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National Institute of JusticeNational Institute of CorrectionsOffice of Correctional Education

Successful JobPlacement ForEx-Offenders: The Center for

EmploymentOpportunities

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Successful Job Placement forEx-Offenders: The Center forEmployment Opportunitiesby Peter Finn

MHighlights

Many newly released offenders have diffi-culty reintegrating into society. The Cen-ter for Employment Opportunities (CEO)in New York City is one of many programsthat help ex-offenders prepare for, find,and keep jobs. CEO’s program is uniquebecause it provides day labor for partici-pants, most of whom have been releasedonly the previous week from boot camp. Inaddition to enabling the participants toearn a daily income, the work crews helpthe participants structure their lives anddevelop good work habits. The work crewsalso generate revenue that covers directday-labor expenses.

The work crews are a short-term means ofachieving CEO’s overall mission: placingex-offenders in permanent, unsubsidized,full-time jobs that provide benefits and com-pensation above minimum wage. Distinc-tive features of CEO include the following:

■ A set of consistently enforced rulesbuilds on and sustains the self-disciplineand self-esteem most participants have de-veloped in boot camp; these rules alsofoster the reliability that employers valuemost in hiring CEO participants.

■ The program acts as a free human re-sources department to employers by screen-ing participants for suitability and by serv-ing as an employee assistance program,offering help with such problems as sub-stance abuse to any of the employers’ work-ers—not just CEO graduates.

■ The program pays for half of employ-ees’ wages for 8 weeks or more through theFederal Job Training Partnership Act ifspecific criteria are met.

■ Program employment specialists helpemployers obtain any available job taxcredits.

The program helps about 70 percent of itsparticipants find full-time employmentwithin 2 to 3 months, with most jobs pay-ing more than minimum wage and provid-ing fringe benefits. Staff offer ongoingservices to all placed participants for atleast 6 months after placement. Approxi-mately three-fourths of participants placedare still employed at the same job after 1month and of these about half are stillworking at that job after 6 months.

any offenders have difficulty finding permanent, unsubsidized, well-paidemployment after release because they lack job-seeking experience, a work history,and occupational skills; furthermore, many employers refuse to hire individuals withcriminal records. These circumstances seriously affect an ex-offender’s stabilitybecause unemployment is consistently associated with high recidivism rates.1

The Center for Employment Opportuni-ties (CEO) in New York City attemptsto overcome these barriers by providingtransitional services when ex-offendersare at the most vulnerable stage of theirrehabilitation—immediately after re-lease. Most participants are newly re-leased “boot camp” inmates, althoughapproximately one-third are on workrelease, probation, or nonviolent parolestatus. CEO seeks to foster the disciplinethey have acquired while incarcerated.

The program’s most noteworthy transi-tional service consists of day-labor workcrews to which participants are assigned1 week after release. The work crews,designed to prepare participants forplacement in a permanent job, offerseveral advantages:

■ They provide participants with struc-ture and activity.

■ They instill good work habits.

■ They enable participants to earn adaily income.

■ They test participants’ readiness forplacement in a permanent job.

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Three Agencies Collaborate on Successful Job Placement Programsfor Ex-OffendersThe National Institute of Justice (NIJ), theNational Institute of Corrections (NIC), andthe U.S. Department of Education’s Office ofCorrectional Education (OCE) have cooper-ated on a number of projects addressing theneeds of released offenders. This ProgramFocus describes one of these continuing ef-forts. It is one in a series of publicationsproduced by NIJ, NIC, and OCE focusing onvarious approaches to offender job training,placement, and retention.

Much has been accomplished since our agen-cies formed a partnership to document theresults of offender job training and placementefforts and to disseminate the information tocorrections professionals and policymakers.

NIC’s Office of Correctional Job Trainingand Placement has developed a curriculumfor offender job development specialists. Bythe summer of 1997, two classes had beendelivered at NIC’s Longmont Training Acad-emy. Both classes were oversubscribed, indi-cating the intense interest that correctionaladministrators have in this subject.

OCE, in cooperation with the Home BuildersInstitute, has begun developing a guide toeducate the building industry about offenderjob placement and retention. Although theguide focuses on the residential building in-

dustry, representatives of any industry will findits information and examples useful.

In the fall of 1996, NIJ sponsored a nationalconference, “It’s Our Business: A NationalCorporate Symposium in Investment in Crimi-nal Justice Solutions.” The conference was asuccess, and many industry representatives havesince sought NIJ assistance in forming partner-ships with criminal justice agencies.

In December 1996, NIJ published the findingsfrom two NIJ-funded evaluations of Washing-ton State’s work release program, which wereconducted between 1991 and 1994. The firststudy analyzed a cohort of 2,452 males releasedfrom Washington prisons in 1990—nearly 40percent of whom spent part of their sentenceson work release—to measure how successfullyinmates performed in the program. The secondcompared the recidivism of 218 offenders, halfof whom participated in the work release pro-gram and half of whom completed their sen-tences in prison.

Our agencies’ latest joint publication, “ProjectRe-Enterprise: A Texas Program,” highlighteda program designed to help offenders sharpentheir interview and jobseeking skills prior torelease. As part of this informal educationprogram, more than 350 Texas employers at-tend a mock job fair at least once a year. Since

publication of that bulletin, we have helpedboth the Georgia Department of Children andYouth Services and the Maryland Division ofCorrections successfully replicate the mockjob fair concept in their jurisdictions on alimited basis.

Our agencies are now working with a newlyformed office within the Federal Bureau ofPrisons dedicated to job placement for Fed-eral offenders. The establishment of this of-fice is yet another indication of the impor-tance that corrections professionals place onoffender job training and placement.

As we develop further strategies for jointaction, staff from our agencies will continueto seek advice from corrections professionalsand policymakers. Together, we will strive todevelop successful programs that can be rep-licated throughout the field.

Jeremy TravisDirectorNational Institute of Justice

Morris ThigpenDirectorNational Institute of Corrections

Richard SmithDirectorOffice of Correctional Education

■ They generate income that helpscover day-labor expenses.

The program’s work crews have much incommon with the supported-work dem-onstrations initiated in the late 1970s.While research failed to find that thesedemonstrations had a lasting effect oneither employment status or recidivism(see “Previous Supported-Work Initia-tives”), CEO’s approach incorporatestwo essential features missing frommost of these earlier efforts: providingintensive job placement services andproviding them early.

The crews are only a means to achievingCEO’s ultimate mission: placing partici-

pants in permanent, unsubsidized, full-time jobs that provide benefits andabove-minimum wages.2 As discussedbelow, CEO offers employers a numberof incentives for hiring program partici-pants, enabling the program to findjobs for as many as 70 percent of itsex-offenders.

The First Week:Recruitment,Orientation, andLife SkillsThe accompanying flow chart (exhibit1) summarizes the progression of CEO

participants through the program. Thetext below describes each major step.

Recruitment andOrientationWhen my work release counselor sug-gested I look into CEO, I liked the ideabecause the work crews would give mesome money. So I went to the orienta-tion and decided to join.—A workcrew member

Most CEO participants are ex-offendersjust released from New York State’sshock incarceration (or boot camp)program who are required to enroll asa condition of parole. The Parole

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Government programs to bring ex-offend-ers into the labor market began with thepassage of the Manpower Demonstrationand Training Act of 1962 and the EconomicOpportunity Act of 1964. These acts led tothe creation of hundreds of employment andtraining programs for offenders and ex-offenders. However, shortcomings in theresearch methods used to evaluate theseprograms made it difficult to conclude thatthe efforts improved employment or re-duced recidivism among ex-offenders.

