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Overview of Climate Change Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas

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HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015

Written, Edited, and Designed by:

Ang Rita Sherpa, Deep Prakash Ayadi, and Palzom Pradhan

Contributors:

Nawraj Sapkota

Laxmi Joshi

Kumar Lamichanne

Manish Man Singh Basnet

Kushal Gurung

Reviewers:

Rijan Bhakta Kayastha

Photo credits:

HCI

Copyright@

Climate Alliance of Himalayan Communities (CAHC)


Annapurna Conservation Area ACA

Climate Smart Celebrity Trek CSCT

Climate Smart Living CSL

Combined Adaptation Capability Index CACI

Community Based Approach CBA

District Development Committee DDC

Gaurishankar Conservation Area GCA

General Circulation Model GCM

Glacier Lake Outburst Flood GLOF

Global Hunger Index GHI

Greater Himalayan Trail GHT

Greenhouse Gases GHGs

Himalayan Climate Initiative HCI

Human Development Index HDI

Improve Cooking Stove ICS

Initial National Communication INC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC

Integrated Pest Management IPM

Khaptad National Park KNP

Kanchenjunga Conservation Area KCA

Langtang National Park LNP

Least Developed Countries LDC

Limi Valley Trekking Route LVTR

Local Adaptation Plan of Action LAPA

Low Carbon Development LCD

Makalu-Barun National Park MBNP

NationallyAppropriate Mitigation Action NAMA

National Adaptation Programme of Action NAPA

Non Timber Forest Product NTFP

Sagarmatha National Park SNP

Slope Agriculture Land Technique SALT

Sustainable Development and Mountain Tourism SDMT

Shey-Phoksundo National Park SNP

Tinjure Milke Jaljale TMJ

United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change UNFCCC

Acronyms


2. METHODOLOGY

2.1 RATIONALE OF RESEARCH 18

2.2 FRAMEWORK:

IPCC CLIMATE CHANGE VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK 19

2.3 SITE SELECTION RATIONALE 20

2.4 CLIMATE DATA ANALYSIS (SHOULD WE ADD NEW ADDITIONAL DATA?) 20

2.5 RESEARCH TOOLS 22

2.5.1 HOUSEHOLD SURVEY (HS) 22

2.5.3 KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW (KII) 22

2.5.4 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD) 23

2.6 DATA COLLECTIONS 23

2.6.1 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION 23

2.6.2 SECONDARY DATA COLLECTIONS 23

2.6.3 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION 24

2.6.4 REPORT WRITING & DISSEMINATION 24

Table of Contents

1. BACKGROUND

1.1 CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE HIMALAYAS 10

1.2 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE: SCIENCE, IMPACTS, POLICIES 10

1.3 CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION & MITIGATION:

NEPAL’S ROLE AS LDC AND HIGH RISK COUNTRY 12

1.4 ADAPTATION AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS OF MOUNTAIN COMMUNITIES 14

1.5 GREAT HIMALAYAN TRAIL (GHT): FRONTLINE OF THE CLIMATE BATTLE 16

1.5.1 THE GREAT HIMALAYAN TRAIL 16

1.5.2 GHT: THE FRONTLINE 16

1.6 OBJECTIVES 17


3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 BAGLUNG 26

3.2 BAJHANG DISTRICT 30

3.3 BAJURA DISTRICT 33

3.4 DHADING DISTRICT 36

3.5 DOLAKHA DISTRICT 40

3.6 DOLPA DISTRICT 44

3.7 DOTI DISTRICT 48

3.8 GORKHA DISTRICT 52

3.9 HUMLA DISTRICT 55

3.10 JUMLA DISTRICT 59

3.11 KASKI DISTRICT 63

3.12 LAMJUNG DISTRICT 67

3.13 MUGU DISTRICT 70

3.14 MUSTANG DISTRICT 74

3.15 MYAGDI DISTRICT 77

3.16 NUWAKOT DISTRICT 80

3.17 SANKHUWASABHA DISTRICT 84

3.18 SINDHUPALCHOWK DISTRICT 88

3.19 SOLUKHUMBU DISTRICT 93

3.20 TAPLEJUNG DISTRICT 98

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1 CONCLUSION 101

4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 103

REFERENCE 107

APPENDICES 113

6 HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015

The Himalayas are a region of global significance. It is considered one of the 34 global hotspots

for biodiversity, providing essential ecosystem services and ensuring the well-being of 750 million

people living in the Himalayas. As the third largest concentration of ice after North and South

poles, it houses 15000 glaciers that feed Asia’s eight largest rivers and sustain the lives of 1.4

billion people inhabiting their river basins (Chaudhary, 2011).

However, the Himalayas have been experiencing climate change at a rapid rate, resulting in severe

consequences to mountain communities and beyond. Scientific finding indicate that continents

warm faster than oceans and higher altitudes warm faster than lower ones (IPCC, 2007). As

a Himalayan country that contains 8 of the 14 highest mountain peaks in the world, Nepal is

experiencing temperature changes that much more pronounced. The annual mean temperature

has been increasing in Nepal’s Himalayas by 0.06°C between 1977 and 2000 and these increases

are more pronounced at higher altitudes. Rates of temperature increase have also changed over

time. The last 50 years have seen a higher rate of warming than the last 100 years. Consequently,

this has lead to the rapid melting of glaciers, increment of glacial lakes and extreme climate events

such as flash flooding, heavy rainfall, prolong droughts, heat waves and cold streams.

For thousands of years mountain communities have maintained a close relationship with the

environment, depending on ecosystem services for their agrarian livelihood. This relationship

combined with limited economic development compromises their adaptive capacity, making

them particularly vulnerable to a changing climate (Chaudhary, 2012). While mountain inhabitants

have survived for hundreds in Nepal’s mountains by adapting to changing conditions and trends,

the unprecedented rate and severity of climate change in recent years necessitates much more

rapid adaptation than the local communities have historically achieved.

In the coming days, as Nepal attempts to address climate change and its impacts through various

adaptation strategies, plans and programs, it will benefit from the indigenous knowledge of

mountain communities—the key stakeholders of climate change in the Himalayas. Accordingly,

this study presents the indigenous people’s observations and perception about climate change

and the adaptation practices being adopted by the local inhabitants in response to the growing

impacts of changing conditions.

This research, conducted in 20 districts from east to west Nepal, presents results based on a large

number of respondents that demonstrated sophisticated knowledge of climate change and its

consequences. They listed changes in the overall climate, onset and duration of different seasons,

overall snow and water sources when asked about their observation of changes in climate. They

cited declining agricultural productivity, increasing pests, changes in biodiversity and human

health issues while talking about the effect of climate change. Their coping strategies included

increased rainwater harvesting and grey water practices, use of energy efficient technologies,

creation of seed banks and migration to places with adequate water sources. Based on these

findings, the study offers points of consideration that will be helpful in formulating adaptation and

resilience-building strategies and policies.

1.1

background

Climate Change is considered to be a critical global challenge and is one of the most important

global environmental challenges facing humankind, and local communities living within

mountainous regions. The continents have warmed faster than the oceans and higher latitudes

have warmed faster than lower ones. The mountains are particularly more vulnerable than the

plains contributing mostly to the rise in air temperatures leading to rapid melting of glaciers

and increment of glacial lakes and weather becomes less predictable than in the past. Rates of

temperature increase have also changed over time. The last 50 years have seen a higher rate of

warming than the last 100 years.

