Overview of Thailand biomass utilization

8/12/2019 Overview of Thailand biomass utilization

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Overview of Biomass Utilization in Thailand

Seksan Papong1, Chantana Yuvaniyama1,Pongvipa Lohsomboon2, and Pomthong Malakul1,*

1 Cleaner Technology Advancement Program, National Metal and Materials Technology Center,

National Science and Technology Development Agency, Ministry of Science and Technology

73/1 NSTDA Building, Rama VI road, Rajdhevee, Bangkok 10400, Thailand

2 Thailand Environment Institute, 16/151-154 Muang Thong Thani, Bond Street, Bangpood, Pakkred,Nonthaburi 11120, Thailand

* Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Biomass is an important source of renewable energy in Thailand and currently is thesecond major energy sources in the country, especially for households and small

industries in rural area. It provides basic energy requirement for cooking and processheating in residential and manufacturing sectors as well as for processing intraditional industries. Four major sources of biomass in Thailand are sugar cane, rice,oil palm and wood wastes which yield a total potential of nearly 80 million tons peryear. At present, agro-industry is an important source of the biomass due to a large-scale production and expedience collection such as rice mills, sugar mills, and oil palmmills. These mills are producing rice husk, bagasse, and residues from oil palm thatconsists of empty fruit bunches, fiber and shells. Wood industry is also a major sourcefor biomass energy that includes residues from teak logs, which is mostly concentratedin the northern part of the country, whereas rubber wood and eucalyptus plantationsare found mostly in the southern and northeastern regions, respectively. Among thesepotential biomass sources, waste products from wood and agro-industries apparently

are the least expensive. Biomass utilization technologies range from local, well-established technologies, to those in research stage. Major technologies currently usedare gasification, combustion, pyrolysis, and biogas. However, many technologies,especially in rural use and in some factories, are considered to be quite old with lowefficiency. Constrains of biomass utilization include the assessment and collection ofrecourses, the biomass characteristics, the availability of land for planting, croppatterns, transportation and storage. This paper will discuss in detail the majorpotential biomass resources, biomass production, and biomass utilization in Thailand.

Keywords: Biomass, Thailand, Sources, Utilization, Technology

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1. INTRODUCTIONBiomass is an important renewable energy source for the rural areas in

Thailand. Biomass fuels are not traded, and are mostly home grown. It provides basicenergy requirement for cooking and heating in rural households and for processing intraditional industries of Thailand. Many rural small-scale industries still depend onbiomass fuel for energy that is used as main source of energy for industries like agro-processing, food processing, wood processing industries, etc. Biomass is still thecheapest fuel available, and it will remain the major alternative to commercial energysources for the future [1]. In addition, the use of biomass is environmental friendlybecause the biomass is reduced, recycled, and then reused.

Nowadays, in Thailand, biomass materials can be used to generate electricity,

heat, or liquid fuels such as ethanol for motor vehicles that have substantially lowerenvironmental impacts than traditional fossil fuels. Ethanol can be used in special



types of cars that are made for using alcohol fuel instead of gasoline. The alcohol canalso be blended with gasoline to produce gasohol. This reduces the amount of fuelsderived from non-renewable sources such as fossil fuel. This paper presents currentdata, and information on biomass resources, biomass production, biomass utilizationand biomass utilization technologies in Thailand.

2. BIOMASS RESOURCES IN THAIL ANDA definition of biomass is provided by the National Renewable Energy

Laboratory, The U.S. Department of Energy [2]:“Biomass is organic matter available on a renewable basis. Biomass includes

forest and mill residues, agricultural crops and waste, wood and wood wastes, animalwastes, livestock operation residues, aquatic plants, fast-growing trees and plants, andmunicipal and industrial wastes.”

Biomass is organic materials from various sources, which is the natural sourceof energy, and can be used to produce energy e.g. wood and wood residues, agriculturalcrop and residues, agro-industrial wastes as follows [3]:

! Agricultural crops such as sugarcane, cassava, corn, etc. that are sources ofcarbohydrate, starch, and sugar including energy crops can be used forvegetable oil to energy fuel.

! Agricultural residues such as rice straw from rice fields, cassava rhizomefrom tapioca fields, corncobs from cornfields, etc.

! Wood and wood residues such as fast-growing trees, wood waste from woodmill, waste from pulp and paper mill, etc.

! Waste streams such as rice husk from rice mills, molasses and bagasse fromsugar refineries, residues from palm oil extraction plants, municipal solidwastes (MSW), etc.