During the 1970s, more controlled experi-ments of ex-offender employment programswere undertaken, especially the supported-work demonstrations implemented by theManpower Demonstration Research Cor-poration (MDRC). These studies generallyfailed to prove that such projects improvedparticipants’ employment or earnings orreduced their recidivism, with one excep-tion. A 1972 study conducted by the VeraInstitute of Justice, located in New YorkCity, evaluated work crews for chronicallyunemployed ex-offenders and formerheroin addicts. The model involved closelysupervised employment on work crews con-sisting entirely of employees at the WildcatServices Corporation. Wages were subsi-dized; participants did real work but weresheltered from the full demands of theworkplace; stress was gradually increased;and counseling was available after hours ifneeded. Vera researchers randomly as-signed ex-offenders to a test group that

Previous Supported-Work Initiativesparticipated in the Wildcat program or to acontrol group that received no assistance.Program participation increased ex-offend-ers’ stability and earning capacity signifi-cantly during the 3-year followup period;however, while participants were arrestedless often than the control group during thefirst year, by the end of the third year thedifference in recidivism had evaporated.a

Further study is needed to determine whetherthe difference evaporated because recidi-vism among participants had increased orbecause recidivism among the control grouphad decreased.

A review of labor markets and crime riskfactors found that “even after 30 years oftrying, . . . no program—in-prison training,transitional assistance (both in-kind andmonetary assistance), or pretrial diversion—has consistently shown itself capable (througha rigorous random assignment evaluation)of decreasing recidivism through labor mar-ket-oriented programs, inside or outside ofprison.” However, the review observes that“the intuition of . . . [postrelease transitionalincome supplement] programs is still valid.. . . Ex-offenders with jobs commit fewercrimes than ex-offenders without jobs, andthose with higher earnings commit fewercrimes than those with lower earnings.”b

Supporting this intuition, a 1992 study ofProject RIO—a statewide program run by theTexas Workforce Commission that providesjob placement services to more than 15,000

parolees each year—found that after 1 year,69 percent of program participants had se-cured employment, compared with only 36percent of a group of parolees who did notenroll in Project RIO. Furthermore, duringthe year after release, 48 percent of high-riskRIO participants were rearrested, comparedwith 57 percent of nonparticipating high-risk parolees; 23 percent of the RIO partici-pants were reincarcerated, compared with38 percent of nonparticipants. Althoughparolees in the study were not assignedrandomly to control and treatment groups,the two groups of ex-offenders studied hadsimilar demographic characteristics and risksof reoffending.c

Notesa. See Friedman, L.N., The Wildcat Evalua-tion: An Early Test of Supported Work in DrugAbuse Rehabilitation, Rockville, Maryland:National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1978.

b. Bushway, S., and P. Reuter. “Labor Mar-kets and Crime Risk Factors.” Chapter 6 inL.S. Sherman, D. Gottfredson, D. MacKenzie,J. Eck, P. Reuter, and S. Bushway, Prevent-ing Crime: What Works, What Doesn’t,What’s Promising (Washington, D.C.: U.S.Department of Justice, Office of JusticePrograms, 1997), pp. 6–17.

c. Menon, R., C. Blakely, D. Carmichael, andL. Silver, “An Evaluation of Project RIO Out-comes: An Evaluative Report,” College Sta-tion: Texas A&M University, Public PolicyResources Laboratory, July 1992.

Recruitmentand

OrientationLife Skills

Course

Initial JobDeveloperSession

Placement FollowupServices

1 Day a Week

JobPreparation

Sessions andInterviews

Support Services

Friday Monday–Thursday Friday 6 Months

2–3 Months

Work Crew

Exhibit 1. Participants’ Progression Through CEO

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Division also requires some paroleesreleased from a 3-month residentialsubstance abuse treatment program toparticipate. Finally, CEO accepts vol-untary referrals from city probationofficers and work release counselors.The program does not accept offenderswho have been convicted of a violentcrime or who are ineligible to work inthe United States.

Program staff provide a 3-hour orien-tation at the Parole Division to eachnew group of boot camp and drugtreatment graduates; probationers andwork release inmates are trained atCEO’s offices. Parolees are generallyreleased on a Thursday, oriented onFriday, and begin life skills classes onMonday. The life skills classes run for4 days (through Thursday). On Thurs-day afternoon students are oriented tothe work crews. They meet their em-ployment specialist on the Friday afterthe life skills class and start work thefollowing Monday.

Life Skills CourseI was afraid that my criminal historywould prevent me from ever getting ajob, but my life skills teacher trainedus thoroughly about what to write onjob applications and what to say tointerviewers about our offenses.—Anemployed program graduate

Participants spend the first of 4 days(Monday) at CEO attending an all-dayjob readiness class. Course work isbased on a Columbia University cur-riculum designed especially for diffi-cult-to-employ populations. Accordingto Yolanda Johnson, one of the in-structors, “The most important part ofthe course is the interview training,and the most important part of that

segment is how participants can talkwith job interviewers about theircriminal record in a manner that di-verts the conversation to what theylearned in boot camp and at CEO.”

Support ServicesI got lots of help from CEO, not justhelp finding a job. The program gaveme free clothing and the name of anagency that had still more clothing togive away. My life skills teacherhelped me negotiate the foster carebureaucracy so I could get back cus-tody of my children. I was even given alist of real estate agents and names ofpeople with vacant apartments.—Anemployed program graduate

On the last day of the life skills course(Thursday), the instructor discussespersonal problems participants may havethat could interfere with finding a job;participants fill out a form identifyingthese problems and discuss them in anexit interview. Life skills educators alsohelp participants secure child care, hous-ing, and clothing, as well as Medicaiddocuments, a driver’s license, and anyother needed docu-ments. Staff visit par-ticipants at their jobsites within the first 90days of employment,assessing employer andemployee satisfaction.

Transition:The Fifth DayThe first time I met myemployment special-ist, he was real up frontabout telling me hecouldn’t place me in ajob right away without

Work crew members wear proper safety gear while cleaning uproadside areas for the State Department of Transportation.

a trial period on the work crews to makesure I was really ready for private-sector work.—An employed programgraduate

On the day following the end of thelife skills course (Friday), participantsmeet with their employment specialist,who reviews their interests and goals,barriers to employment, and otherpersonal information needed to de-velop an employment plan. Thisinformation is documented in an as-sessment tool approved by the NewYork City Department of Employ-ment. Each participant’s employmentspecialist then picks a day of the weekwhen, instead of working on a crew,the participant will come to the officeto pursue job leads the employmentspecialist has developed betweenmeetings.

Work CrewsThe crew pays me only $30 a day, butI left prison with just $100, so I reallyneed the money. Besides, it keeps mebusy and not doing things that couldget me locked up again. And I know

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that CEO has helped crew membersfind jobs.—A crew member

Work crews provide participants withshort-term, low-skilled, minimum-wage, day-labor employment. In mid-1996, 40 crews with a total of morethan 200 participants were operatingeach day in more than 25 locations inall 5 city boroughs. Crews generallyoperate from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. and from4 p.m. to midnight, with an hour offfor lunch or dinner. Work crews giveparticipants the following benefits:

■ Immediate, much-needed cash—and the self-esteem that comes fromnot having to ask family members forday-to-day living expenses.