Despite the fact that these changes are impacting intensely on mountain people and their

communities, they are very rarely considered in public discourse on climate change. Likewise, the

socioeconomic aspectsof climate change are still in its infancy in mountain regions where there is

limited understanding of climate change, climate change impacts, community vulnerabilities, and

adaptation opportunities.

Many mountain communities are struggling through different adaptation measures as an attempt

to reduce the risk of climate change vulnerability.In response to the climate change and their

impact in the mountain region and means to mitigate the climate change impact, the Climate

Alliance of Himalayan Communities (CAHC)conducted a research in 20 districts of mountain

regions from Kanchenjunga in the east to Api in Humla in the west with objectives of providing

people living in remote areas with a voice in the current dialogue surrounding high mountain

climate risks with traditional field based methods and increasing global awareness.

1 Climate Change in the Himalayas

7HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015 7HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015


1.2

Climate Change is considered to be a critical global challenge and recent events have demonstrated

the world’s growing vulnerability to Climate Change. The Himalayas in Nepal are geologically

young and fragile and are vulnerable to nearly two billion people that live in its shadows.

Despite the attraction that Mount Everest, the tallest peak in the world, has drawn to the region,

very little has been known until recently, about the crucial issues surrounding glacial melt.

The Glaciers in the Himalaya cover and an area of 33,050 square kilometers that represents 28.8

percent of glaciers in Central Asia and 4.8 percent of glaciers and ice-caps in the world. Nepal is

comprised of about 3,252 glaciers and 2,323 glacial lakes, which are the fresh water resources for

more than 1.3 billion population across South Asia. These are regarded as Water Tower of Asia.

“The Water Tower of Asia” provides around 8.6 million cubic meters of water annually feeding

most of Asia’s great rivers (Dyurgerov and Maier, 1997).

But the rapid rate of warming is challenging the existence of such glaciers due to the rapid

melting. The most extreme projection on glacier recession is that with a 2oC temperature rise by

2050, about 35 percent of Himalayan glacier will disappear (IPCC 2007). (New report of 2014-15)

The latest assessment by the UNEP and World Meteorological Organization (WMO)-supported

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), released in late 2014, concluded that climate

change is already affecting many communities, with far greater impacts to come.

Various scientists and researchers had stated that ifthe Himalayan glaciers continue to melt

rapidly; this will not only affect the hydrological regime but also reduces the water supply for

hundreds of millions of people in South and South Asia. Likewise, the United Nations Environment

Program (UNEP) had warned five years ago that 20 big lakes in the country are at risk of floods

from glacial lake bursts, which could trigger huge loss of life and property. As a result the risk of

GLOF is increasing (Bates et al. 2008).Past records on GLOF events show evidence of 15 GLOF

events in Nepal including major GLOF events of Nare (1977), Nagma Pokhari (1980), Dig Tsho

(1985), Chhubung (1991), and Tam Pokhari (Mool 2001a,b).The satellite imagery record shows that

five glacial lake out bursts occurred in Nepal from 1977-1998.

Recent GLOFs in the Khumbu occurred in 1977 near Pangboche and in 1985 in the Bhote Koshi

valley. The 1985 Langmoche flood in the Bhote Koshi valley was the most destructive GLOF in the

Khumbu’s recorded history, destroying bridges, a hydropower station, drinking water systems,

agricultural land, houses, and killing five people and lost worth of Million Rupees.

Global Climate Change: Science, Impacts, Policies

9HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015

“I found out that the greatest threat to mountain communities was Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF). Vulnerable mountain communities, like my

own Sherpa community, face the threat of being washed off the mountain slopes. Frail moraine holds back huge lakes formed by melting mountain

glaciers” (Dawa Steven Sherpa, 2014).

Since mid 1970s to 2000, the average temperature recorded at 20 stations of the Himalayan

region shows an increase in temperature by 1C with more warming on higher elevation (Hasnain

2000). Shrestha et al 2012 stated that the annual temperature is increasing progressively with

higher increment rate in High Himalayan region since 1962. Warming of 0.6°Cper year has been

documented between 1977 and 1994. According to Baidya et al 2008, temperature rise in Nepal

is widespread, days and nights are becoming warmer and cool days and nights are becoming less

frequent. Similarly, the variations in monsoon rainfall, intense rainfall events, longer droughts,

rapid snow and ice melting from glaciers, expansion of glacier lakes have also been observed

widely.

Continuation of warming and changing climate in the Himalayas will affect Nepal in various

aspects of development including disasters, hydropower, irrigation and water resources, tourism,

and many more which further could place additional burdens on the development activities and

livelihoods of mountain communities.

Climate change is expected to continue and have severe impacts not just in the distant future but

also in the near future, hence, it’s time to take action in order to prevent our future generations

from dangerous climate change and associated risk.


1.3

Climate change adaptation is a global issue that can only be addressed locally. It is essential that

efforts be made to empower government to address climate change and provide them with the

necessary tools to enhance their capacity. It has the potential to affect every part of the globe

while the effects are severe on developing nations because of poor adaptive capability. Climate

change is expected to disproportionately affect developing countries particularly Least Developed

Countries (LDC) like Nepal.

The relative contribution of Nepal in climate change is negligible. Nepal comprises only 0.4percent

of the world’s population and is responsible for only about 0.025percent of GHG emissions

annually (NAPA\MOE, 2010). However, Nepal is listed as one of the 100 countriesmost affected by

climate change in the world (GON, 2011). In this regards climate change has emerged as an issue

of profound injustice, as it is the people around the world who have contributed least to creating

the problem, who are being disproportionately affected by the impacts.

Moreover, impacts of climate change will not be equitable as the IPCC 2001 reports concluded:(need

IPCC new report of 2014-15)Being one of the poorest countries in the world, people in Nepal

are more vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate change. Most of the Nepal’s poor livings

in rural areas are deprived of resources and information to cope with and mitigate the impact

of extreme events associated with climate change. The situation is even worse when poverty is

compounded by population pressure, land degradation, food insecurity, and deforestation.

Climate change is already hitting every corner of the nation including Nepal, an immediate

adaptation measures are necessary to fight against climate change. An adaptation is very

essential because climate change is already experiencing in Himalayan as well as other parts of

country, however, poor countries like Nepal, the people are adapting to climate change knowingly

or unknowingly in different parts of the country as the impacts of climate change is affecting their

day to day life due to lack of knowledge and resources to cope with the changing of climate.

Hence, in order to improve the ability of local communities to cope with ongoing and future

climate change, it is essential to improve our understanding of the risk they are dealing with

(Heltberg et al. 2009). There is an urgency of formulating effective local adaptation strategy along

with thematic vulnerability assessment to minimize the potential impacts of climate change on

livelihood mostly on rural areas of Nepal’s Himalayas.

Being a non-annex I country on Kyoto Protocol; Nepal does not have any binding obligations

to mitigate GHGemissions; however, it has moral and ethical responsibility to join hands with

international community to combat climate change problems. It is well known that Nepal has

been striving for extensive social and economic development and it is the prime need of the

nation. Being a LDC party to the UNFCC and the Kyoto Protocol, Nepal has developed National

Climate Change Adaptation & Mitigation: Nepal’s Role as LDC and High Risk Country


Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) and had in September 2010 and is being followed

Nepal is one of the last countries to develop its NAPA and as such has been able to learn lessons

from NAPA processes in other countries. The NAPA also aims to ensure that national adaptation

planning support adaptation by local communities, particularly the climate-vulnerable poor. by

preparation of National Climate Change Mitigation Strategy.

