e d ,

t h e w h o l e

i n t e r i o r

p l a i n area o f the

c o u n t r y w o u l d s o o n f a l l . A l t h o u g h s o m e measures w e r e t a k e n b y t h e

palatínus I s t v á n B á t h o r v a n d t h e c a p t a i n - g e n e r a l o f t h e L o w e r P a r t s P á l

T o m o r i a i m e d a t b r i n g i n g t h e f o r t r e s s e s o f t h e s e c o n d l i n e i n t o a

d e f e n s i b l e

c o n d i t i o n

a n d a t r e i n f o r c i n g t h e m

w i t h p a i d

i n f a n t r y m e n

a n d bandena, these

f a i l e d o n e a f t e r t h e o t h e r , d u e t o t h e m o d e s t i n c o m e s

o f t h e c o u n t r y . A s a r e s u l t , t he e n t i r e s o u t h e r n d e f e n c e s y s t e m i n e v i t a b l y

c o l l a p s e d i n 1 5 2 6 , w h e n t h e l a s t u n i t s o f t h e m o b i l e f i e l d t r o o p s a n d t h e

m a j o r b o r d e r f o r t r e s s e s p e r i s h e d . T h e d e a t h o f L o u i s I I (1516-1526) a t the

same t i m e b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e

f a l l

o f t h e m e d i e v a l H u n g a r i a n K i n g d o m .

B e f o r e t h e c o ll a p s e o f t h e m e d i e v a l b o r d e r d e f e n c e s y s t e m , a c h a n g e

t o o k

p l a c e w h o s e e f f e c t s c o u l d n o t b e

f e l t

i n t h e

1520s,

b u t

w h i c h

p r o v e d

v e r y

i m p o r t a n t i n t h e

l o n g

r u n . A l r e a d y i n t h e e a r ly

1500s,

K i n g s

V l a d i s l a v

I I (1490-1516) a n d L o u i s I I a n d t h e C r o a t i a n b a r o n s a n d n o b l e s

t u r n e d

t o E m p e r o r

M a x i m i l i a n

1 (1493-1519) f o r h e l p t o j o i n t l y a v e r t t h e

d a n g e r t h r e a t e n i n g t h e

A u s t r i a n

p r o v i n c e s a s w e l l . B u t d u r i n g t h e r u l e

of M a x i m i l ia n 1 , t h e e x t e r n a l m i l i t a r y s u p p o r t a s s i s t i n g t h e ban o f C r o a t i a

r e m a i n e d

o n l y

a p l a n . H o w e v e r , a f t e r th e

f a l l

o f t h e f i r s t c h a i n o f

f o r t re s s e s , A r c h d u k e F e r d i n a n d I ,

assessing

t h e d a n g e r t h r e a t e n i n g t h e

A u s t r i a n

p r o v i n c e s g o v e r n e d b y

h i m — m a i n l y

C a r n i o l a

(Krain),

C a r i n t h i a

(Kamten),

a n d S t y r i a

(Steiermark)

— r e s ig n e d h i m s e l f t o a s i g n i f i c a n t s t e p .

D u r i n g th e

siege

o f N á n d o r f e h é r v á r i n 1 5 2 1 h e s u m m o n e d h i s estates f o r

a s p e c i a l m e e t i n g a n d , a t t h e r e q ue s t o f h i s b r o t h e r - i n - l a w , L o u i s I I , h e

T H E

H L ' N C A R l

A N - H A B S B U R G B O R D E R D E F E N C E S Y S T E M S

15

p r o p o s e d t o s e n d s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d G e r m a n i n f a n t r y m e n t o s u p p o r t

H u n g a r y .

O n t h e

basis

o f t h e d o c u m e n t s a t o u r d i s p o s a l , i t c a n b e s t a t e d

t h a t

a b o u t

2,000

i n f a n t r y m e n s et o f f f o r H u n g a r y , a n d t h i s w a s t h e

f i rs t

t i m e

w h e n t h e r e w a s a n a c t u a l a t t e m p t b y t h e

A u s t r i a n

p r o v m c e s t o

assist

in t h e d e f e n c e o f t h e H u n g a r i a n K i n g d o m . -

3

F r o m 1 5 2 2 t o t h e d e f e a t a t

M o h a c s m o r e a n d m o r e f r e q u e n t l y d i d f i e l d t r o o p s a r r i v e f r o m t h e

n e i g h b o u r i n g

A u s t r i a n

p r o v i n c e s t o t h e area c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e C r o a t i a n

ban, b u t t h e y w e r e n o t p l a c e d

i n t o

t h e b o r d e r f o r t r e s s e s a s c o n s t a n t

g a r r i s o n s y e t .