■ Essential work habits for joining theworkforce, such as getting to work ontime, dressing appropriately, maintain-ing a positive attitude, accepting con-structive criticism from a supervisor,and working 7 hours a day as a mem-ber of a team.

■ An accurate sense of the demandsthey can expect from employers.

The crews give the program the oppor-tunity to screen out participants whohave shown repeatedly that they arenot motivated or disciplined enough tosucceed in the private sector. The pro-gram terminates these participants. Inaddition, the work crews offer theircustomers an array of benefits, bothtangible and intangible.

Reliability and quality work. UnderCEO’s close supervision, crews showup on time, work steadily, and do thejob right. According to Kevin Curran,director of crew operations, “Agenciesthat initially resisted using the crews

grew to like them because they werewell supervised and dependable.”

Flexibility and control. From one dayto the next, facility managers can shiftcrews to different locations or types ofwork, increase or decrease the numberof crews, and discontinue them when ajob has been completed.

Easy access. Agencies that haveavoided needed maintenance workbecause of the contracting process(typically months long) can have acrew in place within a month—andoften within a week.

Cost-effectiveness. Crews generallycost less than $500 per five-personcrew per day, including labor, onsitesupervision, and overhead.

Giving people a second chance.According to one facility manager, thecrews have been a boon not only be-cause they do good work and savemoney, but also because he gets per-sonal satisfaction from giving ex-offenders a second chance.

Managing the WorkCrewsWork and pay. Crew members pri-marily perform low-skilled tasks (suchas trash pickup and painting), ratherthan highly skilled work that wouldrequire extensive training. Becausecrew members are CEO employees,the program withholds taxes and otherdeductibles from their paychecks.In 1997, day-crew members earnednearly $36 for a 7-hour day ($5.15 perhour minimum-wage base pay); night-crew members earned more than $40($5.79 per hour base pay). Crew mem-bers are paid at the end of each day to

provide immediate spending money,reinforce dependability, and promotetheir self-esteem. Because few crewmembers have bank accounts, CEOhas arranged for several bank branchesand check-cashing establishments tohonor their checks.

Supervision. There are two levels offield supervision: (1) individual onsitecrew supervisors and (2) senior fieldsupervisors, who oversee four to sixindividual crew supervisors. Whileboth levels of supervisors maintainwork crew discipline, crew supervisorshave the primary responsibility fortraining crew members.

Training. When a new work crew siteis established, a senior field supervisormeets with the customer’s facilitymanager to identify the time and placethe crew should assemble, the natureof the crew’s work, and the equipmentand safety gear needed for the job. Thesenior field supervisor gives this infor-mation to the crew supervisors, whothen orient crew members to the re-quirements of the job.

Orienting and training the crews is anever-ending task, as new membersreplace those who find jobs, drop out,or are terminated. As a result, crewsupervisors often team new crew mem-bers with seasoned members who canshow them the ropes. Crew supervisorsalso match uncooperative memberswith stable, experienced workers whocan reinforce positive work habits.

Maintaining discipline. Every crewsupervisor maintains line-of-sightsupervision at all times in order toenforce the rules (see “CEO’s RulesFoster Reliability”). Depending on

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how severe a violation is and howoften it occurs, crew supervisors maywarn members to stop their behavior,send them home with their pay docked,or fill out a report that will result in adisciplinary hearing and possibletermination.

Although crew supervisors have pag-ers for contacting their senior fieldsupervisors and facility representa-tives, for the most part they work inde-pendently. A daily visit by a seniorfield supervisor exerts a stabilizinginfluence, reassuring crew supervisors,crew members, and facility managersalike that an observant organization isholding everything together.

Senior field supervisors also help crewsupervisors solve onsite problems. Forexample, Robert Gordon was paged bya crew supervisor when a member of ahighway cleaning crew found the partsto a rifle and insisted on taking themto the local police precinct station fora gun buyback cash reward. Gordondrove to the site and convinced the ex-offender that he did not want to havehis fingerprints all over the weapon orto be seen carrying it down the street.In addition to troubleshooting, seniorsupervisors help prevent burnoutamong crew supervisors, who mustfight the same battles repeatedly asnew crew members echo the com-plaints of their predecessors (such as,“Why do I have to work so hard foronly $5.15 an hour?”). Finally, seniorfield supervisors help ensure that crewsupervisors enforce the rules even-handedly so that crew members whomove from one crew to another expe-rience the same discipline.

Although most CEO participants come di-rectly from the State’s 6-month shock incar-ceration program and are, therefore, moreself-disciplined than most other ex-offend-ers, many still have problems managingtheir time, controlling their anger, and par-ticipating on teams. As a result, in order toprepare them for a successful transition tothe community and the job market, CEOrequires strict adherence to the program’srequirements and work schedule.

The rules are intended to instill the ac-countability that will make participantsdesirable job applicants and successfulemployees—CEO staff report that reli-ability is the single most important charac-teristic companies look for in their em-ployees. The rules also give CEO staffclear guidelines for responding to partici-pants’ attempts to avoid responsibility, suchas claiming they were late because theymissed the bus or the subway broke down.

■ Punctuality. Participants are given twoadditional opportunities to complete thelife skills classes in the event that they arelate or miss class. They must take the entire4-day course over again. Paychecks aredocked for workers who are not punctualin reporting to their worksites.

■ Dress code. Participants are required towear outfits appropriate for job interviews

CEO’s Rules Foster Reliability

Typical Work CrewAssignmentsBuildings. Crews provide custodialservices in court buildings, strippingand waxing floors in corridors andpublic areas, cleaning bathrooms,emptying trash containers, dustingoffice furniture, and washing walls.Crews prepare walls and trim surfacesfor painting, then paint dormitories,classrooms, group homes, and admin-istrative offices. Crews reconfigurestaff offices, demolishing old wallsand installing new drywall partitions.

Highways. Crews clean up roadsidesalong piers and State arterial roads, aswell as along highways and access

roads that lead to John F. KennedyInternational Airport.

Parks. A crew routinely maintainsnature trails and recreational areas,cutting back overgrowth and pickingup debris. In warmer months, crewmembers remove graffiti from outdoorpark fixtures, signs, and buildings.

Other exterior work. Crews have as-sembled concrete block partitionsand assisted with concrete flatwork forsidewalks, ramps, and curb cuts forhandicapped access, including setting upforms, installing expansion joints, andpouring concrete. Crews also performgeneral groundskeeping, including

when meeting with employment special-ists. Ostentatious jewelry is discouraged,and Walkmans™ and cellular phones arenot allowed on CEO’s premises.

■ Work crew rules. Crew supervisorscomplete a form at the end of each day,rating (from 1 to 4) each individual’s timeon the job, punctuality, motivation, coop-eration, and productivity. Crew membersare discouraged from interacting with thepublic and are required to conduct them-selves in a businesslike manner at alltimes.