Although GHG emissions are growing due to increasing use of fossil fuel, various energy efficient

technologies should be promoted in residential, commercial, industrial and transport sector in

order to mitigate GHG emission. Besides this CDM – one of the instruments of Kyoto Protocol is

attractive supplementary option to promote adaptation and mitigation simultaneously.

Similar adaptation plan like NAPA, the Bali Action Plan had addressed National Appropriate

Mitigation Action (NAMA) is another mitigation strategy that has been discussed. The NAMA

framework will be supported and enabled by developed countries in technology transfer, financing

and capacity building.

Recently in 2011 the Government of Nepal has developed and approved another effective

and most suitable adaptation plan such as Local Adaptation Plan of Action (LAPA) that would

strengthens mountain community understanding of climate change, local assets, vulnerabilities,

prospective solutions and adaptation strategies, funding mechanisms and priority action plans.

There is no doubt that adaptation should be the top priority of Nepal since the country is

becoming more vulnerable to climate change, meanwhile country can be benefited from carbon

mitigation programs through carbon financing and other market based mitigation options. The

carbon mitigation strategy; part of national low carbon strategy is already in place which facilitates

Nepal government to identify the potential carbon mitigation for carbon trading and national level

mitigation with financial support from developed (Annex I) countries.


1.4 Adaptation and Development needs of Mountain CommunitiesNepal’s Himalaya is highly vulnerable to climate change for two main reasons: Firstly, the impacts

of climate change are relatively high in the mountains with high number of extreme climatic

events resulting in loss of life and properties. Secondly, poverty, resource crisis, poor literacy

rate, increasing population and inadequate awareness are the main drivers, which put additional

burden in formulation and implementation of adaptation measures.

In Nepal, as in any other least developed country, climate change issue is a priority only to the

extent that it is reflected in the national development objectives in relation to protection of the

environment and sustainable development. Therefore, unless the context of climate change is

integrated and linked to the national development goals, priority cannot be attached to it, and

hence, programs related to climate change will not attract adequate attention.

Thus, it is necessary to link climate change issues to Nepal’s long-term development goals focusing

on issues like poverty reduction, economic growth and employment, increased self-reliance,

promotion of rural development, and preserving the environment.

Adaptation to climate change can be achieved by either stand-alone adaptation policies or the

integration of adaptation measure into existing development activities. No doubt, the immediate

need of mountain people is development. Development activities will create new opportunities in

terms of social economic development.

In this context, development policy addressing the need of mountain people should be on top

priority. Hence, integration of climate change issues and adaptation needs of the mountain

community with the development goal is the smart way to enhance climate resilience and

sustainable development. Climate change risks must be considered systematically in development

planning at all levels to build adaptation measures. Effective Mountain oriented adaptation plans

and programs must address the specific development needs of mountain region and should be

able to respond to challenges resulting from climate change.

In addition, issues of gender inequalities should come forward in the adaptation plan because

women are more vulnerable than men. It is therefore critical to develop a mechanism where

women and members of other socially excluded groups can participate equally in initiatives to

address the climate change challenges.

Considering all these emerging issues of climate change adaptation and development needs,

tourism has been identified by UNEP as one of the ten economic sectors best able to contribute

to the transition to a sustainable and inclusive green economy. Now a day, tourism is one of the

largest and fastest growing economic sectors in the world. It contributes to 9 percent of theglobal

GDP, accounts for one in 11 jobs worldwide, and 6 percent of global exports. By 2030, UNWTO

forecasts that there will be 1.8 billion international tourism arrivals annually (UNEP 2014).


Mountain tourism integrated in development process with a pro-poor and equitable approach

has great potential for poverty reduction (DFID 1999). Mountain tourism can yield high levels

of employment and income generation for the poor that ultimately lifts the economic status of

mountain people and enhance the adaptive capacity.

In this regards, tourism can be considered as one of the promising adaptation strategies,

generating socio-economic resources for adaptation process and building the strengths on climate

resilience. Thus, sustainable tourism is a way to achieve environment friendly development along

with climate change adaptation.


1.5 Great Himalayan Trail (GHT): Frontline of the Climate Battle1.5.1 The Great Himalayan Trail

The GHTis one of the longest and highest walking trails in the world. The Great Himalayan Trail

is considered “trekking holy grail”—the longest, highest, and hardest(in place) alpine trail in the

world.

GHT traverses the full length of the Greater Himalayan Range, all 2,400 kilometers. Nepal’s

GHT has 10 sections comprising a network of upper and lower routes, each offering something

different—adventure and exploration, authentic cultural experiences, or simply spectacular

Himalayan nature.

GHT Trails are being promoted as eco-tourism trails because the trail is largely untouched by

development and construction. The trail mostly crosses the Himalayan country Nepal from East

to West ranging from Taplejung district in East to Humla and Darchula in the West. The trail

passes through incredible landscapes, remote high altitude plateaus, green valleys and culturally

rich villages. GHT continues beyond the administrative boundary of Nepal viz. Tibet, India and

Myanmar in East and Tibet, India and Pakistan in the West.

GHT within Nepal is a combination of ten treks with the trek duration of 2-3 weeks each. The major

attractive GHT sections are Rara & Jumla, Manaslu & Ganesh, Everest & Rolwaling and Makalu&

Barun etc. Categorically, trekkers can choose two components via upper GHT and lower GHT.

By trekking along the GHT one can contribute to local development of rural communities. In return

people can get incredible view of mountains, discover ancient cultures and meet interesting

people along the way.


1.5.2 GHT: The Frontline

Three Years Plan (2010-2013) of the country emphasized tourism sector as one of the prime

sectors to achieve employment centric, poverty alleviation oriented, sustainable and broad-

based economic growth. The tourism industry of Nepal is currently concentrated in sight seeing

(Kathmandu Valley, Chitwan and Pokhara, Lumbini) and trekking in three common destinations

(Annapurna, Sagarmatha and Langtang in lesser extent).

Of the 587,842 tourists visited Nepal in 2013, out of that, approximately 25 percent tourists trek or

travelled to these three small geographical areas (NTB 2013).The GHT holds capacity of spreading

these benefits more equally over the country and establishing new tourist destinations. It is

believed that the GHT will help to attract more tourists in the less explored Himalayan region as

well as encourage them to explore new destinations as well.

There is no doubt that the mountainous region of Nepal holds incredible landscapes providing

scenic beauty and is rich in cultural diversity too. The higher Himalayan region of Nepal is the

major destination for trekkers and mountaineers. Hence, tourism is the major source of income

for mountain people with various socio-economic opportunities and associated benefits.

Nevertheless, majority of these mountain people live in poverty.

Realizing these underlying issues, the concept of promoting tourism along with socio-economic

development of mountain communities has been implemented under the GHT modality.

Promotion of sustainable tourism in wild and remote parts of the country will attract trekkers and

more than 1.8 million people living in the mountain communities can be benefited from it.