3 4

T h o u g h t h e r e g u l a r

A u s t r i a n

m i l i t a r y a i d s e e m i n g l y

s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e d e f e n c e i n t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e b o r d e r , i n f a ct i t d i s s o l v e d

th e

u n i f i e d

l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e

m i l i t a r y

f o r c e t h a t h a d b e e n c o m m a n d e d b y

th e ban u p t o t h i s t i m e . T h e c a p t a i n - g e n e r a l s (Obnstcr Feldhauptmann der

nwderoblermchischen Landc) o f t h e t r o o p s s e n t b y t h e A u s t r i a n estates w e r e

a p p o i n t e d b y t h e l a t t e r a n d w e r e n o t s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e ban, t h o u g h t h e

consequences o f t h i s d u a l i t y d i d n o t m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s i n these y e a r s ,

b u t o n l y

a f t e r t h e f a l l o f t h e H u n g a r i a n

K i n g d o m

i n 1 5 2 6 . A s t h e m o s t

d e c i s i v e e l e m e n t o f t h e d e f e n c e s y s t e m , t h e c h a i n o f f o r t r e s s e s s t i l l

r e m a i n e d u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f th e

ba n

a t t h a t

t i m e .

23 L a j os T h a l l ó c z y - A n t a l H o d i n k a , M ag i j a ror szág mel létar tom ánya inak ok levétáa Codex

D i p l omái ca s Pa r t i um Regno Hungurtae Adnexarum).

V o l . 1.

A horvá v éhelyek ok levétáa.

1490-1527 [ A r c h i v e s o f t h e C r o a t i a n B o r d e r F o r t r e s s e s 1490-1527). ( M o n u m e n t a H u n g a n a e

H i s t ó r i c a I . D i p l o m a t a r i a , X X X I . ) B u d a p e s t . 1 9 03 ,

34-38:

N o s . X X X V a n d L X U - L X X I I 1 : N o s .

1 - 10 T h e y e a r 1 52 1 w h i c h I propose to start a n e w p e r i o d , i s b o t h a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m a r k i n g

the collap se of the f irst chain of

fortresses

and f or ref erring to the

date

w h e n F e r d i n a n d ,

A r c h d u k e o f A u s t r i a b e g a n t o s u p p o r t t h e defence s y s t em o f th e m e d i e v a l H u n g a r i a n

K i n g d o m w i t h h i s f i n a n c i a l a n d m i l i t a r y p o w e r . T h a t i s w h y t h e y e a r 1 5 2 2 i n R o t h e n b e r g ' s

m o n o g r a p h The A us t r i a n M i l i t a r y Border) i s w o r t h m o d i f y i n g t o 1 5 2 1 .

; j

I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s , s e e G u n t h e r E . R o t h e n b e r g , T h e O r i g i n s o f t h e A u s t r i a n M i l

i t a r y F r o n t i e r i n C r o a t i a a n d t h e A l l e g e d T r e a t y o f 2 2 D e c e m b e r

1522,

Slavon i c and Eas t

European Rev iew 38 (1960) 493-498. C f . a ls o W i n f r i e d S c h u l z e , D i e ö s te r r e i c h i s c h e M i l i t a r -

g r e n z e ,

Mi l i tä rgesch i ch t l i che M i t t e i l ungen 9 (1971) 191-192

T h o u g h R o t h e n b e r g p r o v e d in

hi s

s t u d y p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 6 0 that t h e a l l e g e d treaty o f D e c e m b e r 2 2 , 1 5 2 2 b e t w e e n L o u i s I I

a n d F e r d i n a n d , A r c h d u k e o f A u s t r i a i s m e r e l y t h e r e s u l t o f a m i s t a k e b y F r a n t i s e k V a n i c e k

(F.

