1. Overview of Water ProblemsWater resources planning and
management activities are usually motivated, as they were in each
of the previous sections case examples, by the realization that
there are both problems to solve and opportunities to obtain
increased benefits from the use of water and related land
resources. These benefits can be measured in many different ways.
Inevitably, it is not easy to agree on the best way to do so, and
whatever is proposed may provoke conflict. Hence there is the need
for careful study and research, as well as full stakeholder
involvement, in the search for a shared vision of the best
compromised plan or management policy. Reducing the frequency
and/or severity of the adverse consequences of droughts, floods and
excessive pollution are common goals of many planning and
management exercises. Other goals include the identification and
evaluation of alternative measures that may increase the available
water supplies or hydropower, improve recreation and/or navigation,
and enhance the quality of water and aquatic ecosystems.
Quantitative system performance criteria can help one judge the
relative net benefits, however measured, of alternative plans and
management policies. System performance criteria of interest have
evolved over time. They have developed from being primarily focused
on safe drinking water just a century ago, to multipurpose economic
development a half-century ago, to goals that now include
environmental and ecosystem restoration and protection, aesthetic
and recreational experiences, and more recently, sustainability
(ASCE, 1998).Some of the multiple purposes served by a river can be
conflicting. A reservoir used solely for hydropower or water supply
is better able to meet its objectives when it is full of water,
rather than when it is empty. On the other hand, a reservoir used
solely for downstream flood control is best left empty, until the
flood comes of course. A single reservoir serving all three
purposes introduces conflicts over how much water to store in it
and how it should be operated. In basins where diversion demands
exceed the available supplies, conflicts will exist over water
allocations. Finding the best way to manage, if not resolve, these
conflicts that occur over time and space are other reasons for
planning.Too Little WaterIssues involving inadequate supplies to
meet demands can result from conflicts or concerns over land and
water use. They can result from growing urbanization, the
development of additional water supplies, the need to meet in
stream flow requirements, and conflicts over private property and
public rights regarding water allocations. Other issues can involve
trans-basin water transfers and markets, objectives of economic
efficiency versus the desire to keep non-efficient activities
viable, and demand management measures, including incentives for
water reuse and water reuse financing. Measures to reduce the
demand for water in times of supply scarcity should be identified
and agreed upon before everyone has to cope with an actual water
scarcity. The institutional authority to implement drought measures
when their designated triggers such as decreasing storage volumes
in reservoirs have been met should be established before the
measures are needed. Such management responses may include
increased groundwater abstractions to supplement low surface-water
flows and storage volumes. Conjunctive use of ground and surface
waters can be sustainable as long as the groundwater aquifers are
recharged during conditions of high flow and storage volumes.
Too Much WaterDamage due to flooding is a direct result of
floodplain development that is vulnerable to floods. This is a risk
many take, and indeed on average it may result in positive private
net benefits, especially when public agencies subsidize these
private risk takers in times of flooding. In many river basins of
developed regions, the level of annual expected flood damage is
increasing over time, in spite of increased expenditures on flood
damage reduction measures. This is mainly due to increased economic
development on river floodplains, not to increased frequencies or
magnitudes of floods. The increased economic value of the
development on floodplains often justifies increased expenditure on
flood damage reduction measures. Flood protection works decrease
the risks of flooding and consequent damage, creating an incentive
for increased economic development. Then when a flood exceeding the
capacity of existing flood protection works occurs, and it will,
even more damage results. This cycle of increasing flood damage and
cost of protection is a natural result of the increasing values of
floodplain development. Just what is the appropriate level of risk?
It may depend, as Figure 1. illustrates, on the level of flood
insurance or subsidy provided when flooding occurs. Flood damage
will decrease only if restrictions are placed on floodplain
development. Analyses carried out during planning can help identify
the appropriate level of development and flood damage protection
works, on the basis of both the beneficial and the adverse
economic, environmental and ecological consequences of floodplain
development. People are increasingly recognizing the economic as
well as environmental and ecological benefits of allowing
floodplains to do what they were formed to do: store flood waters
when floods occur.
Figure 1. The lowest risk of flooding on a floodplain does not
always mean the best risk, and what risk is acceptable may depend
on the amount of insurance or subsidy provided when flood damage
occurs.Hydrologic Cycle The hydrologic cycle is a conceptual model
that describes the storage and movement of water between the
biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and the hydrosphere (see Figure
1). Water on our planet can be stored in any one of the following
major reservoirs: atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, soils,
glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater. Water moves from one
reservoir to another by way of processes like evaporation,
condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration,
sublimation, transpiration, melting, and groundwater flow. The
oceans supply most of the evaporated water found in the atmosphere.