2.1 Agricultural and agro industries based resources

Three major potential sources of the biomass from agriculture-based industriesin Thailand are sugar cane, rice, and oil palm sectors. Sugar cane and rice are mostlyconcentrated in the northern and northeastern regions of the country, while the oilpalm is found in the southern region [4-5]. Table 1 shows the national productiontrends in tons of sugar cane, paddy, and oil palm from 1997-2003 [6].

Table 1: National production of sugarcane, paddy, and oil palm(Unit: 1,000 Tons)

Crop year Sugar cane Paddy Oil Palm (Fresh Fruit Bunches)

1997/98 46,873 23,580 2,681

1998/99 50,332 22,999 2,465

1999/00 52,813 24,172 3,514

2000/01 49,563 25,844 3,256

2001/02 60,013 26,523 4,089

2002/03 74,263 26,057 4,001

2003/04 70,101 26,841 4,903

Average 57,708 25,145 3,558

Source: Office of Agricultural Economics (2004)

Sugar caneSugar cane is grown mostly in the central region of the country, and some

productions are found in the northern and northeastern region. Sugar cane productionover period from 1997/98 to 2003/04 has an average value of about 57.7 million tons per

year. In the country, there are 46 sugar mills, which in crop year 2000/01 processed



about 99% of the sugarcane produced. Most of residues from sugar cane processing canbe found at the mills except the sugar cane tops (stumps and leaves, etc.) that areusually harvested in the fields by farmers.

RiceRice is grown in every region of Thailand. Paddy production over period from

1997/98 to 2003/04 has an average value of about 25 million tons per year. Thecropping pattern for paddy consists of the major rice growing during the rainy monthsof May to September, and the second rice cultivating during the dry months ofNovember to February. In 2000, the National Energy Planning and Policy estimatedthat more than 40,500 rice mills existed in the country. Most of the paddy fields in

Thailand are in small size. However, there are 215 mills that have capacities rangingfrom 100 to 2,000 tons of paddies per day [4].

Oil palm The southern region of the country is the major area of the oil palm planting,

while the eastern region has only small area for the oil palm planting and palm oilproduction. The oil palm production over period from 1997/98 to 2003/04 has anaverage value of about 3.6 million tons per year. In 2002, there were 50 palm oilrefineries located close to the oil palm planting areas. Currently, there are 26 millsthat ranked as the large-sized factories. The raw material for the palm oil industry isfresh fruit bunches (FFB), which is harvested from oil palm trees [7].

Other agricultural sources Two other biomass sources in the country that should be mentioned are coconut

and tapioca. The coconut is a traditional crop in Thailand, which is grown for thedomestic market. The coconut residues e.g. husk and shells have been used for theproduction of higher value added products in the local and export markets since 1998.

For tapioca, it is grown almost in all areas in the northeastern Thailand. In tapiocafields, there are a lot of residues which are not utilized. However, these residues aredifficult to collect because they usually scattered all over the fields [4].

2.2 Wood and wood industries based resources

Saw mills and plywood mills are the main sources of biomass from woodindustry. Most of logs for wood processing are imported from foreign countries. Themain local logs of the country are from rubber woods in the southern region of

Thailand. The rubber trees have rotation period of 25-30 years. After they have beenharvested for latex, rubber trees are cut down for re-plantation. At present, wood fromrubber tree, apart from harvesting the latex, is both used as fuel and as timber. Timberis an important source for the furniture industry. Eucalyptus is another source of

wood-based biomass. It is the most common fast growing species for pulp and wood fuelproduction. Eucalyptus plantations are found mostly in the northeastern region of thecountry. It is easy to manage and will sustain to a period of 3-4 rotations for 25-30years [4]. In 2003, there were 599 sawmills, which processed sawdust and wood wastes.

3. BIOMASS PRODUCTION IN THAI LAND Thailand is a nation rich in agricultural and forestry resources, which provide

potential sources of biomass. Table 2 shows the biomass residue availability of Thailand in 2004 based on Crop-to-Residues-Ratios (CRR) and surplus availabilityfactor for sugarcane, rice, and palm oil residues. The total residues and unusedresidues of these crops have been estimated to be about 75 and 50 million tons,respectively.