■ Disciplinary procedures. Participantswho commit major violations (e.g., stealingor threatening or assaulting staff or eachother) or who turn down an appropriate joboffer are terminated. For less serious viola-tions (e.g., tardiness, absence, or reportingfor the work crew without appropriate gear),participants receive a verbal reprimand thefirst time, sign a copy of the rules the secondtime, and attend a disciplinary meeting thethird time, which may result in termination.This three-step procedure attempts to un-cover the reasons for the behavior in order tosolve the problem. According to the super-visor of the employment specialists, “If it’sa problem that can be fixed, we try to keepthe participant in the program.”

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cutting lawns, maintaining wrought ironfences, and beautifying entrances.

ChallengesBecause looking after the work crewsinvolves constant attention and man-agement, staff constantly try to antici-pate and solve problems. MindyTarlow, CEO’s executive director, saysthe crews are the hardest component ofCEO to manage effectively.

Startup difficulties . Facility manag-ers have to be patient in expecting

Court Facilities Inspections1995 Ratings 1996 Ratings Court Address(Before CEO) (With CEO)

Poor Excellent 18 Richmond Terrace, Staten Island

Good Excellent 67 Targee Street, Staten Island

Good Excellent 100 Richmond Terrace, Staten Island

Good Excellent 927 Castleton Ave., Staten Island

Fair Excellent 89–14 Parsons Blvd., Queens

Good Good 125–01 Queens Blvd., Queens

Fair Excellent 283 Adams Street, Brooklyn

Poor Good 141 Livingston Street, Brooklyn

Good Good 360 Adams Street, Brooklyn

Good Good 120 Schermerhorn St., Brooklyn

Good Excellent 900 Sheridan Avenue, Bronx

Good Good 215 East 161st Street, Bronx

Good Excellent 60 Lafayette Street, Manhattan

Poor Good 60 Centre Street, Manhattan

Poor Good 111 Centre Street, Manhattan

Good Average 100 Centre Street, Manhattan

good results. According to ArturoSantiago, the former first assistantcommissioner of the Department ofCitywide Administrative Services,who hired crews to maintain severalcourt buildings, “You have to givethe crews a chance. They can’t turn abuilding around in a day. Floors thathaven’t been worked on for yearscan’t look good overnight.” Santiagoreports that he was prepared to wait 2or 3 months to see whether the crewscould do the job. (See “Satisfied WorkCrew Customers.”)

Difficulties with crew members.Crew members gripe most about thepay, and some express dislike for themenial nature of the work. Few par-ticipants quit, however, because bootcamp has prepared most of them forphysically strenuous chores. Womencrew members—who represent about9 percent of CEO participants—oftenhave an added incentive to stick withthe program: If they are mothers, theyneed a job to demonstrate that they arestable enough to win back custody oftheir children from foster care.

Satisfied Work Crew Customers

In response to concerns over unsatisfactory maintenance andbuilding conditions in court facilities, the Department of CitywideAdministrative Services turned to CEO crews as an experiment,with positive results. The 1996 annual survey of court condi-tions by the independent Fund for Modern Court Reform foundsubstantially improved conditions, shown below. Furthermore,the courts maintained by CEO generally received higher ratingsthan did courts maintained by other contractors.

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Problems with facilities. Conflictsbetween productivity and safety some-times occur at worksites. For example,having different members of a crewpainting simultaneously in severalclassrooms at Brooklyn College had tobe abandoned because line-of-sightsupervision was compromised. Whencollege administrators expressed con-cern about ex-offenders’ proximity tostudents, CEO first changed the crews’lunch hours to prevent their coincidingwith the students’ eating times, thenarranged to have the crews do thepainting from 4 p.m. to midnight. An-other problem is that crew membersare often the first to be blamed whensomething is stolen or missing from afacility. Crew supervisors remind fa-cility personnel that crew members areclosely supervised, making it difficultfor them to engage in illegal activityon the job.

Maintaining crew size. Program staffstruggle constantly to ensure thatcrews are not shortstaffed—15 to 20percent of members fail to show upeach day, while others find jobs orare disciplined or terminated. WhenArturo Santiago found that somecrews cleaning his courts were under-staffed, he developed his own crewmember sign-in sheets; crew supervi-sors fax these to him each morningand, if a crew is short, Santiago tele-phones Mindy Tarlow to fill the gaps.

Fielding new crews. The program canrespond expeditiously to a new requestfor a crew if an existing crew is finish-ing a project and can be transferred tothe new site. If an existing crew is notavailable, CEO must find another crewsupervisor and expand its labor pool toform a crew from scratch. For example,

when CEO was confronted with anunusually large number of requests forcrews during the summer of 1996,Mindy Tarlow asked the Parole Divi-sion for 50 additional ex-offenders;CEO could not provide job placementservices for these individuals, but itcould offer them work crew employ-ment. Kevin Curran, who supervisescrew operations, maintains a core of 10reliable supervisors who want overtimeand who can fill in for other supervisorswho get sick or go on vacation. Fur-thermore, Curran says, “Even whenfacing a month’s delay, customers havenever said they cannot wait that long,because a month is a blink of an eyecompared to the half-year contractingprocess the facility would otherwisehave to endure.”

Union concerns. Opposition to thecrews from organized labor has notbeen a serious problem. When con-cerns have been raised, facility manag-ers have solved the problem either byinforming union representatives thatthe crew is supplementing the union

work by doing the less desirable low-skilled preparation labor or by movingCEO’s crews to a different locationuntil the union job is done.

Job Development andPlacementMy employment specialist had a jobinterview lined up for me almost everytime I came in on my off day. And hewould remind me again and againabout how to act and what to say. Onabout my fifth interview I was hired,and I’ve been there ever since.—Anemployed CEO graduate

Until they have landed a full-time job,crew members return one day a weekto the CEO office dressed for job in-terviews their employment specialistsmay have scheduled. If no interviewshave been set up, the specialist maytry to schedule one during the meetingor spend the time working with theparticipant on job readiness skills.

Work crew members paint a corridor at a local university.

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Selling the Programto EmployersProgram staff and company executiveswho have hired CEO participantsagree that CEO’s most successful mar-keting strategy consists of three inter-related selling points:

■ CEO acts as a human resourcesdepartment, screening applicants forits customers: Employers know noth-ing about someone who comes in offthe street, but with CEO they knoweach applicant’s background.

■ CEO provides employees who arealmost always reliable: They willshow up on time every day, ready towork.

■ An entire organization is behindevery employee: CEO is just a phonecall away. If employers have a prob-lem, CEO will solve it. CEO monitorsevery employee’s performance for 6months with site visits and phonecalls. Employers are also reassured tolearn that most participants are alsounder supervision by a parole officer.

Also, the program’s services are free.According to Tani Mills, who runsCEO’s vocational development activi-ties, “No-cost human resource servicesdo matter to many employers. So ouremployment specialists may start outby telling employers how much moneythey’ll save by not having to place anad in the paper or pay an employmentagency.” The program also offers em-ployers other incentives.

On-the-job training and Adult WorkExperience credits. Through the NewYork City Department of Employment,

the program can offer wage reimburse-ment to employers under the Departmentof Labor’s Job Training Partnership Act(JTPA). The on-the-job training compo-nent offers to reimburse for-profit compa-nies half of a participant’s wages for up to8 weeks if the company qualifies underJTPA regulations, is willing to train aperson, and considers the person a full-time employee with the same benefit planits regular employees receive. The AdultWork Experience component allowsCEO to reimburse nonprofit companies100 percent of the minimum wage forproviding 12 weeks of training.