Of this evaporated water, only 91% of it is returned to the ocean
basins by way of precipitation. The remaining 9% is transported to
areas over landmasses where climatological factors induce the
formation of precipitation. The resulting imbalance between rates
of evaporation and precipitation over land and ocean is corrected
by runoff and groundwater flow to the oceans.
Figure 2. Hydrologic cycle.The water on the Earth's surface
surface water occurs as streams, lakes, and wetlands, as well as
bays and oceans. Surface water also includes the solid forms of
water snow and ice. The water below the surface of the Earth
primarily is ground water, but it also includes soil water.The
hydrologic cycle describes the continuous movement of water above,
on, and below the surface of the Earth.
Figure 3. The diagram hydrologic cycle.The hydrologic cycle
commonly is portrayed by a very simplified diagram that shows only
major transfers of water between continents and oceans, as in
Figure 4. However, for understanding hydrologic processes and
managing water resources, the hydrologic cycle needs to be viewed
at a wide range of scales and as having a great deal of variability
in time and space.
Figure 4. Ground water is the second smallest of the four main
pools of water on Earth, and river flow to the oceans is one of the
smallest fluxes, yet ground water and surface water are the
components of the hydrologic system that humans use
most.Precipitation, which is the source of virtually all freshwater
in the hydrologic cycle, falls nearly everywhere, but its
distribution is highly variable. Similarly, evaporation and
transpiration return water to the atmosphere nearly everywhere, but
evaporation and transpiration rates vary considerably according to
climatic conditions. As a result, much of the precipitation never
reaches the oceans as surface and subsurface runoff before the
water is returned to the atmosphere. The relative magnitudes of the
individual components of the hydrologic cycle, such as
evapotranspiration, may differ significantly even at small scales,
as between an agricultural field and a nearby woodland.Human
Influences on the Water CycleHumans significantly influence the
global water cycle, both quantitatively and qualitatively.
Concerning quantity, humans withdraw 8% of the total annual
renewable freshwater, and appropriate 26% of annual
evapotranspiration and 54% of accessible runoff. Humankinds control
of runoff is now global and we are significant players in the
hydrological cycle. Per capita use is increasing (with better
lifestyles) and population is growing. Thus the percentage of
appropriated water is increasing. Together with spatial and
temporal variations in available water, the consequence is that
water for all our uses is becoming scarce and leading to a water
crisis (WWAP 2003).Local water cycles are also influenced by the
way we plan our cities: When land is paved, water cannot soak into
the soil. It runs off these hard surfaces very rapidly, so pipes
are needed to rapidly carry the resulting large volumes of
stormwater to the nearest stream or beach. The result is that
streams carry less water or dry up when it is not raining and flood
when it does. Pollutants on roads and yards are also swept into
waterways (see also sustainable sanitation).
Figure 5. Influences on the water cycle in cities through sealed
surfaces. Source: AUCKLAND CITY COUNCIL (2010)
Figure 6. The main uses of water are for agriculture, industry
and household use. Industrial use of water increases with country
income, going from 10% for low- and middle-income countries to 59%
for high-income countries. Source: WBCSD (2009)
Good Water Management Concept Using Hydrologic Cycle
ApproachHydrologic cycle approach can be used in develop water
management system. They must have each component to support
sustainable water cycle. This is my concept to handle it, as
follows:1. When less rain falls than usual, there is less water to
maintain normal soil moisture, stream flows, and reservoir levels
and to recharge ground water. Falling levels of surface waters
create unattractive areas of exposed shoreline and reduce the
capacity of surface waters to dilute and carry municipal and
industrial wastewater. Water quality often decreases as water
quantity decreases, adversely affecting fish and wildlife habitats.
In addition, dry conditions make trees more prone to insect damage
and disease and increase the potential for grass and forest
fires.The hydrologic cycle is a basic concept that water managers
need to keep in mind in their daily work. When the flow of water is
manipulated to fulfill human needs, it is necessary to understand
how these actions will affect the hydrologic cycle and, ultimately,
the availability and quality of water to downstream users. Thorough
understanding of the hydrologic cycle is absolutely necessary if
maximum use of the water resources is to be achieved, while
avoiding detrimental effects to wildlife and the environment as a
whole.
2. The Focus of Water ManagersBecause fresh surface water and
fresh groundwater are the only parts of the hydrologic cycle that
can be used by humans, most interest in the hydrologic cycle by
water managers is focused on these resources. Although it is
important to know how much water is stored in groundwater, lakes,
and wetlands, understanding the movement of water to, within, and
from watersheds is far more important, and a far greater challenge.