The immediate needs of poor people in the mountains are socio-economic development, poverty

alleviation along with environmental protection. Tourism-based climate change adaptation can be

a turning point for poor people to enhance their socio-economic status.

In summary, GHT has highlighted the possibility of tourism in different mountainous districts of

Nepal, which has not been explored. Promoting the GHT in such rural and remote area will be an

ingenious means of achieving the multifaceted goals of sustainable tourism development, and

climate change adaptation and mitigation.


1.6 ObjectivesThe general objective of this research is to improve our understanding of local people’s experience

of climate variability and response made to overcome impacts of climate change. Similarly, it aims

to document information on the climate change coping mechanisms of indigenous communities

and provide recommendations based on it.

Specifically, this research attempts to:

• To understand the indigenous community’s perceptions towards climate variability

• To understand the impact of climate change in local people’s day to day life

• To document how local people are adapting to changing climate to maintain their livelihoods

and to identify the local priority for adaptation plans in a community

• Proposed recommendations for community based adaptation to climate change based on the

research findings

methodology2 Rationale of Research2.1 Himalayan region is always challenged with its inherent specificities connected with inaccessibility

and fragility. Inaccessibility of the Himalayas has always triggered it to remain detached from the

mainstream development activities and geological and ecological fragility has hindered with the

mainstay of economy i.e. agriculture. In context of changing global environment and even rapid

climatic changes observed in the Himalayas, the product of these specificities has disgustingly

worsen the Himalayan economy and ultimately amplified the vulnerability of the Himalayan

communities to climate change. The climate vulnerability of the Himalayan community is an

unequivocal fact supported by various scientific evidences. It is however important to assess the

level of knowledge of the Himalayan communities on the vulnerability issues related to climate

change. Introduction of proper adaptive measures are essential to reduce the potential risk of

climate change in the Himalayan region; more precisely, the adaptive measures coherent with

the local diversity and resource availability are of more importance. Development of sustainable

tourism as a commodity to fortify the livelihood of the Himalayan community can be a driving

factor for strengthening economy and simultaneously increasing the adaptive capacity. Nepal’s

Himalayas are already attractive tourist destinations and modest efforts in place can identify

new destinations and promote the existing ones at national and international level. One of the

destinations that could contribute to the sustainable tourism is the “Great Himalayan Trail (GHT)”.

The geographical alignment of GHT intersects a number of mountainous and hilly districts of

Nepal and promotion of sustainable tourism in this alignment can be instrumental to enhance the

adaptive capacity to climate change of the pro-poor Himalayan community.

17HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015 17HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015


2.2 Framework: IPCC Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment FrameworkThe climate change vulnerability assessment framework was adopted for the purpose of the

research. The Third Assessment Report of 2001 provided further information relevant to the

development of the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.

The framework uses the TAR definition of vulnerability as “the degree to which a system is

susceptible to or unable to cope with the adverse effects of climate change, including climate

variability and extremes”.

Thus Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of climate variation to which

a system is exposed (collectively defined as exposure), its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity, or:

Vulnerability = f (exposure, sensitivity, adaptive capacity)

Where,

Exposure as defined by IPCC is “the nature and degree to which a system is exposed to significant

climatic variations”

Sensitivity as defined by IPCC is “the degree to which a system is affected either adversely or

beneficially, by climate-related stimuli”

Adaptive Capacity as defined by IPCC is “the ability of a system to adjust to climate change

(including climate variability and extremes) to moderate the potential damage from it, to take

advantage of its opportunities, or to cope with its consequences”

The above-mentioned IPCC Vulnerability Index was followed in the study (IPCC 2001). Vulnerability

assessment seeks to determine the risk of specific adverse outcomes for particular group or the

unit of concern (geographical area, communities, natural ecosystem or specific sectors) in the

face of a variety of climate related stresses and identifies a range of factors that may reduce

response capacity and adaptation to the climatic stressors. The assessment of most vulnerable

area and vulnerable communities was identified on the basis of vulnerability assessment as well

as vulnerability mapping conducted by NAPA. In addition, the indigenous response adopted to

address climate change impacts was identified from questionnaire survey as well as interviews/

focus group discussions.


2.3 Site Selection RationaleA number of factors were considered for the selection of a particular site for research. The

following are the few but crucial factors considered while selecting study site for research:

• Position of the study site with reference to the alignment of GHT.

• Potential for tourism development in the site considered under study.

• NAPA Vulnerability index of the district under consideration.

• Discretion of the experts involved in the team for the selection of a particular site.

Table 2.3: Priority ranking of climate change impacts for Nepal

Resource/ Ranking Certainty of

impact

Timing of

Impact

(Urgency)

Severity of

Impact

Importance of

resources

Water resources and

hydropower

High High High High

Agriculture Medium-Low Medium-Low Medium High

Human Health Low Medium Uncertain High

Ecosystem/Biodiversity Low Uncertain Uncertain Medium-High

Source: Agrawala et al., 2003


2.4 Climate Data AnalysisFor the climatic trend analysis, monthly rainfall and maximum and minimum temperature data

were obtained from the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM). In total 21 different

meteorological stations were selected for 20 districts.

Among 21 stations, four stations don’t have the temperature data, thus analysis was carried

out only for rainfall. The total monthly rainfall, maximum, minimum and average temperatures

were collected. Based upon the monthly data, the annual average rainfall and temperature were

computed by using MS Excel and respective inter-annual long climatic trends were constructed.

The time scale selected for trend analysis is not consistent with all the stations because for some

stations data are not available for particular year and the station establishment year differs from

station to station. The detail of all climate stations is given below:

Table 2.4: List of climate stations with station type, established year and analysis period

SN Station Name Index

No

Type of Station District Estd

Year

Analysis Period Rainfall

Temperature

1 Baglung 605 Climatology Baglung 1980-2009

2 Pipalkot 201 Precipitation Bajhang 1981-2010 -

3 Bajura 204 Precipitation Bajura 1976 1976-2011 -

4 Arughat D.

Bazar

1002 Precipitation Dhading 1971 1972-2008 1984-2010

5 Jiri 1103 Agro Climatology Dolkha 1961 1980-2010 1980-2010

6 Dunai 312 Climatology Dolpa 1958 1981-2010 1979-2007

7 Silgadi, Doti 203 Climatology Doti 1973 1978-2010 1980-2010

8 Larke Samdo 806 Precipitation Gorkha 1978 1980-2010 -

9 Simikot 311 Climatology Humla 1976 1978-2006 1989-2005

10 Jumla 303 Synoptic Jumla 1956 1980-2010 1981-2010

11 Pokhara

Airport

804 Aeronatical Kaski 1965 1980-2010 1981-2010

12 Khudi Bazar 802 Climatology Lamjung 1971 1981-2010 1981-2010

13 Rara 307 Climatology Mugu 1970 1971-2006 1988-2006

14 Jomsom 601 Climatology Mustang 1972 1957-2010 1981-2010

15 Nuwakot 1004 Climatology Nuwakot 1971 1984-2009 1972-2009

16 Chainpur 1303 Climatology Sankhuwasabha 1947 1947-2009 1987-2009

17 Chautara 1009 Precipitation Sindhupalchok 1947 1978-2008 -

18 Bahrabise 1027 Climatology Sindhupalchok 1965 1980-2010 -

19 Dingboche Solukhumbu 1987-2008 1987-2008

20 Taplejung 1405 Synoptic Taplejung 1978 1981-2010 1981-2010

Source: DHM, 2012


Research Tools2.5.1 Household Survey (HS)

Household survey was conducted by administering the households a set of questionnaire prepared

for the purpose. The household survey questionnaire, amongst others, sought information

on respondent’s perception over climate change linked with changes in relation to the existing

environment and specific changes noticed by them in areas of water resource, agriculture,

environmental sanitation, human settlements, and infrastructure.