Work Opportunities Tax Credit. Formany years, this program was able toarrange tax credits for employers un-der the Targeted Job Tax Credit Act.This program was replaced in 1996by the Revenue Reconciliation Act,which offers special consideration toemployers if their operation and theprospective employee’s residence arein a designated Empowerment Zone.The employer is eligible for a WorkOpportunities Tax Credit equal to 35percent of the first $6,000 of wages($2,100) if the employee has workedat least 180 days. In addition, the pro-gram provides employers informationand brochures outlining the benefitsavailable under the act for businessesin Empowerment Zones.3

Human resources services. AlthoughCEO has placed some participantswith big corporations, according toTani Mills, “We have found a nichewith small and medium-sized compa-nies: Large companies have their ownhuman resource departments, so theydon’t need CEO so much. Also, ittakes more time to develop a relation-ship with big companies than with

smaller ones. Besides, many partici-pants can’t handle the anonymity of abig company.” A senior employmentspecialist adds that “big companiestend to have higher standards for ap-plicants, a longer hiring process, andgreater reluctance to hire ex-offendersthan smaller companies.”

For example, one shop owner with 35employees reports, “I said I wouldnever hire a convict. Then a CEO rep-resentative called me because one ofmy customers had hired a CEO par-ticipant and told the program aboutme. The CEO person told me that theyscreen these people, offer money forme to train them, and CEO and theparole board both monitor them. Ifthere’s a problem, they’ll find it outand either solve it or get the personout. I don’t have a human resourcesdepartment to screen people, and witha newspaper ad you never know whatkind of person you’re getting. So Iinterviewed a few [participants], hiredone, and it worked out fine.”

In addition to filling a role as an em-ployment agency, CEO offers Em-ployee Assistance Program (EAP)services to any employee of a com-pany that hires at least one CEO par-ticipant. When Edward Parrott, asenior employment specialist, calleda company as part of routinepostplacement followup, the ownerasked about how to deal with a non-CEO employee who appeared to havea drug problem. At Parrott’s sugges-tion, the owner told the employee totelephone Parrott or face termination.Parrott then arranged for the employeeto enter a rehabilitation program, as-suring him that his employer wouldhire him back if he successfully

Program Focus 11

PROGRAM FOCUS

completed treatment—which is ex-actly what happened.

FollowupWhen I got a job, everyone at CEOsaid to call if I ever needed anything. Istill call after 3 years.—An employedprogram graduate

After placing a participant, the employ-ment specialist telephones the employerto confirm the placement, expressCEO’s pleasure to be working with thecompany, and reaffirm the offer of on-going assistance. An employment spe-cialist supervisor also calls to make sureemployers know that the participants areex-offenders, thank them, ask if theyneed any more workers, and tell them tocontact her if they have a problem andcannot reach the employment specialist.

The program continues to monitor theemployee’s performance for 6 months,

including telephoning the employer,visiting the work site, and counselingthe employee. The program’s comput-erized case-tracking system producesmonthly reports that indicate whenfollowup contacts are due in order toverify that participants are still em-ployed, ascertain their progress, andoffer any needed assistance. One com-pany executive reported, “The em-ployment specialist really monitorsthese guys. He calls the employees,and he calls me to see how things areworking out. That’s very important tome. With an employment agency, theyplace someone and they’re out of it.Six months go by and CEO is stillchecking up on these guys.” The pro-gram offers job development and sup-port services indefinitely, includinghelp with finding new jobs for formerparticipants who lose their jobs due tolayoffs or other factors beyond theircontrol.

Exhibit 2. CEO Staff Organization

Executive Director

Mindy Tarlow

Finance Administrator

Brad Dudding

Work Crew Director

Kevin Curran

Vocational Activities Director

Tani Mills

Director of Personnel

Support Staff(7)

Field Manager

Senior FieldSupervisors

(6)

DataDepartment

(2)

Drivers (2)

Crew Supervisors (36)

JobDevelopment

Services

Life Skills/SupportServices

YoungProbationers’

Program(4)

Supervisors(2)

Educators/Social Support

Staff (4)

EmploymentSpecialists

(10)

CEO StaffingWhile any program is only as good asits personnel, staff quality is particu-larly important at CEO because of thecomplexity of marketing and operatingthe work crews and the need to meetjob development goals established byfunding agencies. As the organizationchart (exhibit 2) shows, in 1996 CEOemployees included 36 crew supervi-sors and 6 senior field supervisors; 10employment specialists and 2 supervi-sors; 4 life skills educators, who alsoprovided support services; and execu-tive and administrative staff.

Certain features of CEO’s staffingarrangements are noteworthy.

■ The program is especially receptiveto hiring former participants, who canbe open about their background andoften have a strong desire to help otherex-offenders. However, program

12 National Institute of Justice

PROGRAM FOCUS

participants must first work 6 to 12months in the private sector to demon-strate their reliability and to build awork history outside CEO.

■ To minimize turnover among expe-rienced crew supervisors, CEO re-wards longevity among these staffmembers with extra pay.

■ Employment specialists must meetwork quotas designed to stimulateproductivity (see “Employment Spe-cialists Are Expected to Meet Perfor-mance Quotas”).

CEO FinancesProgram revenues in Fiscal Year (FY)1996 totaled $7.4 million and camefrom several sources. Work crewsgenerate approximately 60 percent ofCEO’s total funding. This incomesupports a significant part of CEO’swork crew operation. Funding forvocational development services (suchas life skills training, support services,

job counseling, and the youth pro-gram) comes from several sources,including the following:

■ State Division of Parole.

■ State Department of CorrectionalServices.

■ City Department of Probation foradult and youth programs.

■ City Department of EmploymentJTPA funding for the on-the-job trainingand Adult Work Experience placements.

With the exception of the City Depart-ment of Housing Preservation andDevelopment, which contracts forwork crews directly with CEO, agen-cies pay the Parole Division for theprogram’s work crew services, and theParole Division reimburses CEO. Un-der this arrangement, CEO is the Pa-role Division’s managing agent for thecrews, and CEO avoids becoming abill collector.

The Parole Division contracts sepa-rately with CEO for job developmentservices. The contract requires theprogram to enroll 1,150 ex-offenders.The program contracts with the CityDepartment of Employment—the localdistributor of Federal job trainingfunds—to reimburse companies thatprovide on-the-job training and AdultWork Experience placements to pro-gram participants.

The program’s income in FY 1996included $1.8 million from Govern-ment agencies for vocational develop-ment (life skills classes and jobplacement services) and $5.6 millionfrom customers who hired work crews.In 1996, CEO covered all but $416,000of its work crew expenses with revenuefrom work crew customers. CEO ex-pects the work crews to become com-pletely self-supporting. As a result,when calculating CEO’s cost to taxpay-ers, it is necessary to add only theunreimbursed cost of the work crews($416,000) to the cost of vocationaldevelopment activities ($1.9 million)for a total cost of $2,316,800. Based onthe historical average of 766 place-ments, the cost per placement to thetaxpayer is $3,025.