Indeed, most research in the hydrologic sciences is devoted to
understanding movement of water, and the movement of chemicals and
sediment transported by water in watersheds.
To assure adequate water resources for human use, water managers
need to be able to measure the amounts of water that enter, pass
through, and leave watersheds. This is a challenge because the
relative magnitudes of the individual transfers in the hydrologic
cycle can vary substantially. For example, in mountainous areas,
precipitation is more difficult to measure high in the mountains
compared to in the valleys.
Mountain snowpack and the amount of melt water it can deliver
can vary widely, thereby affecting natural water budgets at lower
elevations. As a second example, evaporation rates may differ
greatly among an agricultural field, a nearby woodland, and a
nearby wetland. Thirdly, the discharge of groundwater to surface
water may vary in different parts of watersheds because different
rock and sediment types may be present.3. Water scarcity is a
complex problem. It is one of unsustainable use, sectoral thinking,
mismanagement and a lacking and holistic water governance. As so
often, it is the life of the poor who are affected most: by water
related disease, by degraded and dangerous environments, by a lack
of food and water for hygiene. Almost one billion people do not
have access to improved water sources, and 2.6 billion do not use
improved sanitation options.Single sector approaches such as
wastewater treatment or water management as such are limited in
their actions. To save and recycle water, regain resources, to
protect ecosystems and to provide mankind with a prosperous and
healthy environment, the whole water cycle needs to be taken into
account in an integrated, holistic way linking up sustainable water
management sanitation and agriculture.4. From a hydrologic
viewpoint, the first step of watershed management is to evaluate
past, present, and proposed management practices on a watershed
with respect to the watershed water balance. Basically, watershed
water balance is an accounting tool to keep track of the hydrologic
cycle of a watershed over time. When the watershed water balance
concept is used in conjunction with probability analysis one can
evaluate the hydrologic, economic, and ecological feasibility of
past, present, and potential activities on a watershed.
2. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)The relationship
between "Sustainable" and "Integrated" Water Resources Management
is essentially that sustainability is the general goal whereas
Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is a strategy for
pursuing this goal.Sustainability is the vision the management of
natural resources. But the worldwide water problems demonstrate
that humankind as a whole is still far away from finding
sustainable ways to manage water resources. Despite considerable
efforts, water scarcity is expected to increase and both, aquatic
and terrestrial ecosystems are at risk of further damage, for
example due to changes in agricultural practice, demographic
structure and climate.Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)
is what most people aim to achieve in both, research and practice,
to enable a sustainable way of handling water resources. An often
quoted definition of IWRM is given by the Global Water
Partnership:"IWRM is a process which promotes the co-ordinated
development and management of water, land and related resources, in
order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an
equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital
ecosystems." (GWP 2000: 22)A core element of IWRM is the demand for
coordinated management. A multitude of relevant natural processes
and compartments in the catchment region are to be assessed, while
the multitude of human interests and influences on the natural
water resources also have to be considered. This includes the
potential conflicts among economic development, social well-being
and the conservation of ecosystems.While the basic idea underlying
the IWRM is well established, there are a number of scientific
challenges to be addressed first, before implementing specific
solutions in a sustainable way. These include:Understanding the
specific catchment: To achieve the required consideration of the
multitude of relevant operational relationships, the individual
processes and the overall system must be sufficiently well
understood. This also includes an appropriate consideration of
uncertainties when describing catchment regions and developing
potential solutions.Problem specific integration: The need for
integration associated with the IWRM concept raises the challenge
to find ways to consider the multiple and complex relationships and
various usage conflicts, which exist in a specific
catchment.Adaptability: To achieve a sustainable IWRM, management
concepts, measures and instruments must be flexible enough so that
they can be adapted when conditions alter due to global change and
so that they can allow for the associated uncertainties in the
future.A successful water resources management must meet these
requirements. In this sense, we seek for strategies towards a
Sustainable Water Resources Management.It is hardly possible to
meet these requirements with one all-encompassing, general concept.
Hence we are convinced that a successful, sustainable water
resource management must address specific problem situations
associated with a particular resource or a particular catchment
region. Boxes 1 and 2 give examples of typical water problems, in
which sustainable management requires appropriately dealing with
these challenges. These typical problems are, amongst others,
addressed in two of the regional integration catchments.The Brantas
river basinSince long time ago the Brantas river basin suffered
caused by eruption of Mt.Kelud, the active volcano located in the
middle reaches of the basin. Mt. Kelud erupted 11 times in the
period of year 1811-1990. The volume of erupted material amount to
100-300 million m3 was extruded in one eruption. On the time of
eruption, hot mud flow called primary lahar, rushed down and
destroy everything. Some of lahar deposited in the mountain slopes,
called secondary lahar and flowing down together with rain water to
the plain area.and to the mainstream of the Brantas river. Raising
up of the Brantas riverbed during 1951 1970 was around 1,50 m in on
average, caused floods along the Brantas river almost every
year.Objective of the developmentIn general, objectives of the
Brantas river basin development is to raise up social life
prosperity in economy, social and culture of the society within the
basin. Comprehensive development plan has been formulated in the
Brantas river basin to control flood, to increase food production,
water supply, electricity, etc.