The survey also tried to extract the primary information regarding the climate extremities (drought,

GLOFs, landslides, floods etc) and the significance allocated to them by the survey respondents.

Information regarding the local coping strategy adopted by the households was also sought

through the questionnaire.

In order to have proper representation of the population and accounting for time and resources,

varying number of samples were collected from the study site under consideration. Table 2.3

depicts the number of samples considered for the study for varying number of households located

in the study site under consideration:

Table 2.5.1: Household number vs. sample size

2.5

HH Number Sample Size (percent)

Less than or equal to 30 40-50

30-60 30-35

60-100 15-20

More than 100 10-15

2.5.3 Key Informant Interview (KII)

Interview with the key informants of the study site were conducted to extract the information

on changes in key parameters associated with climate change. The key informants were interviewed

based on pre-designed format for KII. The KII formats were separately developed for identified key

informants representing agriculture sector, animal science sector, health sector and social sector.

While the information for agriculture, animal science and health was extracted from the concerned

employees of the Government of Nepal representing the institution at local level, however, information

on the climate change impact on livelihood was extracted from the concerned VDC personnel.

2.5.4 Focus group discussion (FGD)

A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was conducted at each site encompassed by this study. FGD was

included as a part of the study to have a holistic perspective of the residents of the study area on

various matters related to weather and climate dynamics, productivity, forest and bio diversity,

energy, human and animal health, and the public infrastructure. The FGD also sought information

on the capacity of the local institutions to address the adaptation issues related to climate change.


2.6.1 Primary and Secondary Data Collection

Field visit for primary data collection for the research was conducted in four different phases. The

rounds of field visit started from the eastern part of the country and proceeded towards west.

2.6.2 Secondary Data Collections

The first field round of field visit started on February 2012. The different rounds of field visit

conducted for primary data collection the coverage of districts thereof is presented in table 2.4.

Table 2.6.2: Details of field visit for primary data collection

2.6 Data Collections

2.6.3 Data analysis and presentation

Most of the data collected during the research was qualitative in nature. The quantitative data (like

meteorological data) extracted during the research were compiled and assessed appropriately

using MS excel.

Relevant trends in the climatic events and episodes of the climate extremities were determined

through this approach. The qualitative information collected during the research was used to

logically interpret the people’s perception over climate change, indications of the changing climate,

indigenous adaptive measures adopted for the perceived impacts and the level of vulnerability of

the localities encompassed by the research. The quantitative data was used to substantiate the

qualitative information collected during the survey.

2.6.4 Report writing & dissemination

Once all the data and information were available and checked, the same was used for the

preparation of the report. A professional researcher conducted report writing with experience in

environmental conservation and climate change. A peer review panel checked the quality of draft

report in order to avoid any inconsistencies in any part of the report. After the completion of peer

review process by the panel, the report was prepared for dissemination.

Field Visit Start Date District Covered

First phase Feb-March, 2012 Taplejung, Sankhuwasabha, Dolakha, Sindhupalchowk and

Nuwakot

Second phase April-May, 2012 Kaski, Solukhumbu, Gorkha, Mustang and Baglung

Third phase May, 2012 Lamjung, Myagdi, Doti, Dolpa, and Jumla

Fourth phase June-July, 2012 Humla, Bajura, Bajhang, Mugu and Dhading

results and discussion3

HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015 23HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015 23HCI / CAHC / Overview of Climate Change: Impact and Adaptation in Nepal Himalayas / 2015



Baglung District is located in the Dhaulagiri

zone of western Nepal. It consists of mountains

and hilly areas. Climate change in this remote

hilly area has been a growing issue in recent

decades by affecting the livelihood of local

population. The climatic trend of past three

decades shows interesting results.

The data from Baglung climate station shows

a decreasing trend (5.47 mm per year) for

annual rainfall over the 28 years period (1980-

2010). Temperature data from 1980 to 2009

shows decreasing trend for monthly maximum

and increasing trend for mean minimum

temperature.

According to the NAPA vulnerability assessment,

the combined vulnerability index for Baglung

is moderate. However, it is highly vulnerable

for landslide hazard. Similarly, the ecological

sensitivity towards climate change is also high.

Likewise the combined adaptation index is also

moderate for Baglung. The adaptation capability

is high in terms of technology; however, the

socio-economic and infrastructure adaptation

capability is moderate.

3.1.1 Local Profile

3.1 Baglung

Dagatundada VDC

N

Baglung is a major tourist destination in Nepal

due to the nearby tourist attractions like

Dhaulagiri, Annapurna, Dolpo and Dhorpatan.

The major tourist attractions at Baglung are

majestic views of the Himalayas along with the

waterfalls, forests, terraced fields, caves and

deep gorges which are abundantly exposed to

the visitors.

The present study was conducted in Daga

village of Daga tundada VDC. The majority of

populations in Daga village are Magar, Dalits and

Brahmin. Agriculture and livestock farming are

the main occupation here.

Firewood is the prime source of energy for

cooking and space heating; however, people

have access to micro-hydro electricity. Only one

third of the population have access of piped

water system and rest of the population have

to rely on nearby water sources.


3.1.2 People Perception on Climate Change

Majority of respondents have experienced much warmer climate than the past. Despite of this,

people think that current climate is far better than past. This is because in the past there used to

be much colder climate throughout the year and freezing temperatures during winter.

Due to warmer climate people have observed a slight increase in rainfall, unusually short

monsoon in some years. As for example during 2011, there was no rainfall during monsoon as

well as in winter. There has been temporal shifting of rainfall with large inter-annual variability.

Events of prolonged dry season followed by rain have been occurring, indicating an erratic pattern

of rainfall in Daga village. In addition, strong wind events are occurring frequently. Hailstorm is

another growing climatic hazard in Daga village. The impacts of hailstorm are so catastrophic that

it has potential to destroy the roofs and agricultural fields. Similarly, the occurrence of foggy days

is also increasing and it’s getting much denser than the past. People have experienced four to five

days with continuous thick layer of fog in recent years.

Agriculture: The major crop in village is paddy. In recent days, the typical rice variety called light

red (Dhaiya) rice (dhan) is not being cultivated because of remarkable decline in production since

last ten years. Because of the significant decrease in agriculture productivity, people of Daga

village are now depending more on remittance as most of the local people are employed in Indian

and Nepalese Army. Agriculture has been the major source of income in the study area; however,

because of less production people are bound to change their traditional occupation.

Water resource: According to the Dagatunda VDC office, about 22 drinking water sources have

already disappeared in Dagatunda VDC;out of those four belong to Daga village. Natural drinking

water sources like Arakhok and Dhairkhok are drying up affecting the livelihood of the local

people. The water availability for both household and agricultural use is even worse during the

dry season and drought year. Declining water availability in the river system is also visible in Daga

village. In addition, people believe that construction of road in recent years have added greater

pressure on water sources.