Table 2: Biomass residues from rice, sugar cane, and palm oil in 2004(Unit: 1,000 tons per year)

Type Production [6] Agriculturalresidues

CRR [7] Residues Surplus [7] availability

factor

Availableunusedresidue

Sugarcane

70,101 Bagasse Trash

0.2910.302

20,39921,171

0.2070.986

4,22320,874

Rice 26,841 Rice huskRice straw

0.2300.447

6,17311,998

0.4930.684

3,0448,207

OilPalm

4,903 EFBFiberShellsFronds

0.2500.1470.0492.604

1,226721240

12,767

0.5840.1340.0371.000

716979

12,767

Total 74,695 49,936

Remark: EFB = empty fruit bunchesSources: Office of Agricultural Economics (2004)

Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency (2003b)

In addition, the wood industry is also a major source for biomass energy thatincludes residues from teak logs, which is mostly concentrated in the northern

Thailand. While, the rubber wood and eucalyptus plantations are found mostly in thesouthern and northeastern regions, respectively. In 2000, wood residues includingsawdust have been estimated to be about 5.8 million tons, but the availability unusedresidue were only 1.8 million tons [5].

Plantation biomass

The Thailand Agricultural Statistics are published annually by the Office ofAgricultural Economics. They provide statistical data of the Thai agriculture for each

crop year including important data such as yields and harvested areas. Harvestedareas of rice, sugarcane, and oil palm over period from 1997/98 to 2003/04 have averagevalues of about 61.4, 6.2, and 1.4 million rai, respectively. Table 3 shows trends of thenational harvested area of rice, sugarcane, and oil palm fields from 1997-2003 [6].

Non plantation biomass

In addition, non-plantation biomass, including agricultural residues, animalwaste, municipal solid waste, wastewater, black liquor, etc., can be estimated at 475,716 and 880 Petajoules (PJ ) for the years 1997, 2005, and 2010, respectively [8].

Table 3: National harvested areas of sugarcane, rice, and oil palm

Planted area (x1,000 rai*) Harvested area (x1,000 rai*)Crop year

Sugar cane Rice Oil Palm

1997/98 5,897 61,955 1,097

1998/99 5,735 59,447 1,129

1999/00 5,862 62,312 1,247

2000/01 5,481 61820 1,303

2001/02 6,320 63,283 1,457

2002/03 7,121 60,335 1,644

2003/04 7,120 61,025 1,799

Average 6,219 61,454 1,382

Source: Office of Agricultural Economics (2004)

* 2.5 rai = 1 acre



L and use for plantation

In 1999, Thailand had an area of about 320.7 million rai consisting of forestland (25.14%), farm holding land (40.95%), and unclassified lands including degradednational forest reserves, swamp lands, sanitary districts, municipal areas, railroads,highways, real estates, public areas, etc. (33.91%) [6].

4. BIOMASS UTI LIZATIONBiomass energy in Thailand is mainly consumed in 2 economic sectors:

residential and commercial sector and manufacturing sector. In 2002, approximately56% of biomass energy was used in residential and commercial sector and the rest(about 44%) was used in manufacturing sector. Charcoal and fuel woods are mainlyused for cooking and process heating in residential and commercial sector whilebagasse, paddy husks and fuel woods are used mostly for processing heating inmanufacturing sector. The biomass consumption during 1998-2003 indicated that thetrend of biomass demand has increased at the moderate rate of 2-3% per annum [9, 10].

4.1 Biomass consumption! Rice huskRice husk is produced from paddy milling that constitutes about 23% of the

paddy weight. In each year, the 25 million tons of paddy products can produce 5.75million ton of rice husks. Rice husk is traditionally used as an energy source throughdirect combustion in the large rice mills, or as fuel in the production of charcoal fromwood [9]. Nowadays, rice husk can be used as fuel to generate electricity that is a 1 MWof electricity using 9,800 ton of rice husks. The utilization of rice husk is shown inFigure 1.

Residue andOther

30.8%

Soil

conditioner

2.4%

Feed

2.3%

Use in process

38.0%

Fertilizer

17.7%

Fuel

8.8%

Figure 1: Percentage of the rice husk consumption [10].

Potential residue availability of rice husks, assuming an annual paddyproduction of 25 million tons and a residue collectivity of 76% [4], the availability ofthis resource is estimated at 2.71 million tons per year.

