Packaging and labelingFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia"Packaging" redirects here. For other uses, seePackaging (disambiguation).

UK Risperdal Tablets 2000 in ablister pack, which was itself packaged in a foldingcartonmade ofpaperboard.Packagingis the technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of design, evaluation, and production of packages. Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, and sells.[1]In many countries it is fully integrated into government, business, institutional, industrial, and personal use.Package labeling(American English) orlabelling(British English) is any written, electronic, or graphic communication on the package or on a separate but associatedlabel.Contents 1History 1.1Ancient era 1.2Modern era 1.2.1Tinning 1.2.2Canning 1.2.3Paper based packaging 1.320th century 2The purposes of packaging and package labels 3Packaging types 4Symbols used on packages and labels 4.1Shipping container labeling 5Package development considerations 5.1Environmental considerations 6Packaging machines 7See also 8References 8.1Books, general references 9Further readingHistory[edit]Ancient era[edit]

Bronze wine container from 9th century BCE.The first packages used the natural materials available at the time:Basketsof reeds, wineskins (Bota bags),wooden boxes, potteryvases, ceramicamphorae, woodenbarrels, woven bags, etc. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed: for example, earlyglassandbronzevessels. The study of old packages is an important aspect ofarchaeology.The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035, when aPersiantraveler visiting markets inCaironoted that vegetables, spices and hardware were wrapped in paper for the customers after they were sold.[2]Modern era[edit]Tinning[edit]The use oftinplatefor packaging dates back to the 18th century. The manufacture of tinplate was long amonopolyofBohemia; in 1667Andrew Yarranton, an EnglishengineerandAmbrose Crowleybrought the method to England where it was improved by ironmasters includingPhilip Foley.[3][4]By 1697,John Hanbury[5]had a rolling mill atPontypoolfor making "Pontypoole Plates".[6][7]The method of rolling iron plates by means of cylinders pioneered there, enabled more uniform black plates to be produced than was possible with the old plan ofhammering.Tinplate boxes first began to be sold from ports in theBristol Channelin 1725. The tinplate was shipped fromNewport, Monmouthshire.[8]By 1805, 80,000 boxes were made and 50,000 exported.Tobacconistsin London began packaging snuff in metal-plated canisters from the 1760s onwards.[9]Canning[edit]

1914 magazine advertisement forcookwarewith instructions for home canning.With the discovery of the importance of airtight containers for food preservation by French inventorNicholas Appert, the tin canning process was patented by British merchantPeter Durandin 1810.[10]After receiving the patent, Durand did not pursue canning food himself. He sold his patent in 1812 to two other Englishmen,Bryan Donkinand John Hall, who refined the process and product, and set up the world's first commercial canning factory on Southwark Park Road, London. By 1813, they were producing the first canned goods for theRoyal Navy.[11][12]The progressive improvement in canning stimulated the 1855 invention of thecan opener. Robert Yeates, a cutlery and surgical instrument maker of Trafalgar Place West, Hackney Road,Middlesex, UK, devised a claw-ended can opener with a hand-operated tool that haggled its way around the top of metal cans.[13]In 1858, another lever-type opener of a more complex shape was patented in the United States byEzra WarnerofWaterbury, Connecticut.Paper based packaging[edit]

Packing folding cartons of salt.Set=up boxes were first used in the 16th century and modernfolding cartonsdate back to 1839. The firstcorrugated boxwas produced commercially in 1817 in England.Corrugated (also called pleated) paperreceived a British patent in 1856 and was used as a liner for tall hats. The Scottish-bornRobert Gairinvented the pre-cutpaperboardbox in 1890 flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair's invention came about as a result of an accident: as aBrooklynprinter and paper-bag maker during the 1870s, he was once printing an order of seed bags, and the metal ruler, normally used to crease bags, shifted in position and cut them. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes.[14]Commercial paper bags were first manufactured inBristol,England, in 1844, and AmericanFrancis Wollepatented a machine for automated bag-making in 1852.[15]20th century[edit]Packaging advancements in the early 20th century includedBakeliteclosures onbottles, transparentcellophaneoverwraps and panels oncartons, increased processing efficiency and improvedfood safety. As additional materials such asaluminumand several types ofplasticwere developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve performance and functionality.[16]

Heroinbottle and carton, early 20th century.In 1952,Michigan State Universitybecame the first university in the world to offer a degree inPackaging Engineering.[17]In-plant recycling has long been common for production of packaging materials. Post-consumer recycling of aluminum and paper based products has been economical for many years: since the 1980s, post-consumer recycling has increased due tocurbside recycling, consumer awareness, and regulatory pressure.