Forest and biodiversity: Some tree species in the nearby forest is now disappearing. For example

fodder tree like Dudhelo is getting scarce. Similarly, nutritious plants for livestock such as Tojha

and Hutuk are also becoming rare.

Energy: The main source of energy for lighting homes is the micro-hydro providing electricity for

two nearby villages. In recent years due to the decreasing river flow, the electricity generation has

been declined and people are now facing two to three houses power cut daily.

Human and animal health: New unidentified diseases are occurring more frequently. In 2011,

one of the villagers died from such unidentified diseases. People think that it was possibly

Meningitides however; they are not sure for it. About 50 to 60percent of the human health cases

are related with viral fever, typhoid, and chickenpox.

On the other hand, number of cases with skin disease like Leukoderma Fungal infection, nasal

allergy etc is also increasing. According to the local villagers, occurrence of fever in livestock is

common in the locality. Prevalence of beetle in goat and buffalo is another emerging problem.

People have experienced an unidentified disease (Padke in local language) in livestock. Once the

livestock suffer from this disease then use of medicine have no effect at all. People believed that

occurrence of such new diseases may be due to the invasion of new plant species in forest and

agricultural lands.

3.1.3 Coping Mechanism

In agriculture sector, people are using bio-fertilizer to enhance the soil fertility. Similarly to cope

with changing climate people are using selected crop varieties for current weather condition

depending upon local experiences. Forest conservation is one of the major achievements in Daga

village as the community forestry programme has been implemented recently. As a result some

bird species have now reemerging to their natural habitat. To cope with increasing temperature

prevalence of wearing warm cloths made by fur of local sheep is disappearing.


3.1.4 Recommendations

1. Hence, emphasis should be given to this sector. Irrigation project with reservoir facility should

be developed to supply adequate water in agricultural field. Another major issue related with

agriculture sector is disappearing local crop varieties. To conserve the local crop diversity,

seed bank, local gene bank, seed conservation is essential. Use of bio-fertilizer, adoption of

crop rotation and multiple cropping techniques will help to minimize the effect of pests.

2. Daga village is facing the water deficiency; hence, water conservation practices are essential. It

terms of infrastructure development, community water supply system should be constructed

to supply water through community or household tap system. Construction of reservoir could

be another possible solution to collect water during monsoon season and using it during dry

season.

3. Health and sanitation facility is another immediate need of the people in Daga village. As new

unknown diseases are occurring, diagnosis and proper treatment facility should be provided

in order to control potential catastrophe in future.

4. Though community forestry in Daga village is a step towards biodiversity conservation,

people are not able to get benefited from forest products. Hence, forest based enterprises

development will create new opportunities of income generation to the local people.

5. Firewood is the dominant energy source in Daga village. To promote alternative and climate

friendly energy sources investment in biogas, improved cooking stoves, solar energy is

important.

6. Awareness about climate change and its impacts as well as locally available adaptation

measures should be carried out to enhance people knowledge on climate change and

associated impacts.



3.2 Bajhang District3.2.1 Location Profile

Bajhang District is located in the northern part of far-western Nepal encompassing great views

of mountains like Saipal, Yoga, Nappa, Urai, and Vyas. It is the place for beautiful lakes including

Surma Sarobar, Khaptad Tal, Lokunda Daha and Nilakhanti Kunda. Another major attraction of

Bajhang is the Khaptad National Park. Though Bajhang comprises natural as well as religious sites

for tourism, the tourism potential is yet to be explored and promoted. In recent decades, Bajhang

is witnessing the pronounced impacts of changing climate. Climatic data analysis of Pipalkot

stations in Bajhang shows that, the average annual rainfall is decreasing (2.47 mm/year) over

the 30 years from 1981-2010. Such changes in precipitation regime have great effects on water

resources and agriculture sector.

According to MoE/NAPA (2010) vulnerability assessment, vulnerability status of Bajhang is

moderate. In particular, Bajhang district is highly vulnerable to drought and landslide (MoE/

NAPA 2010). However, the adaptation capability for Bajhang is very low. The socio-economic

development of Bajhang is very poor which is also reflected by the low socio-economic adaptation

capability in NAPA document. Realizing the need of problem identification and possible solution

related with climate change, Syandi VDC of Bajhang district was selected for field survey. Syandi

VDC is one of the remote villages in Bajhang.

Agriculture is the prime occupation and livestock is an integral part of farming. Syandi village is the

site with immense natural as well as cultural diversity. There are possibilities to promote this small

village a tourist destination as a part of Khaptad National Park trekking route.

Syandi VDC

N



The local people in Syandi village have experienced increase in temperature over time. Monsoon

rainfall has been reduced significantly and the timing of rainfall and snowfall has shifted in

recent decades. Usually rainfall used to occur in June and July and snowfall during November and

December in past, but now snowfall is occurring four to five month earlier.

In addition, number of days with snowfall is decreasing. The problem is even worse during dry

season as the frequency of drought is increasing. People have experienced short-lived snowy

season because of the warmer winter. Because of increasing temperature, the occurrence of

animal diseases is increasing which has serious effect on livestock rearing. On the other hand,

increasing prevalence of mosquitoes and flies are causing human diseases. Based on the field

research water resources, agriculture and food security, human and animal health sectors are

highly affected by climate change.

Water resources: Due to less precipitation especially during dry season, natural springs in

Syandi village are drying up. Water wells are the main source of water for domestic use, in recent

years because of seasonal drought and less monsoon rainfall, water level in wells are decreasing

significantly. Because of this, people have to stay in long queue to collect water from community

tap. The impacts are also visible in river system of the locality. Rivers are drying up as the water

level is sinking year by year.

Agriculture: Agriculture is the main income source in Syandi. People believed that the agricultural

productivity has been reduced largely. The deficiency of monsoon rainfall and its temporal

variation has affected the agriculture sector widely. Some example includes early ripening of

crops and whitening of wheat.

According to villagers maize production has decreased remarkably in last decade. Farmers used to

harvest 300 kg of maize per Ropani of land some 10 years back, now it has reduced by 50percent.

Additional problem associated with decreasing productivity is the prevalence of pests.

Changing rainfall pattern also have noticeable impacts on livestock population. With decreasing

rainfall in monsoon season, pastureland in Syandi village is decreasing hence; availability of

fodder is getting low.

Human health: As the temperature has been increased in recent years, due to warmer climate

prevalence of mosquitoes and flies are also increasing. Consequently, number of cases with

dysentery and diarrhea in Syandi village is growing.

In addition, new diseases have been experienced in recent years including Vertibo, Impito and

Soreosis, and number of people visiting the health post for skin problem is getting common.


To avoid the effects of pest in the farmland, people of Syandi are now using chemical pesticides. In

order to increase the productivity, chemical fertilizers are being used intensively. To supplement

the crop water demand as the monsoon rainfall is decreasing, irrigation water canal has been

constructed. Realizing the temporal shifting of monsoon rainfall, people of Syandi have shifted

the timing of paddy plantation by one month. In addition, they are also using new varieties of

seed provided by agriculture office unfortunately the improvement in productivity is insignificant.


1. As livestock is the important part of the Syandi People, there is high possibility of biogas

plant on household level. In addition, the existing use of clean energy like micro-hydro and

solar energy should be encouraged to mitigate carbon emissions and traditional firewood

consumption should be replaced with new clean energy technologies.