V a n i c e k , op . o f . , 5 -6 ) w h o m i s i n t e r p r e t e d t h e t a l k s a t th e I m p e r i a l D i e t Re i chs tag) of

R e g e n s b u r g i n 1522-1523, h e ( R o t h e n b e r g ) w a s n o t t h e f i r s t t o r e a l i z e t h i s . L a j o s T h a l l ó c z y ,

in

h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e above q u o t e d c o l l e c t i o n o f d o c u m e n t s h a d a l r e a d y corrected the

m i s t a k e ( L . T h a l l o c z y - A . H o d i n k a , op . a t . , N o s . L V 1 I I - L X an d

L V L I I :

n . 1 ) . R o t h e n b e r g ' s

m erit is that h e a g a i n d r e w attention t o t h e p r o b l e m , a s T h a l l ó c z y ' s r e s u l t s w e r e o f t e n

i g n o r ed e v e n b y H u n g a r i a n s c h o l a r s . P a l S z e g ó , op . a t . , 1 3 a n d 3 2 . C f . r e c e n t l y G e r h a r d

R i l l . F ü r s t

und H of i n Österre i ch von den habsburgischen Teüungsver t rägen b i s zur Sch lacht von

M o l i á s (7523/22 bis 3526). B d . 1 . A ußnpo l i t i k und D i p l oma t i e . ( F o r s c h u n g e n z u r E u r o p ä i s c h e n

u n d V e r g l e i c h e n d e n R e c h t s g e s c h ic h t e , 7 . ) W i e n - K ö l n - W e i m a r , 1 9 93 ,

42-43:

n. 17.


12/36

16

GÉZA PÁLFFY

2. THE DEFENCE SYSTEM AGAINST THE OTTOMANS IN THE SIXTEENTH

A N D SEVENTEENTH

CENTURIES

T h e d e f e a t a t M o h ä c s o p e n e d u p a n e w e r a i n t h e h i s t o r y o f H u n g a r y

T h e c o u n t r y l o s t n o t o n l y i t s r u l e r , b u t a l m o s t t h e w h o l e o f i t s s o u t h e r n

defence

s y s t e m , i n c l u d i n g b o t h t h e n e t w o r k o f b o r d e r fortresses and the

n e i g h b o u r i n g

p a r t s s u p p o r t i n g t h e m

w i t h

t h e i r f i e l d t r o o p s . A l l t h is

r e s u l t e d i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f O t t o m a n r u l e i n H u n g a r y , t h e c o r o n a ti o n s

o f J o h n S z a p o l y a i I

(1526-1540)

a n d F e r d i n a n d I

(1526-1564)

as k ings o f

H u n g a r y , a n d t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y i n t o t h r e e p a r t s . T h o u g h t h e

s o v e r e i g n t y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e o f th e c o u n t r y d i d n o t e n t i r e l y d i s ap p e ar

i n th e

f o l l o w i n g

c e n t u r i e s , i t s t e r r i t o r y became t h e b a t t l e g r o u n d o f t w o

g r e a t p o w e r s , t h e H a b s b u r g a n d t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e . I n 1 5 2 6 , h o w e v e r ,

t h e q u e s t i o n w a s w h e t h e r H u n g a r y w o u l d be able t o o r g a n i z e a n e w

defence s y s t e m o r w h e t h e r i t

w o u l d

share t h e f a t e o f w h a t h a d been its

vassal states i n t h e B a l k a n s . A n d i f t h e c o u n t r y w a s t o

succeed,

in which

p a r t

o f i t , i n w h a t f r a m e w o r k , a n d u n d e r w h o s e l e a d e r s h i p w o u l d the

n e w defence s y s t e m

come

i n t o b e i n g .

2.1.a. One and a half decades of

confusion:

the

period

of the

commanders-

in-chief

of the

royal army

paid by

Ferdinand

I of

Habsburg

T h e f i f t e e n years a f t e r 1 5 2 6 r e m i n d u s o f t h e events a t the t u r n o f m i d d l e

o f t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y . O n l y t h e p e r f o r m e r s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n p a r t y ha d

c h a n g e d : n o w t h e A u s t r i a n p r o v i n c e s w e r e i n t h e

same

s i t u a t i o n a s t h e

m e d i e v a l H u n g a r i a n K i n g d o m h a d been e a r l i e r . T h e q u e s t i o n w a s t h e

same:

w o u l d t h e y m a n a g e t o s t o p t h e e n e m y i n f r o n t o f the borders , on

t h e t e r r i t o r i e s o f H u n g a r y u n d e r t h e a u t h o r i t y o f F e r d i n a n d 1 , c r o w n e d

th e

k i n g

o f t h i s c o u n t r y , o r , as t h e C r o a t i a n - S l a v o n i a n ban T a m ä s N ä d a s d y

expressed i t i n h i s l e t t e r t o F e r d i n a n d i n t h e s u m m e r o f 1 5 3 9 : " I f Y o u r