A pill box made fromPolyethylenein 1936.Many prominent innovations in the packaging industry were developed first for military uses. Some military supplies are packaged in the same commercial packaging used for general industry. Other military packaging must transportmateriel, supplies, foods, etc. under the most severe distribution and storage conditions. Packaging problems encountered in World War II led toMilitary Standardor "mil spec" regulations being applied to packaging, designating it "military specification packaging". As a prominent concept in the military, mil spec packaging officially came into being around 1941, due tooperations in Icelandexperiencing critical losses, eventually attributed to bad packaging. In most cases, mil spec packaging solutions (such as barrier materials,field rations,antistatic bags, and variousshipping crates) are similar to commercial grade packaging materials, but subject to more stringent performance and quality requirements.[18]As of 2003, the packaging sector accounted for about two percent of thegross national productindeveloped countries. About half of this market was related tofood packaging.[19]The purposes of packaging and package labels[edit]

Diced pork in tray and film overwrap. Label indicates net weight, composition, preparation, etc. TheUnion Flag, British Farm Standard tractor logo, and British Meat Quality Standard logo are also present.Packaging and package labeling have several objectives[20] Physical protection The objects enclosed in the package may require protection from, among other things, mechanicalshock,vibration,electrostatic discharge, compression,temperature,[21]etc. Barrier protection A barrier fromoxygen,water vapor, dust, etc., is often required.Permeationis a critical factor in design. Some packages containdesiccantsoroxygen absorbersto help extend shelf life.Modified atmospheres[22]or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh,sterile[23]and safe for the intendedshelf lifeis a primary function. A barrier is also implemented in cases where segregation of two materials, prior to end use is required, as in case of special paints, glues, medical fluids etc. At consumer end, the packaging barrier is broken or measured amounts of material removed for mixing and subsequent end use. Containment or agglomeration Small objects are typically grouped together in one package for reasons of efficiency. For example, a single box of 1000 pencils requires less physical handling than 1000 single pencils.Liquids,powders, andgranular materialsneed containment. Information transmission Packages andlabelscommunicate how to use, transport,recycle, or dispose of the package or product. Withpharmaceuticals,food,medical, andchemicalproducts, some types of information arerequiredby governments. Some packages and labels also are used fortrack and tracepurposes. Most items include theirserialandlot numberson the packaging, and in the case of food products, medicine, and some chemicals the packaging often contains anexpiry/best-before date, usually in a shorthand form. Packages may indicate their material with a symbol. Marketing The packaging andlabelscan be used bymarketersto encourage potential buyers to purchase the product. Packagegraphic designand physical design have been important and constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades.Marketing communicationsandgraphic designare applied to the surface of the package and (in many cases) thepoint of sale display. Most packaging is designed to reflect the brand's message and identity.

A single-serving shampoopacket Security Packaging can play an important role in reducing thesecurityrisks of shipment. Packages can be made with improvedtamper resistanceto deter tampering and also can havetamper-evident[24]features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to help reduce the risks ofpackage pilferageor the theft and resale of products: Some package constructions are more resistant to pilferage and some have pilfer indicating seals.Counterfeit consumer goods, unauthorized sales (diversion), material substitution and tampering can all be prevented with these anti-counterfeiting technologies. Packages may includeauthenticationseals and usesecurity printingto help indicate that the package and contents are notcounterfeit. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye-packs,RFIDtags, orelectronic article surveillance[25]tags that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in this way is a means ofloss prevention. Convenience Packages can have features that add convenience in distribution, handling, stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, dispensing, reuse, recycling, and ease of disposal Portion control Single serving or singledosagepackaging has a precise amount of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities (such as salt) can be divided into packages that are a more suitable size for individual households. It also aids the control of inventory: selling sealed one-liter-bottles of milk, rather than having people bring their own bottles to fill themselves.Packaging types[edit]

Various household packaging types for foodsPackaging may be looked at as being of several different types. For example atransport packageordistribution packagecan be theshipping containerused to ship, store, and handle the product or inner packages. Some identify aconsumer packageas one which is directed toward a consumer or household.Packaging may be described in relation to the type of product being packaged:medical devicepackaging, bulkchemicalpackaging,over-the-counter drugpackaging, retailfoodpackaging, militarymaterielpackaging,pharmaceuticalpackaging, etc.