2. Sustainable tourism promotion can be attractive solution to bring development activities in

the locality, which in turn provides new opportunities of socio-economic development. The

immediate needs of the people in Syandi are water conservation and management practices.

Rainwater harvesting and construction of artificial ponds to collect the rainwater during

monsoon season should be done. Proper sanitation facilities should be on priority because it

is related with the human health of people in Syandi village.




3.3 Bajura District3.3.1 Location Profile

Bajura District, a part of Seti zone, is the one of the districts on Far-western development region

of Nepal with a low human development index (UNDP 2004). It is considered as one of the remote

and underdeveloped districts of Nepal having high human poverty and low human empowerment

index (UNDP 2004). Because of low socio-economic condition, Bajura district is vulnerable to the

impacts of changing climate. Decreasing rainfall trend in past three decades is affecting the rain-

fed agriculture system in Bajura. Data from Bajura rainfall stations shows decreasing trend in

annual rainfall with a rate of 18.25 mm/year over the 36 years from 1976-2011. The inter-annual

variation of rainfall is even pronounced over the same period.

The combined climate change vulnerability index for Bajura is moderate; however, it is highly

vulnerable for drought and moderately vulnerable for landslide. In addition, ecologically Bajura

is highly sensitive towards climate change (GoN/NAPA 2010). The climate change adaptation

capability for Bajura is very low due to the poor socio-economic condition and lack of infrastructure

development (GoN/NAPA 2004).

Basurya village of Bahrabise VDC was selected for this research. It is located in the southwestern

part of Bajura district. Agriculture is the main occupation in Basurya village.

The major crops include Maize, Potato, Rice, Wheat and Millet. Most of the agriculture practices

in Basurya are rain-fed and only 1percent of total agriculture land has irrigation facility (field visit

2012). The food security level of Basurya village is very poor. Majority of the population don’t

enough food to fulfill their annual food demand hence, food security is the biggest threat to the

community. Firewood is the main source of energy for cooking and spacing heating. People have

access to solar electricity for lighting.

Barhabise VDC

N



About 35percent of the respondents have basic understanding of climate change and associated

impacts. Most of the respondents have not experienced any significant changes in local climate

system.

However, they have experienced warmer summer and colder winter as compared to the past

climate. In recent years, drought events are increasing and the nearby water sources are drying up.

The problem of water availability for domestic as well as agricultural use is the main problem in

Basurya village, which is further worsened by the addition pressure of climate change. Some of

the observed impacts in different sectors include:

Agriculture: Prolonged drought (up to 8 months) is the main growing threat related with climate

change. The agriculture practice in Basurya village is mainly rain-fed hence; any shortfall in rainfall

will bring remarkable effect on food production. Because of decreasing food production, the food

security level of Basurya village is declining year by year. Most of the respondents reported that

the food they grow annually is not sufficient to fulfill their annual food demand. They said that it

is only sufficient for seven months and rest of the five months they have to buy from the market.

Furthermore, various new diseases both in crop and livestock have been reported in the locality

putting extra pressure on productivity. According to the local farmer, livestock disease is growing

as a new challenge to the village. Just four to five month earlier of field visit, 50 goats died because

of unknown disease.

Water resources: Basurya village is highly vulnerable to water resources. The drinking water

is mainly supplied through community tap system. In recent years, because of declining water

sources, drinking water availability is declining and the community taps are also drying up. The

problem is more pronounced during the year with drought.

Human health and sanitation: Prevalence of mosquitoes and flies are increasing in the village.

Sanitation facility in Basurya village is very poor which may be the prime reason for occurrence

of flies.

However, the prevalence of mosquitoes may be somehow linked with increasing temperature.

This has brought possibility of new diseases in the vicinity however; people have not experienced

such cases with health impacts.


1. Infrastructure development is the prime need of the local community in Basurya village.

Construction of irrigation system, proper water supply system for drinking water should be on

top priority.

2. Agriculture sector being largely affected by water scarcity should be emphasized for climate

change adaptation program. To increase the agriculture productivity in changing climate

drought resistant suitable varieties could be one way to cope with it.

3. Water conservation awareness programs are essential to aware people about wise and

sustainable use of water resources. To control new diseases in plants, crop rotation practices,

multiple cropping systems are some environment friendly options. In case of livestock

diseases, access of veterinary facility is essential to monitor and diagnosed new diseases and

provide appropriate treatments.

4. Awareness on climate change, its impacts and adaptation (and/or mitigation) measures should

be conducted to enhance the general understanding of local people.

5. Awareness on sanitation is also important as the prevalence of mosquitoes and flies are

increasing.

6. To address the issue of water scarcity, on a household level, rainwater harvesting can turn out

to be an economic way to collect the water in small reservoir to use in for both household and

agricultural purpose.

7. As mentioned above firewood is the major source of energy for cooking and space heating.

Promotion of improved cooking stoves can help to mitigate illness associated with indoor air

pollution by using firewood. In addition, use of alternative energy sources like biogas, micro-

hydro will help to protect the environment by reducing the firewood consumption from nearby

forest and it will also reduce the carbon emission.


Due to limited infrastructure facilities, poverty, low social status, the adaptation capability is very

poor. From the field observation it was found that the coping mechanism in Basurya village is not so

impressive. As most of the people are unaware about the climate change impacts and adaptation

measures, people in Basurya village very little understanding on coping with changing climate.

However, in order to fulfill the water demand in agricultural field, people have constructed small

tank to collect the wastewater from drinking water sources and using it for irrigation purpose.




3.4 Dhading District3.4.1 Location Profile

Dhading District is located in the Bagmati zone of central Nepal consisting mountainous and

hilly areas. Climate change in Dhading has significant impact on rain-fed agriculture making it

more vulnerable to weather variation (Paudel et al., 2011). The average annual rainfall data of

Arughat precipitation station from 1978 to 2008 shows decreasing trend (24.335 mm/year). In

addition there has been remarkable decrease in water availability in nearby river compared to

the past stressing further the agriculture production (Dhakal et al., 2010). On the other hand, the

temperature is increasing with a rate of 0.01oC (Sagun 2009).

The combined vulnerability index

It is highly vulnerable for GLOF, drought, and landslide; however, the combined adaption capability

is low (GoN/NAPA 2010). In particular, socio-economic and technological adaptation capability is

very low for this district (GoN/NAPA 2010).

The tourism potential of Dhading district is impressive. It is located at the lap of mountains with

beautiful rivers, forests and popular religious places. Trishuli River is one of the famous tourist

destinations for rafting.

From Dhading, panoramic mountain views of Ganesh and Ganga Jamuna Himal can be seen. It

also possesses attractive lakes like Bridaing Kunda, Ganesh Kunda and Ganga Jamuna waterfall. In

addition, in the upper part of the district, Buddhist culture can be experienced.

Being really close to the capital city, Dhading provides accessible tourist destination with immense

natural beauty, cultural diversity. Travelling through Dhading, one can combine scenic sightseeing,

jungle safari, and white water rafting and religious as well as cultural tour into a single trip. The

present research was carried out on Laitak village of Jogimara VDC. Laitak lies in the southwest mid-

hills of Dhading district. Majority of the population depend upon agriculture for their livelihood.