H o l y

M a j e s t v

does

n o t s u p p o r t t h i s c o u n t r y

w i t h

y o u r o t h e r p r o v i n c e s i t

w i l l c e r t a i n l y h a p p e n t h a t , d u e t o t h e loss o f t h i s c o u n t r y , t h e o t h e r

p r o v i n c e s o f Y o u r H o l y M a j e s t y w i l l b e l o s t . "

2 5

But the ex tent o f the

d a n g e r w a s n o t a d e q u a t e l y

assessed

i n V i e n n a a t t h e e n d o f t h e

1520s.

T o p u t i t m o r e a c c u r a t e l y : e v e n i f t h e y r e c o g n i z e d t h e O t t o m a n t h r e a t,

t h e y d i d n o t h a v e t h e p o w e r t o a c t a g a i n s t i t e f f e c t i v e l y . F o r th e

3 5 N i s i V e s t r a

Sacratissima Maiestas alicunde

ex a li is

regnis

s u i s h u i c

regno provident,

actum erit

de eo, et ex

amissione

h u i u s

regni amittentur

a l i a

etiam regna Vestrae Sacra-

tissimae Maiestatis.

W i e n , Ö s t e r r e i c h i s c h e s

Staat sarchiv [hereinafter

Ö S t A ] , H a u s - , H o f - u n d

Staatsarchiv [hereinafter H H S t A ] , Ungarische A k t e n (Hungarica) [hereinafter Hunganca),

A l l g e m e i n e A k t e n [hereinafter A A ] , Fase. 3 9 . Konv. F . 1 5 3 9 . Juni-Juli f ols . 36-37.

TH E HUNGARIAN-HABSBURG BORDER DEFENCE SYSTEMS

17

r g a n i z a t i o n o f a n e w

defence

system—as h a d been i m p l e m e n t e d o n t h e

s o u th e r n f r o n t i e r s o f H u n g a r y i n M a t t h i a s C o r v i n u s ' - t i m e — t h e r e w a s a

n e e d f o r a l o n g e r p e r i o d o f

peace,

f o r t h e a p p r o p r i a t e e c o n o m i c a n d

f i n an c ia l b a c k g r o u n d a n d p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t , f o r a d i p l o m a c y t h a t w a s

a w a r e o f th e O t t o m a n ' s c u s t o m s a n d m e t h o d s , f o r a n a p p r o p r i a t e a p

p a r a t u s t o o r g a n i z e a n d c o n t r o l t h e s y s t e m , a n d l a s t b u t n o t

least

f o r a

t h o ro u g h k n o w l e d g e o f lo c a l H u n g a r i a n c i rc u m s t a n c e s . N o n e o f these

c o n d i t i o n s w e r e m e t a t t h a t t i m e .

T h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e t w o r u l e r s o f H u n g a r y b r o u g h t a b o u t c i v i l w a r

c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e c o u n t r y a n d i t s a n n e x e d p r o v i n c e s ( S l a v o n i a a n d C r o a t i a ) .

To save h i s t e r r i t o r i e s , J o h n I w a s f o r c e d t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e O t t o m a n s ,

while

t h ey a d v a n c e d c a p t u r i n g m o r e a n d m o r e

fortresses

i n t h e

Szeremseg

an d

C r o a t i a .

26

Bu t

these

s o u t h e r n t e r r i t o r i e s o f H u n g a r y

seemed

f a r a w a y

enough

f r o m

V i e n n a , n o t t o m e n t i o n t h e palace o f e m p e r o r C h a r l e s V

^5 1 9 - 1 5 5 6 ) i n T o l e d o , f o r w h o m t h e H u n g a r i a n t h ea t r e of w a r w a s

o v e r s h a d o w e d b y t he M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d I t a l i a n p r o v i n c e s

also

t h r e a t e n e d

b y t h e O t t o m a n s . A l t h o u g h i t w a s o b v i o u s t o

those

k n o w i n g the

g e o g r a p h i c a l s i t u a t i o n o f H u n g a r y t h a t i f t h e castles o f B u d a a n d t h e p l a i n

areas

c o u l d n o t s t o p t h e O t t o m a n s , t h e y w o u l d g e t s e v e r a l h u n d r e d

k i lometers

nearer

t h e c e n t r e o f t h e A u s t n a n p r o v i n c e s . I n v a i n d i d t h e siege

of Vienna in 1529

cause

a s h o c k , t h e H a b s b u r g

m i l i t a r y

l e a d e r s h i p w a s

u n a b l e t o p e r f o r m t h e

tasks

of

defence

a g a i n s t t h e O t t o m a n s .