! BagasseBagasse is the residue after sugar cane has been processed to remove the sugar

juice. From the milling statistics, bagasse constitutes 29% of the cane. Therefore, sugar

cane amount of 57.7 million tons can produce 16.7 million tons of bagasse. The



traditional use of bagasse is as a fuel in the sugar mill, to produce steam for the processand electricity for mills. At present, sugar mills can sell the excess electricity to thegrid. The other usage of bagasse is as a raw material in particleboard and pulpindustry. Typically 7% of the cane weight remains as excess because of the largeamount of bagasse used for steam and power supply in sugar mills. The annualavailability of this resource is estimated at 4.04 million tons [4, 9].

! Residues from palm oil production The fresh fruit bunches (FFB) consist of fruit stems or commonly known as

empty fruit bunches (EFB) and fruits, which contain crude palm oil, fiber, and nuts. The nut portion of the fruit can be processed to produce palm kernel oil. Solid residuesfrom palm oil mills are EFB, fiber, and shells account for 44% of the FFB weight [5].

The traditional use of the palm oil residues is as a fuel to generate the steam andpower of the mill [9]. In general, most of the shell and fiber from the processingoperations are used as fuel in the mill. Figure 2 shows the util ization of by productsfrom palm oil mill.

Empty Fruit

Residue

58.4%

Other

7.7%

Fertilizer

30.9%

Fuel

3.0%

iber and Shell from ruit

Residue

17.8%

Sell

8.8%

Fuel

73.1%

Fertilizer

0.3%

Figure 2: The utilization of by products from palm oil mill [7].

! Wood residuesWood residues include chip, bark, and sawdust that produced within various

wood-processing industries including sawmills, furniture factories, and otherindustries. Rubber wood from old age rubber trees is a main source of domestic wood inthe southern region of Thailand. The averaged residue production of the wood wastes is53% of sources. In general, charcoal and fuel wood are the main used for cooking,process heating, and rural industries [9]. In 2003, total final energy demand of fuelwood was about 3.493 million tons of oil equivalents (mtoe) with an increasing rate of4.5% from the past year.

Table 4 shows the biomass energy consumption in Thailand during 1998-2003.

It indicated that the trend of biomass demand has increased of 4% per year [9, 10]. Table 4: Biomass energy consumption in Thailand during 1998-2003 Final Energy: ktoe)

Source 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Fuel Wood 3,188 3,279 3,258 3,265 3,342 3,493

Charcoal 3,188 2,218 2,277 2,286 2,307 2,357

Paddy Husk 778 733 828 903 896 996

Bagasse 1,665 2,092 2,236 1,989 2,498 2,905

Total 7,885 8,322 8,599 8,443 9,043 9,751

Source: DEDP/Thailand Energy Situation 2003



4.2 Biomass energy using industries

Manufacturing sector according to Thai Industrial Standards, is divided into 9sub-sectors of which 4 sub-sectors use biomass as an energy source in their productionprocess to produce heat, steam, and power. They are food and beverages, non-metal,

chemical, and wood and furniture. Food and beverage industries are the major biomassenergy using industry. The types of factory that use biomass energy consist of sugarmills, rice mills, oil palm mills, food cans, etc. These factories use biomass residues asfuel for production by using in heat, steam, and power for the processing such as:

! Sugar mills use bagasse as fuel for production of thermal energy for thedistillation process. Some mills are using steam from combustion of bagassein steam turbines for electricity generation, while some others are usingsteam from bagasse combustion in steam engines for operation of the rollersused to extract the cane juice.

! Rice mills commonly use the rice husks as fuel for drying of the paddy. Therice husks also generally use as fuel for further processing such as

parboiling and production of rice noodles.! Oil palm mills often use the fiber and shells from fruits as fuel for producing

thermal energy to the sterilization of the fresh fruit bunches. In addition,most oil palm mills are provided with backpressure steam turbines anddiesel generators for electricity generation to the palm oil production.

! It is a common practice for pulp and paper mills to use wood waste andblack liquor as fuel for production of thermal and electricity.

Non-metal, chemical, and wood and furniture sub-sectors are small biomassenergy consumption industries. Types of factories are for example lime making, brickmaking, rubber curing and tire. Furniture factories use wood wastes and sawdust insteam boiler for wood processing.