Aluminum canwith an easy open lidIt is sometimes convenient to categorize packages by layer or function: "primary", "secondary", etc. Primary packaging is the material that first envelops the product and holds it. This usually is the smallest unit of distribution or use and is the package which is in direct contact with the contents. Secondary packaging is outside the primary packaging, perhaps used to group primary packages together. Tertiary packaging is used forbulk handling,warehousestorage andtransportshipping. The most common form is apalletizedunit loadthat packs tightly intocontainers.These broad categories can be somewhat arbitrary. For example, depending on the use, ashrink wrapcan be primary packaging when applied directly to the product, secondary packaging when combining smaller packages, and tertiary packaging on some distribution packs.Symbols used on packages and labels[edit]

"Print & Apply" corner wrap UCC (GS1-128) label application to a pallet load

Abar codeencoding the word "Wikipedia" inCode 128Many types of symbols for package labeling are nationally and internationally standardized. For consumer packaging, symbols exist for product certifications (such as theFCCandTVmarks),trademarks,proof of purchase, etc. Some requirements and symbols exist to communicate aspects of consumer rights and safety, for example theCE markingor theestimated signthat notes conformance to EU weights and measures accuracy regulations. Examples of environmental and recycling symbols include therecycling symbol, therecycling code(which could be aresin identification code), and the"Green Dot". Food packaging may showfood contact materialsymbols. In theEuropean Union, products of animal origin which are intended to be consumed by humans have to carry standard, oval-shapedEC identification and health marksfor food safety and quality insurance reasons.Bar codes,Universal Product Codes, andRFIDlabels are common to allow automated information management inlogisticsandretailing.Country of Origin Labelingis often used. Some products might useQR codesor similarmatrix barcodes. Packaging may have visibleregistration marksand other printing calibration/troubleshooting cues.Shipping container labeling[edit]Technologies related to shipping containers are identification codes,bar codes, and electronic data interchange (EDI). These three core technologies serve to enable the business functions in the process of shipping containers throughout the distribution channel. Each has an essential function: identification codes either relate product information or serve as keys to other data, bar codes allow for the automated input of identification codes and other data, and EDI moves data between trading partners within the distribution channel.Elements of these core technologies includeUPCandEANitem identification codes, the SCC-14 (UPC shipping container code), the SSCC-18 (Serial Shipping Container Codes), Interleaved 2-of-5 and UCC/EAN-128 (newly designatedGS1-128) bar codesymbologies, and ANSI ASC X12 and UN/EDIFACT EDI standards.Small parcel carriers often have their own formats. For example, United Parcel Service has aMaxiCode2-D code for parcel tracking.RFIDlabels for shipping containers are also increasing in usage. AWal-Martdivision,Sam's Club, has also moved in this direction and is putting pressure on its suppliers for compliance.[26]Shipments ofhazardous materialsordangerous goodshave special information and symbols (labels, placards, etc.) as required by UN, country, and specific carrier requirements. With transport packages, standardized symbols are also used to communicate handling needs. Some are defined in theASTMD5445 "Standard Practice for Pictorial Markings for Handling of Goods" andISO780 "Pictorial marking for handling of goods". Flammable liquid Explosives This way up Fragile material Keep away fromwaterPackage development considerations[edit]Package design and development are often thought of as an integral part of thenew product developmentprocess. Alternatively, development of a package (or component) can be a separate process, but must be linked closely with the product to be packaged. Package design starts with the identification of all the requirements: structural design,marketing,shelf life,quality assurance,logistics, legal, regulatory,graphic design, end-use, environmental, etc. The design criteria, performance (specified bypackage testing), completion time targets, resources, and cost constraints need to be established and agreed upon. Package design processes often employrapid prototyping,computer-aided design,computer-aided manufacturinganddocument automation.

Transport packaging needs to be matched to itslogisticssystem. Packages designed for controlled shipments of uniformpalletloads may not be suited to mixed shipments withexpresscarriers.An example of how package design is affected by other factors is the relationship tologistics. When the distribution system includes individual shipments by a small parcel carrier, the sortation, handling, and mixed stacking make severe demands on the strength and protective ability of the transport package. If the logistics system consists of uniform palletizedunit loads, the structural design of the package can be designed to those specific needs: vertical stacking, perhaps for a longer time frame. A package designed for one mode of shipment may not be suited for another.With some types of products, the design process involves detailed regulatory requirements for the package. For example with packagingfoods, any package components that may contact the food arefood contact materials.[27]Toxicologistsandfood scientistsneed to verify that the packaging materials are allowed by applicable regulations.Packaging engineersneed to verify that the completed package will keep the product safe for its intendedshelf lifewith normal usage. Packaging processes, labeling, distribution, and sale need to bevalidatedto comply with regulations and have the well being of the consumer in mind.Sometimes the objectives of package development seem contradictory. For example, regulations for anover-the-counter drugmight require the package to betamper-evidentandchild resistant:[28]These intentionally make the package difficult to open.[29]The intended consumer, however, might be handicapped or elderly and be unable to readily open the package. Meeting all goals is a challenge.Package design may take place within a company or with various degrees of externalpackaging engineering:independent contractors,consultants, vendor evaluations, independent laboratories, contract packagers, totaloutsourcing, etc. Some sort of formalProject planningandProject managementmethodology is required for all but the simplest package design and development programs. An effectivequality managementsystem andVerification and Validationprotocols are mandatory for some types of packaging and recommended for all.Environmental considerations[edit]