27

T h o u g h

a m o n g those A u s t n a n c o m m a n d er s w h o k n e w l i t t le a b o u t t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n

Hungary there were some w h o r e a l i ze d t h e severe consequences o f d e l a y ,

28

2 6

G a b o r Barta, A

Forgotten

Theatre o f W a r 1526-1528 ( H i s t o r i ca l E v e n t s Preceding

the Ottoman-Hungarian A l l i a n c e o f 1528), in Hungarian-Ottoman M i l i t a r y a n d Diplomatic

Reati ons.

93-130.

2 7

C h r i s t i n e

Turetschek, D i e Tü r ke n p o l i t i k Ferdinands I . von 1529 b is 1532. (Dissertationen

der Universitä t W ien , 1 0 .) W ie n, 1 9 6 8 .

2 S

After

the royal

troops

l e d b y H a n s K a t z i a n e r

captured

the

castle

of Sz ep esvä r, the

residence of the f am ily Sz ap olyai , Ulrich Ley sser chief field armoury officer Obrist-Fe dzeug-

me ster) suggested

to his ruler on March 28, 1528,

that

the arti lle ry arsenal

here

and in

other

places

should be

transported

to the

southern border fortresses

and the ruined

cannon

s h o u l d

be

cast again

with the

same purpose:

E u e r K u n i g l i c h e M a j e s tä t et c .

hetten

so l h G e s c h u c z ,

k la in vnd groß

behaltenn,

v n d d i e

ortflegkhen gegen

d e m T u r g k h e n n

damit versechenn

...

hetten

E uer Ku niglich e Majestät e tc . new

geschuez giessen

v n n d d i e T u r g k h i s c h G r ä n i c z e n

damit versechen

l a s s e n n . Ö S t A K r i e g s a r c h i v

[hereinafter

K A ] A l t e F el d a k t e n

[hereinafter

A F A ]

'528/3/16 c. It is not a coincidence

that

i t w a s L e y s s e r w h o

made these

proposals as he had

already taken

part

in the recruitment of the auxilia ry

troops

commanded to Croatia from 1522

so he was

among those

w ho rightly assessed the real

degTee

of the

Ottoman threat

(see L.

T h a ü d c z y - A . H o d i n k a , op . at . .

145-147:

N o . X C I a n d

148-149:

N o . X C O I ) .


13/36

18

G É Z A P Á L F - F Y

F e r d i n a n d ' s p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d m i l i t a r y resources a l l o w e d tw

t h i n g s

i n t h i s

p e r i o d .

O n t h e o n e h a n d , w i t h h i s troops sent to Hu ngary

h e g r a d u a l l y b r o k e t h e p o w e r o f hi s

r i v a l

k i n g , and on the other hand '

w i t h t h e h e l p o f th e m o s t e n d a n g e r e d p r o v i n c e s o f C a r n i o l a , C a r i n t h i a '

an d

S t y r i a , h e s t a r t e d t o r e o r g an i z e u n d e r h i s o w n c o n t r o l t h e C ro a t ia n

b o r d e r

d e f e n c e s y s t e m c o o r d i n a t e d b y t h e

ban.

2v

T h e t w o

processes

t o o k p l a c e i n a s i m i l a r f r a m e w o r k a n d w e r e

a c c o m p a n i e d b y s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s . I n o r d e r t o s t r e n g t h e n h i s p o w e r b o t h

in H un g a r y a n d i n C r o a t i a a n d Sl a v o n i a , F e r d i n a n d s e n t c o n s i d e ra b l e

n u m b e r s o f f o r e i g n ( m a i n l y G e r m a n ) t r o o p s .