Figure 7. Brantas River Basin
Stage of developmentBased on the development cycle and budget
availability, development of the Brantas river was implemented
stages, and as long as possible follows of a series of Master Plan
as follows : Master Plan I- (1961 )- priority flood control, Master
Plan II 1973)- priority food production, Master Plan III ( 1985 )
priority water supply for drinking water and industry, Master Plan
IV ( 1998) priority water resources management. The comprehensive
development plan is shown in the Figure below.
Figure 8. The Brantas River Basins Master Plans
Figure 8. Development of Brantas Basin
River Basin Management on Brantas Basin (nowadays)In Indonesia,
the problems after project had been completed were lack of
institution responsible in managing finished structures , lack of
qualified staffs and lack of budget to manage the structures Budget
allocation from the Government was very limited and less than
standard requirement, caused decresae of function of the
structuresFor example, there was an irrigation project.. The cost
of the project was supported by donor agencies through soft loan.
Economic life time of the project was 50 years. The project was
designed to irrigate 10,000 ha of irrigation area. In fact after
about 5 years completion, because of lack of management, capacity
of the project decreased to 5,000 ha. Looking from economic view
point, when the project was re-evaluated, probably the benefits
will less than the costs. It means the project can be said the
suffer loss project and the objectives of the development can not
be achieved. On the other hand, the borrower ( all the people in
the country ) has an obligation to pay back the loan. As a result
the poor country ( poor people ) will become more poor. This
illustration was not rare occurred in many projects. International
understanding and cooperation is important to overcome these
problems.The alternatives solution proposed by the author are : (1)
Establising of state own company to manage the finished structures.
The cost of preparation is included in the project cost, (2) The
cost to manage the finished structures is supported by donor
agencies (fore instance up to 5 years after project completion).
Amount of O&M cost per year is about 1 % of construction cost ,
(3) Periodical evaluation ( every 5 years ) of finished structures
has to be done to overcome the problems, if any.In the case of the
Brantas river basin, a state own company ( Jasa Tirta Public
Corporation) had been established in 1990. The Corporation has an
obligation to manage the Brantas river basin and has an authority
to collect money from beneficiaries ( industry, drinking water
company and electricity / power company ). Farmers are free from
obligation to pay contribution.
Figure 9. Institutional Frameworks for Brantas Basin
Management
Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in the Brantas
River BasinIntegrated water resources management is taken to mean
the process of formulating and implementing a course of action
involving management of water and related resources for the
purposes of achieving optimum allocation of water resources within
a catchment area. With the Ministry of Settlement and Regional
Development as the lead agency in this effort, this optimisation of
water utilisation is meant to contribute to increase human welfare
from improved agricultural, domestic and industrial use of water.It
is important to understand the need to intensify development
efforts in upland areas. This is in response to a clear
understanding, from experience with flooding, siltation and other
downstream consequences of upstream activities, that a complex of
inter-relationships links upland and lowland social and ecological
systems. There is clear sense that the past focus on the lowlands
has been at the expense of upland areas, in terms of policy and
programme attention. The consensus was, therefore, that a more
balanced approach to the development of river basins should be
adopted for the future.This attention to social equity relates to
another point on which agreement was reached, namely, that answers
to problems of river-basin development and water resources
management cannot be found solely from a technical standpoint, but
must be reached through close attention to social and economic
factors affecting use of natural and human resources. Technical
answers to most of the problems faced in the case study basins are
already known. This technical knowledge can be made useful,
however, only if it is combined with knowledge of social and
economic systems to develop viable solutions to problems such as
upland soil erosion, low incomes of many rural inhabitants,
inefficiency in irrigation and other water applications, and so
forth. It was agreed that such social and economic knowledge could
only be obtained through active participation of local residents in
activities of river-basin development and water resources
management. Table 1 shows these activities, which are explained
below.
Table 1. Integrated Water Resources Management (Scope of
Wrok)
TAKE HOME TEST
Water Management
Daru Nurisma Pramukti146060112111002
Manistry of Education and CultureFaculty of EngineeringCivil
Engineering-Magister ProgramBrawijaya UniversityMalang2015