More than one-quarter of CEO’s FY1996 expenses ($7.4 million) wereallocated to participants’ wages andexpenses (such as subway tokens andworkboots). Support services—includ-ing vehicles, classroom space, andstaff salaries for job counseling andtraining—accounted for about 60 per-cent of program costs. The balance ofthe expenses (less than 13 percent)was incurred by program administra-tion, legal counsel, and bookkeepingfunctions.

Every week, each employment specialistis expected to make at least 100 cold callsto potential employers, develop 5 to 10 jobopenings, and make 18 referrals for inter-views. These efforts should result in eightplacements per month. Employment spe-cialists submit a weekly activity report toCEO’s director of vocational developmentand to the supervising employment spe-cialists. The report includes a record of joborders by company name, position, wage,and date. If an employment specialist is notmeeting the quotas, the supervising spe-cialist or the vocational development di-rector works with the person to identify andsolve the problem; for example, the em-ployment specialist may need help balanc-ing time spent counseling participants withtime spent calling potential employers.

Employment Specialists Are Expected toMeet Performance Quotas

Quotas were instituted in the early 1990swhen CEO’s Job Training Partnership Act(JTPA) funding changed from discretion-ary funding to performance-based contract-ing. Funds under JTPA were provided toCEO up front, but, if the program did notmeet specified contract milestones, a por-tion of the money had to be returned. As aresult, quotas to ensure productivity be-came critical to CEO’s survival. Althoughthe funding has reverted to discretionaryfunding, the quotas have been kept in placefor management purposes. According toone senior employment specialist, “Thequotas are very effective as self-evaluationtools and for pinpointing problem areas.”

Program Focus 13

PROGRAM FOCUS

Promising Signs ofSuccess“That’s the good thing about cominghere. They really help you.”—A par-ticipant talking to a newcomer in theCEO waiting room

The primary goal of CEO is to reinte-grate ex-offenders into the communityby helping them find employment inunsubsidized, permanent jobs that paymore than minimum wage and offergrowth potential and benefits. Be-tween 1992 and 1996, the programplaced an average of 766 participantsin permanent jobs each year, for anaverage annual placement rate of ap-proximately 70 percent. The remaining30 percent dropped out of the programat different stages:

■ Five percent of all program partici-pants failed to show up for the firstday of program activities.

■ Fifteen percent dropped out of lifeskills classes.

■ Five percent never showed up forthe first day of crew work.

■ Five percent were terminated forfailing to follow work crew rules.

According to executive director MindyTarlow, the first 30 days are the criticaltime for sticking with the program; afterparticipants are working with an em-ployment specialist, they tend to remainwith the program until they find a job.

At a time when the minimum wagewas $4.25 an hour, the average hourlywage for CEO participants who wereplaced between 1992 and 1996 rangedfrom $4.25 to $20. In 1996, their

average wage was nearly 50 percenthigher than the minimum wage, repre-senting almost $4,000 in earned incomeabove the minimum wage over thecourse of the year. Nearly two-thirds ofthe jobs provided full benefits.

In 1996, approximately 75 percent ofplaced participants were still on the

same job after 1 month,60 percent were still em-ployed after 3 months, and38 percent after 6 months.Many remain much longer.For example, among 12participants one local busi-ness had hired over a 3-yearperiod, “more worked outthan didn’t,” according tothe owner. “One stayed 21/

2

years, two for 11/2 years, a

couple for 1 year.” Themost common reason forbecoming unemployed is

drug relapse, despite CEO’s availabilityto refer any employed former partici-pant to treatment.

The success of CEO’s work crews hasinspired the agency to adapt their prin-ciples to a program encouraging youngoffenders to stay in school (see“Young Probationers’ Program”).

Until 1995, the City Department of Em-ployment funded CEO to run a school-to-work program for young adults. When fund-ing was terminated, CEO refinanced theprogram through the Department of Proba-tion. The program helps probationers be-tween the ages of 151/2 and 18 resolveacademic and personal difficulties that in-terfere with staying in school.

The young probationers’ program offers a7-week life skills course, individual coun-seling (provided by CEO staff) and tutor-ing (provided by volunteers), advocates inthe schools for students in disciplinary dif-ficulties, assistance to parents through homevisits or lunchtime meetings, and part-timepaid summer internships. To motivate

Young Probationers’ Program

school attendance, after the probationerscomplete the life skills course, employ-ment specialists help students find part-time jobs after school or on weekends; theyare allowed to keep these jobs only if theyremain in school. According to Alba Rivera,director of the youth program, “Theseyoungsters need a place where they feelaccepted and are cared about—like a sec-ond home—and where someone is alwaysavailable to them.”

Fifty students were enrolled in the youthprogram as of mid-1996. School atten-dance had risen from 49 percent to 81percent for most of the 27 students whoremained active in the program.

A CEO participant [left] receives last-minute advice from hisemployment specialist before going to an interview.

14 National Institute of Justice

PROGRAM FOCUS

Keys to ProgramSuccessAccording to Christopher Stone, theexecutive director of the Vera Instituteof Justice who supervised CEO’s spinoffas an independent organization (see“CEO’s Origins”), “Any postprisonagency responsible for reducing recidi-vism can set up work crews in conjunc-tion with vocational developmentservices.” However, there are severalkeys to the success of a program likeCEO:

■ A local criminal justice systemagency—preferably a division of paroleor probation—must become a programpartner to ensure an adequate supply of

work for all their referrals extremelyattractive, especially when alternativejob programs cannot promise quickemployment; fail to provide the struc-ture, discipline, and followup that helpoffenders secure above-minimum-wagework; and may require participants toapply for welfare.

■ Times of fiscal crisis can work to theadvantage of a program like CEO, be-cause governments may be more will-ing to take cost-cutting measures—suchas releasing inmates early with assur-ances of appropriate supervision.

■ Engaging participants in day laboris essential to keeping them motivatedand out of trouble. Income from thework crews also supports day-laboroperations. However, being able toestablish work crews may depend onthe political will of government part-ners and local community representa-tives (see “How CEO Finds WorkCrew Customers”).

■ Hiring competent operations staff,such as crew supervisors and seniorfield supervisors, is critical. Local

In 1978, the Vera Institute of Justice, anonprofit organization in New York City,established what later became the Centerfor Employment Opportunities (CEO). Oneof Vera’s primary missions is to initiateinnovative criminal justice demonstrationprojects. It disbands those projects that donot prove effective and seeks to spin offsuccessful programs so that they continueas independent organizations. When CEObecame independent in 1996, it retainedmost of its original structure and staff.

The Vera Institute established the programbecause many newly released offenderswere being rearrested, usually for pettyproperty offenses. At the same time, it ap-peared that offenders who were able to staystraight were finding day-labor jobs in theirown neighborhoods. As a result, Vera de-cided to develop work crews that couldoffer day-labor employment in neighbor-hoods where offenders were living.

Initially, ex-offenders participated volun-tarily in the crews after referral by proba-

CEO’s Originstion or parole officers. The crews were notexpected to lead to permanent employment.As it became clear that work crew memberswanted better jobs and that social prob-lems—such as lack of health insurance andhousing—made it difficult for many of themto find and keep good jobs, Vera addedvocational development services. These twocomponents—work crews and vocationalservices—developed and operated in tan-dem, but the crews which were not ex-pected to lead to permanent employmentremained the program’s primary focus.