These

w e r e s up p l e m e n t e d

by th e p a i d s o l d i e r s o f t h e H u n g a r i a n a n d C r o a t i a n n o b l e s s up p o r t i n g

t h e H a b s b ur g s , a n d b y t h e un i t s o f t h e c o un t i e s a n d i n s ur g e n t fi e l d ed

u n d e r

t h e l a w s o f h e c o un t r y . T h e c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e Ge r m a n a n d

H u n g a r i a n

t r o o p s w a s n o t un c l o ud e d . T h e q ue s t i o n o f c o n t r o l c a use d

s e r i o u s c o n f l i c t s f r o m t h e m o m e n t t h e

f i r s t l.nmisknecht

set foot on

H u n g a r i a n

s o i l , a s t h e c o m m a n d e r - i n - c h i e f o f t h e t r o o p s s e r v i n g i n

H u n g a r y

o r C r o a t i a

(Obnster Feldhauptmann de r mederosterreichischen Lande

in Ungarn/in Kroatwn)

at the

cost

o f t h e ' L o w e r

A u s t r i a n estates'

(at that

t i m e s t i l l c o m p o s e d o f L o w e r

A u s t r i a ,

C a r n i o l a , C a r i n t h i a , a n d S t y r i a )

t r i e d

t o e x t e n d h i s

a u t h o r i t y

b o t h o v e r t h e H u n g a r i a n a n d C r o a t ia n

c o n t i n g e n t s . B ut a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s o - c a l l e d

palatínus'

artic les of 1485, the

d e p u t y c o m m a n d i n g

these

t r o o p s i n t h e absence of the k i n g was the

palatínus regni Hungáriáé.

3

T h e s i t ua t i o n w a s f ur t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d b y th e

fact that th is off i ce had not been f i l l e d since 1530 and the governor

(locumtenens regni Hungarme),

t h e l e a d e r o f t h e g o v e r n o r s h i p

{locumtenentta

regia),

crea ted to replace the

palatínus,

d i d h i s best to keep control over

t h e H u n g a r i a n t r o o p s .

31

T h e r e w a s a s i m i l a r c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e C r o a t ia n

^ T h o u g h i n t h e s u m m e r o f 1 5 2 8 M a r t i n F l e u g a u s , t h e a r m o u r y o f f i c e r o f F e r d i n a n d i n

C a r n i o l a

(Z e u gwa r t i n K r am ) ,

m u s t e r e d t h e

border

fortresses

( S z e g e d , T e m e s v á r , C s a n á d ,

a n d L i p p a ) i n T e m e s k ö z w i t h t h e a i m o f c h e c k i n g h o w t h e y c o u l d b e s t r en g t h e n e d t o s er v e

t h e p u r p o s e o f defence a g a i n s t t h e O t t o m a n s , t h e y c o u l d n o t p r e v e n t t h e m f r o m getting

i n t o t he h a n d s o f J o h n I . Ö S t A K A A F A

1528/7/6.

S e e a l s o Ö S tA H H S t A H u n g a n c a A A .

Fasc. 8 . K onv. 1 . 1528 . Jan. -Juni fols 175-176.

3« M a g ya r t o r véy tá. (C o r p u s j u r i s Hu n gáia ) 1000-1526. éi törvéyczik kek

(Ar ticles of

1000-1526).

Explained and referenced by Dezső M árkus. Budapest , 1899 , 398-399: article No 4.

3 1

I s t v á n R .

K i s s ,

A

magyar

he ly ta r tó taná s l . Fe rd inánd ko rában é 1549-1551. éi

evees

könyve

( T h e H u n g a r i a n Locumtenentia u nder Fe rdin and I and its Letter Book from 1549 to 1551).

B u d a p e s t , 1 9 08 , a n d G y ő z ő E m b e r , " A h e l y t a r t ó i h i v a t a l t ö r t é n e t é h e z a X V I . s z á z a d b a n [ T o

t h e H i s t o r y o f t h e Locumtenentia i n t h e S i x t e e n t h C e n t u r y ] , " i n Em lékönyv Szen tpéery Imre

szül etééek hatvanadik éfordul ójának ünnepée. Budapest , 1938 , 142-156.

T H E

H U N G

A R I

A N - H A B S B U R G B O R D E R

D E F E N C E

S Y S T E M S

19

m

an d th e

A u s t r i a n

c o m m a n d e r - i n - c h i e f . W e c a n assume that the par t ies

' ere per fec t ly aware of the h i g h stakes in the s truggl

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