4.3 Biomass conversion technologies [12]

The development of biomass utilization can be considered from its sources andtechnology for transformation and utilization. Biomass is mainly collected fromresidues or by-products of crops, food, and other production especially agro-industry,which has generated a fairly large biomass resource base of nearly 80 million tons peryear that could be utilized for energy purposes. Technologies for transformation andutilization of biomass cover a wide range, from local to well-established technologies, orto research level technologies. The biomass conversion technologies have beenconcentrated on gasification technology, combustion technology, pyrolysis technology,and biogas technology. The varieties of biomass and its preparing procedures offer a lotof options for the biomass utilization. There are also several technologies for biomass

conversion such as technologies for producing heat, electricity, and fuel (solid, liquid,and gas). Modern applications of biomass energy resulted from a wide range ofdifferent technologies that can be divided in to 4 groups as follows: biomass-firedelectric power plants, liquid fuel, biogas production, and improved cookstove and kilnstechnologies [4, 11].

Biomass-fired electric power plantsSmall rural industries engaged in power production from biomass can sell their

excess energy generation back to the electrical grid through the Small Power Producers(SPP) Program initiated by the National Energy Policy Council [5]. In 2004, SPP frombiomass has sold power to the grid for more than 300 Megawatts which come from 38plants [9]. The general energy conversion technology from biomass is a thermo-

chemical process. Examples of conversion systems for burning biomass fuels in Thailand are as follows:



! Mass burn stoker boiler.! Stoker boiler (stationary sloping grate, travelling grate, and vibration grate).! Fluidized bed boiler (bubbling and circulating).! Gasification with combustion in a closed-coupled boiler.! Pulverized fuel suspension fired boiler.

Each technology mentioned above has advantages and disadvantages. Thesesystems are commercially available and have been operated in Thailand. Stoker boileris widely in use, but it is not always the most appropriate choice, for example, the ricehusk is more easily burned in fluidized bed or gasifier boilers because of its lowoperation temperature that help prevent aggregation of ashes. Rice husk can be burntin Stoker or Suspension fired boilers, but the aggregation of ashes must be minimized.In general, fluidized bed boiler is the most suitable choice because it can toleratedifferent moisture from biomass materials and it has various sizes. Gasification may bean interesting choice, but it lacks of technical- and commercial- acceptance. Suspensionfired boiler is not suitable for most biomass sources because they need to be groundbefore putting into the boiler.

Liquid fuel technologiesLiquid fuel, e.g. bio-ethanol and bio-diesel, the pyrolysis technologies can

convert biomass into liquid (bio-oil), gaseous, and solid fraction. Bio-ethanoltechnologies are varying widely in states of development and extent of need forgovernment action. Bio-oil can be converted to bio-diesel by using extraction andesterification techniques [7]. Recently, the Thai government announced plans to startthe commercial use of ethanol to replace MTBE in the 95-octane gasoline for the wholekingdom beginning in 2006. In Thailand, ethanol is produced from many crops,including sugarcane, cassava, and maize [10].

Biogas production technologiesA large-scale of industries and animal farms have been interested in biogas

plants because treatment of wastewater was in their concerns due to more stringentenvironmental regulations to be imposed. In 2002, 14 biogas plants of 3000 m3 eachwere used in distilleries. More than 10 biogas plants, 1000 to 4000 m3 each, weredemonstrated projects in pig farms to solve their pollution problems. The NationalEnergy Policy Office (NEPO) has set a target to support the establishment of biogasplants of 40,000 m3 in total in pig farms for heating and power production, whichimplemented by Chiangmai University during 1997-2002 [11].

Improved cookstove and kiln technologiesIn the rural areas, cooking is the most energy consuming activity in the

household sector. The conventional cookstoves are inconvenient to use because theycreate a lot of smoke and have low energy conversion efficiency. Therefore, theDepartment of Energy Development and Promotion (DEDP) in corporation with theRoyal Forestry Department (RFD) have developed improved wood and charcoalcookstoves [11]. In rural industries (e.g. brick, lime, palm, sugar, noodle and pottery),wood is used as a major fuel. In 1996, the Faculty of Engineering, ChiangmaiUniversity received budget from the DEDP to study energy use in rural industries, andto develop kilns that have more energy efficiency for them. In 2002, the DEDPprepared a master plan to promote highly efficient biomass combustors for small- andmedium-scale rural industries [11].

5. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ON BIOMASS UTI LI ZATION5.1 Research and development organizations

Government!

Ministry of Energy! Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives



! Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment! Ministry of Science and Technology such as National Science and

Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), etc.Universities

! Asian Institute of Technology (AIT)

! King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT)! Chulalongkorn University (CU)

! Kasetsart University(KU)! Chiang Mai University (CMU)! The J oint Graduate School of Energy and Environment (J GSEE), etc.

NGOs! Thailand Environment Institute (TEI)! Energy for Environment Foundation (EfE), etc.