Over time, the program’s goal evolved intohelping ex-offenders obtain permanent,unsubsidized, higher paying employment.The work crews were seen as indispensableto achieving this objective. The nature ofthe ex-offenders’ participation also changed:When the State Parole Division began re-ferring primarily boot camp graduates, par-ticipating in CEO became a mandatory con-dition of release.

participants. These agencies are likelyto find the guarantee of immediate, paid

A CEO employment specialist wishes a participant good luck as he goes to a job interview shearranged for him.

Program Focus 15

PROGRAM FOCUS

market demand for individuals withthe proper blend of skills and person-ality can hamper a program’s ability torecruit and retain them. The programmust also hire detail-oriented adminis-trative staff (see “CEO’s Communica-tions Hub: The Data Department”).According to Mindy Tarlow, “Organi-zations tend to rely on only one or twocompulsive people for this work, butthat’s not a good idea when you’redeploying work crews and trackinghundreds of participants—things canfall apart quickly when these staff getsick, go on vacation, become over-worked, or begin to resent other ad-ministrative staff who are not soconscientious.”

■ The program must incorporate andenforce structure and discipline. Theprogram should enroll ex-offenderswho have already developed someself-discipline, building on this habituntil the participants respond to incen-tives for staying straight: immediatedaily income, the prospect of a perma-

Competitive bids. The program has securedsome customers through a competitive bid-ding process. In 1981, the City Departmentof Housing Preservation and Development(HPD) issued a request for proposals torehabilitate low-income housing seized intax foreclosures. CEO was one of the suc-cessful bidders, becoming HPD’s principalcontractor for crew operations. In 1995, CEOresponded to another HPD request for pro-posals seeking supported-work contractors.As one of three successful bidders, CEO wona 3-year contract to provide four work crews.

State Government support. When NewYork State established its shock incarcera-

How CEO Finds Work Crew Customers

tion program in the late 1980s to relieveprison crowding and reduce the need for newprison construction, it needed a way to pro-vide released “shockers” with immediateemployment, because holding a job was arequirement for release. The Parole Divisionexpected to use CEO’s work crews for thispurpose because the program could guaran-tee paying jobs for participants right away.However, when CEO lost its major contractwith HPD, the number of crews needed fellsharply (from nearly 50 to 5), leaving theParole Division in the lurch. As a result, thedirector of the Parole Division and theGovernor’s representatives met with the

heads of other State agencies to seek sup-port for CEO’s work crews. It took 4 yearsfor CEO to build back up to more than 40crews.

Good performance. Creating satisfied cus-tomers is another way CEO has gained(and kept) contracts. A good track recordcan be used to secure additional work, andcustomers who initially agree to experi-ment with crews renew or expand theircontracts. Crews often come to be consid-ered a permanent supplement to acustomer’s maintenance operation.

nent job, and the rewards of full-timeemployment with fringe benefits. Ac-cording to Christopher Stone, “Anyregime in the department of correc-tions with a disciplined system can bean appropriate source of participants,including therapeutic communitygraduates and work release inmates—two populations CEO has successfullyplaced.”

Tarlow recommends that new pro-grams begin by establishing an admin-istrative structure, putting a referralmechanism and an orientation processin place, and soliciting work crewfunding—all before establishing jobdevelopment and preemploymenttraining services. “Getting permanentjobs is the program’s goal,” she notes,“but the work crew component is es-sential to getting there, and it is themost difficult component to get goingand keep afloat.” A new programshould begin small in order to learnhow to handle the daily work crewpayroll. “A daily payroll for 10 crew

members is not a problem, but paying200 participants at numerous locations250 days a year takes planning anddevelopment.” Tarlow concludes, “Itis absolutely critical to have a soundfinancial administrative structure and astrong financial officer.”

To help ensure a consistent level ofcrew employment, CEO now tries tonegotiate a verbal 2-year commitmentfrom every crew employer. CEO alsotries not to have too many crews work-ing for only one customer and not torely on one source of participants;diversification is the key to minimiz-ing peaks and valleys, both in workdemand and in available labor to meetthe demand.

■ Finally, all such programs need toincorporate an evaluation plan thattracks how long participants remainemployed and whether they are lesslikely to commit new offenses than ex-offenders who do not participate in theprogram. These outcome data can be

16 National Institute of Justice

PROGRAM FOCUS

crucial to persuading funding sourcesto continue to support the program, aswell as for identifying areas of programoperation that need improvement.

CEO had the advantage of the VeraInstitute’s support in becoming estab-lished, and it became independent onlyafter achieving a sound structure andsecure funding. Even so, Vera facedmost of the same financial hurdles thatorganizations in other jurisdictionswould have to overcome in startingsuch a program, such as gaining gov-ernment support and paying workcrew customers. Although the VeraInstitute learned how to proceedlargely by trial and error, other juris-dictions that wish to replicate the pro-gram have the advantage of learningfrom CEO’s experience.

Crew operations require constant adjust-ment due to changes in scheduling, atten-dance, and assignments. As a result, theatmosphere in CEO’s data department re-sembles a war room, with computers, tele-phones, and fax machines in constant use.Staff respond to minor—and occasionallymajor—crises all day long. The data de-partment performs three principal functions,described below.

Preparing the day’s payroll. Crew super-visors call in (or fax) their attendance liststo the data department before 10 a.m. everyday. Data department staff confirm siteattendance and hours worked, then enterthis information by participant ID numberinto CEO’s integrated computer system,which digitally transfers it to the payrolldepartment for processing. The payrollmanager monitors the automatic check-printing system, which addresses and sortseach participant’s pay by site. Payroll staffthen bundle the checks for distribution to allof CEO’s crew sites before the day’s clos-ing. (Night shift crews get paid the follow-ing day.)

Scheduling the crews. Every afternoon,the data department fields phone calls fromparticipants seeking assignment to a workcrew for the following day. The computersystem identifies vacant slots from themorning’s payroll processing and indicateseach site’s exact scheduling needs. In this

CEO’s Communications Hub: The DataDepartment

way, the data department can distributeparticipants evenly across CEO’s manywork crews, ensuring that each crew gener-ally operates at maximum capacity. Datadepartment staff offer precise travel in-structions to new participants (or to otherparticipants when a work location changes).When CEO’s evening crews areundersupported, data department staff offerovertime to fill the shortages until moreparticipants are enrolled.

Supervising equipment. Most of CEO’scustomers manage and store their own equip-ment and supplies in the facilities wherecrews work. Customers quickly recognizedthat if they maintained control of the mate-rials and supplies for the crews, they couldmaximize the crews’ flexibility and respon-siveness to the changing demands of theirfacilities. The program does, however,manage and warehouse tools, equipment,and supplies for the four itinerant crews thatprovide services to New York City’s De-partment of Housing Preservation and De-velopment (HPD). Each afternoon, datadepartment staff use CEO’s automated in-ventory system to prepare shipping docu-ments based on the needs reported by theHPD supervisors. These documents arefaxed to the CEO warehouse; the next morn-ing, warehouse staff pull and deliver theseorders to supervisors.