5.2 M ain research and development areas

Policy research

! Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency (DEDE)! Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives! Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, etc.

Energy and environment research! Universities: AIT, KMUTT, CU, KU, CMU, J GSEE, etc.! Government: DEDE, NSTDA, etc.! NGOs: TEI, EfE, etc.

Other biomass utilization! Universities: AIT, K U, etc

! Government: Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Ministry ofScience and Technology, NSTDA, etc.

5.3 Government policy [9], [12] The Seventh Five-year National Economic and Social Development Plan

(NESDP) (1992-1996) formulated various energy policy issues related to biomassenergy utilization. It emphasized on developing domestic energy resources andencouragement of efficient use and conservation of energy.

The Eighth NESDP (1997-2001) was also stated the promotion of biomassutilization in Small Power Producer (SPP) scheme especially power production frombiomass, and encouraged using of green energy sources in order to reduce theenvironmental impacts causing by green house gases (GHG).

The Ninth NESDP (2002-2006) is aiming to promote on research anddevelopment of renewable energy especially on commercial technology, and toencourage public participation in setting the guidelines of energy utilization forsustainable development.

Recently, Thai government has set a target to increase the share of renewableenergy from the present level of 0.5% to 8% by the year 2011.

6. PROBLEM OF BIOMASS ENERGY UTI LI ZATION [9] The major limitations of biomass utilization in Thailand are difficulty in

assessment of resources, inconsistent production, inappropriate properties such as lowbulk density and high moisture content, problems of collection, transportation andstorage, and availability and reliability concerns. In general, barriers in thedevelopment of biomass utilization in Thailand can be classified as follows:

! Institutional barriers: Poor coordination among government agencies and

especially with the private sector.



! Policy barriers: The government policy to support renewable Energy SPPsthrough bidding process has drawn interest and private sector investments, butthis measure seems to bias in favor of large scale and low power production costSPPs.

! Technical barriers: Lack of standards on bioenergy systems and equipment.

! Information barriers: Lack of awareness/confidence in available new andrenewable source of energy (NRSE) technologies and applications.

7. CONCLUSIONBiomass is a major contribution to energy needs in the fast-growing country

like Thailand. It is an essential source of energy for energy production particularly forsaving the environment of the country. There are many potential biomass energyresources, which are suitable for energy production in both industry and residentialsectors. Various technologies for biomass utilization are currently used, ranging fromlocal made to imported technology. Still, many technologies used, especially in ruraluse and some factories, are considered to be quite an old technology with low efficiency.

While there are several constrains still to be overcome, it can be clearly seen that thereare enormous opportunities for promoting the utilization of biomass and improving anefficient and most promising biomass technology.

REFERENCES[1] FAO (1998). Images of Wood and Biomass Energy in I ndustries in Thailand.

United Nation, Bangkok.[2] National Renewable Energy Laboratory, The U.S. Department of Energy:

http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/ [3] Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency (2003a). Rice.

Ministry of Energy, Bangkok. (Thai Version).[4] The EC-ASEAN COGEN Programme (1998). Evaluation of Conditions for

Electricity Production Based on Biomass, Bangkok.[5] Black & Veatch (Thailand) Co., Ltd. (2000). Thailand Biomass-Based Power

Generation and Cogeneration within Small Rural Industries. Final Report,Supported by National Energy Policy Office, Bangkok.

[6] Office of Agricultural Economics (2004): http://www.oae.go.th/index-th2.php [7] Department of Alternative Energy Development and E fficiency (2003b). Oil Palm.

Ministry of Energy, Bangkok. (Thai Version).[8] ARRPEEC and AIT (2002). Energy, Environment and Climate Change Issues:

Thailand. Asian Regional Research Program in Energy, Environment andClimate (ARRPEEC) and Asian Institute of Technology (AI T), Bangkok.

[9] Sutiratana S. (2004) Overview for Thailand’s Renewable Energy Focusing onBiomass Energy. Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency,

Ministry of Energy, Bangkok.[10] Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency:

http://www.dede.go.th [11] Sajjakulnukit B., et.al. Assessment of Sustainable National Resource Potential

for Thailand. Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency,Ministry of Energy, Bangkok.

[12] Sajjakulnukit B., et.al. [2002] Policy Analysis to Identify the Barriers to theDevelopment of Bioenergy in Thailand. Energy for Sustainable Development, Vol.VI , No.3.

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Overview of Thailand biomass utilization