Program Focus 17

PROGRAM FOCUS

Listed below are some NIJ publica-tions related to the issues discussed inthis Program Focus. These publica-tions can be obtained free from theNIJ Web page (http:www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij) or from the NationalCriminal Justice Reference Service(NCJRS): telephone 800–851–3420,e-mail askncjrs@ncjrs.org, or write toNCJRS, Box 6000, Rockville, MD20849–6000.

Please note that when free publica-tions are out of stock, they are avail-able as photocopies for a minimalfee or through interlibrary loan. CallNCJRS for more information.

Selected NIJ Publications in Corrections and Related Fields

Bourque, Blair B., Mei Han, andSarah M. Hill, An Inventory of After-care Provisions for 52 Boot CampPrograms, Research Report, 1996,NCJ 157104.

Finn, Peter, The Orange County,Florida, Jail Educational and Voca-tional Programs, Program Focus,1997, NCJ 166820.

McGillis, Daniel, Beacons of Hope:New York City’s School-Based Com-munity Centers, Program Focus,1996, NCJ 157667.

Moses, Marilyn, Project Re-Enter-prise: A Texas Program, ProgramFocus, 1996, NCJ 161448.

Sexton, George E., Work in Ameri-can Prisons: Joint Ventures with thePrivate Sector, Program Focus,1996, NCJ 156215.

Sherman, Lawrence, DeniseGottfredson, Doris MacKenzie,John Eck, Peter Reuter, and ShawnBushway, Preventing Crime: WhatWorks, What Doesn’t, What’s Prom-ising, Research Report, 1997, NCJ165366.

Turner, Susan, and Joan Petersilia,Work Release: Recidivism and Cor-rections Costs in Washington State,Research in Brief, 1996, NCJ163706.

On the cover: A CEO employmentspecialist [right] visits an employedCenter graduate to offer congratula-tions on his successful transition tofull-time, unsubsidized work.

All photos by Harvey Wang,Photo\Film\Video. NCJ 168102 March 1998

About This StudyThis document was written by Peter Finn,senior research associate at Abt Associ-ates Inc. The findings and conclusions ofthe research reported here are those of theauthor and do not necessarily reflect theofficial position or policies of the U.S.Department of Justice.

The National Institute of Justice is a compo-nent of the Office of Justice Programs, whichalso includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance,the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the Office ofJuvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention,and the Office for Victims of Crime.

The National Institute of Corrections is acomponent of the Federal Bureau of Prisons.

The Office of Correctional Education is adivision of the Office of Vocational and AdultEducation, U.S. Department of Education.

Notes1. Anderson, D.B., R.E. Schumacker, andS.L. Anderson, “Release Characteristics andParole,” Journal of Offender Rehabilitation,17(1991): 133–145.

2. Strictly speaking, employers who takeadvantage of the wage reimbursement underthe Job Training Partnership Act and the WorkOpportunities Tax Credit do receive subsidies.However, most employers who hire CEOparticipants do not avail themselves of theseprograms, and those that do usually use themonly temporarily.

3. The Empowerment Zone and EnterpriseCommunity program is designed to rebuildcommunities in inner cities and rural areas.It includes block grants and tax benefits tostimulate the creation of new jobs and torevitalize economically distressed areas. The

Secretary of Housing and Urban Developmentdesignates urban Empowerment Zones andEnterprise Communities, and the Secretary ofAgriculture designates them in rural areas.

18 National Institute of Justice

PROGRAM FOCUS

The program staff of the Center for Em-ployment Opportunities are available toprovide technical assistance and consulta-tion. For further information, contact:

Mindy TarlowExecutive DirectorCenter for Employment Opportunities32 BroadwayNew York, NY 10004Telephone: 212–422–4850Fax: 212–422–4855

The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) is theprincipal research, evaluation, and develop-ment agency of the U.S. Department of Jus-tice. For information about the NIJ’s efforts incorrections, program development, and cor-porate partnership development, contact:

Marilyn C. MosesProgram ManagerNational Institute of Justice810 Seventh Street N.W., Room 7114Washington, DC 20531Telephone: 202–514–6205Fax: 202–307–6256World Wide Web site:http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij

The National Institute of Justice establishedthe National Criminal Justice ReferenceService (NCJRS) in 1972 to serve as anational and international clearinghouse forthe exchange of criminal justice informa-tion. For more information about topicalsearches, bibliographies, custom searches,and other available services, contact:

NCJRSP.O. Box 6000Rockville, MD 20849–6000Telephone: 800–851–3420 (8:30 a.m. to7 p.m. Eastern time, Monday throughFriday)

For specific criminal justice questions orrequests via Internet, e-mail:askncjrs@ncjrs.org

Sources for Further Information

The Office of Correctional Education(OCE) within the U.S. Department of Educa-tion was created by Congress in 1991 toprovide technical assistance, grant funding,and research data to the corrections and cor-rectional education fields. To speak with aprogram specialist or be placed on OCE’smailing list to receive grant announcements,OCE’s quarterly newsletter, and other publi-cations, contact:

Richard SmithDirectorOffice of Correctional EducationU.S. Department of Education600 Independence Avenue S.W.MES 4529Washington, DC 20202–7242Telephone: 202–205–5621Fax: 202–401–2615World Wide Web site: http://www.ed.gov/offices/OVAE/OCE

The National Institute of Corrections(NIC) Information Center is a nationalclearinghouse for collecting and disseminat-ing information on all aspects of adult cor-rections. Most of the NIC InformationCenter’s collection of more than 14,000 titlesis oriented to the corrections practitioner.For more information, contact:

NIC Information Center1860 Industrial Circle, Suite ALongmont, CO 80501Telephone: 800–877–1461Fax: 303–682–0558http://www.bop.gov/nicpg/nicinfo.html

The National Institute of Corrections’ Officeof Correctional Job Training and Place-ment (OCJTP) was created in March 1995 to:

■ Cooperate with and coordinate the effortsof other Federal agencies in the areas of jobtraining and placement.

■ Collect and disseminate information onoffender job training and placement pro-grams, accomplishments, and employmentoutcomes.

■ Provide training to develop staff compe-tencies in working with offenders and ex-offenders.

■ Provide technical assistance to State andlocal training and employment agencies.

For more information, contact:

John MooreCoordinatorOffice of Correctional Job Training andPlacementNational Institute of Corrections320 First Street N.W.Washington, DC 20534Telephone: 800–995–6423 ext. 147 or202–307–3361 ext. 147http://www.bop.gov/nicpg/nicmain.html

The Correctional Education Association(CEA) is affiliated with the American Cor-rectional Association as an international pro-fessional organization serving education pro-gram needs within the field of corrections.Membership includes teachers, librarians,counselors, and other education profession-als. Members receive a quarterly journal andnewsletter, an annual directory, and a year-book. Annual conferences are held in eachof CEA’s nine regions and many of its Statechapters. One of the regions hosts an inter-national conference with workshops on suc-cessful instructional strategies. Contact:

Alice TracyAssistant DirectorCorrectional Education Association4380 Forbes BoulevardLanham, MD 20706Telephone: 301–918–1915Fax: 301–918–1846

Program Focus 19

PROGRAM FOCUS

For the most up-to-date program information,see the agency Web pages:

National Institute of Justice: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij

National Institute of Corrections: http://www.bop.gov/nicpg/nicmain.html

Office of Correctional Education: http://www.ed.gov/offices/OVAE/OCE

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