Jogimara VDC

N


Solar power and biogas are the main source of energy. Firewood is widely used energy source

for cooking and space heating. People have access of piped drinking water however people also

depend upon nearby natural water sources.


Local people believe that in recent years the climatic pattern is changing over time. The trend of

precipitation, hotness and coldness has been changed significantly in last 15 to 20 years. Occurrence

of heavy storm is getting more severe than the past. In addition, hailstorm is getting more intensive.

As for example roofs of many houses and agricultural crops are being destroyed by hailstorm in

past few years. Water availability is becoming serious threat to the agriculture and livelihood of the

people in Laitak village. Agriculture, water resources, forest, biodiversity, and human and animal

health are the main sectors in which impacts of climate change has been reported.

Agriculture: The agriculture system in Laitak village is typical integrated rain-fed hill farming

and shifting cultivation type. It is well experienced by the local farmers that the crop production

has been decreased remarkably in recent years due to the decreasing rainfall, hailstorm, and

prevailing drought.

In particular, cereal production has been decreased by 50percent affecting mostly the poor and

marginalized farmers. According to the farmers, rice production some 20 years back used to be

75 kg per Ropani (1 Ropani = 0.05 ha) of land, which has now decreased up to 25 kg per Ropani.

In addition, there is a considerable decrease in grain size of major food crops like maize and rice.

People are also seeing an occurrence of diseases like Berua in rice; Pahele and Sete in maize and

rice; Patera in rice and wheat; Dahuwa in potato; and Gabara in banana. As a result people who

used to work as a labor in agriculture field are migrating to other areas for labor works. The drying

of water resources has large effect on seasonal vegetable farming. Respondents of Laitak believe

that introduction of bird species like Kotera (small bird with narrow beak) is destroying the wheat

during its maturation period.

Water resources: In Laitak village the natural water sources are disappearing in recent years.

People used to irrigate their farmland from water sources like Japane Mul, Thado Khola, Pakthali

Mul, but now these water sources are drying up affecting the agriculture largely. Similarly the

drinking water sources like Char Barang, Litibang, Bujuli and Tarkepani have already disappeared.

Because of declining water sources people are now bound to walk to the nearby water source

Sarbarang (especially during dry season) to collect the water for household use.

The villagers have observed significant water level decline in Jogimara Khola during last ten years.

There used to be abundant river discharge till October in the past but now drying begins from

early August to September. Laitak village is now facing severe water scarcity and the situation is

even worse during dry season.

Forest and biodiversity: In recent years due to decreasing abundance of locally available plant

called Dioscorea spp. (Bhakyur/Githa), which is the daily food for local people. People of Laitak are

now worried about future food availability. Moreover, the recent road construction activities are

affecting the nearby forest largely.

Species like Wendlendia excreta (Kaiyo) has already disappeared from the forest. Invasive plant species

like; Ageratinum conyozoides (Gandhe jhar) Lantera camera (Kade jhar), Eupatoriaum adenophotum

(Banmara) are adding extra pressure on the forest biodiversity and agricultural practices.

They are also thought to be responsible for the disappearing of many fodder trees in nearby

forest and farmlands. Flowering date of many plant species has been shifted. Delay flowering and

maturation in many vegetable crops like potato, pumpkin etc has been observed by the villagers.

Human and animal health: Many weather related human and animal diseases are threatening

the people’s livelihood. In case of human, occurrence of viral fever, cough, headache and skin

allergies are increasing.

The size of the newly born cattle like Buffalo, Goat are getting dwarf in recent years. Local people

have experienced changes in breeding behavior of livestock. The decreasing milk production is

another major concern of local people. They think that such changes possibly due to the lack of

fresh forage and fodder.


To cope with declining crop varieties, people have established community seed bank in Jogimara

to donate and loan many traditional local varieties of seeds. People are using cattle manure and

grey water to increase soil fertility. Addressing the issue of water scarcity, local villagers are now

conserving water and using it wisely. Rainwater harvesting is a good example, which is now in

practice in Laitak village. Due to the unavailability of firewood, alternative sources of energy like

biogas, solar, and energy efficient technology like improved cooking stoves are now in practice.


1. For agriculture sector, strengthening of local seed conservation techniques is important.

Disease and drought resistant seed varieties should be promoted in order to enhance

agriculture production in changing climatic conditions.

2. Construction of irrigation canal and distribution network is needed as Laitak village is facing

severe water scarcity. Realizing the importance of water conservation, source conservation

should be emphasized. Community water storage tanks for different purposes like household,

agriculture; livestock should be constructed to store the water for dry season. Rainwater

harvesting techniques should be encouraged further.

3. Forest conservation should also be taking into consideration, as collecting firewood is a growing

problem. Although people are now using alternative energy, such practices are limited to few

families. Hence, it needs to be promoted with government subsidy to make affordable for these

rural people. Concept of community forestry can turn out to be an attractive solution. People can be

benefited from the forest products meanwhile they can conserve the forest on a sustainable way.

4. Laitak village is on the way to Hatiban a famous place for sunrise view. Many visitors reach there

but Laitak village is usually avoided. If the area is promoted as a place to explore indigenous

culture and tradition, it has immense potential to develop it as a tourist destination.




3.5 Dolakha District

3.5.1 Location Profile

Dolakha District lies in Janakpur Zone with Charikot the Headquarter of Dolakha. The district

covers an area of 2,191 square kilometers and has a population of 204,229. The elevation ranges

from 762 to 7,148 meters (Gaurishankar peak). In Nepal, Gaurishankar is considered as sacred

peak and has not allowed any one to attempt this sacred peak. Two rivers border the region: the

Sun Koshi to the west and the Khimti to the east.

Dolakha is ranked as highly vulnerable district to climate change on NAPA’s “Climate Change

Vulnerability Mapping for Nepal” (GoN/NAPA 2010). GLOF is the biggest threat to the people in

Dolakha with very high vulnerability index. Tsho Rolpa Lake is among the 20 potentially dangerous

glacial lakes in Nepal (Mool 2001). Beside GLOF, Dolakha is also highly vulnerable for drought

and rainfall/temperature hazards. Data from Jiri agro-meteorological station shows increasing

trend for average annual maximum temperature while average annual minimum temperature

is decreasing (0.011oC/year) over the 30 years period (1981-2010). In case of rainfall, the average

annual rainfall is increasing (11mm/year) over the same period with inter-annual variability.

The overall changing climatic condition and threat of natural hazards indicates Dolakha district is

highly vulnerable to climate change; however, the adaptation capability is not so impressive. This

is because; the combined adaptation capability index for Dolakha is very low (GoN/NAPA 2010).

In particular, adaptation capability in terms of socio-economic development and infrastructure is

relatively low.

Jagat and Beding village were selected for the study in Dolakha. Both of the villages lie in the

Gaurishankar Conservation Area (GCA). Beding village is the main access point for the Tsho Rolpa

Glacier and Tasi Lapcha Pass trek. Beding village is located 9.6 km downstream of Tsho Rolpa

Glacier Lake along the banks of Rolwaling River.

Lamabagar VDC

N


In 1991 GLOF from Chubung adjacent to Tsho Rolpa alarmed local communities because of the

damage it caused downstream at Bedding village. Thus, Beding village is now considered as

highly vulnerable area for GLOF hazard. On the other hand Jagat village is situated at the bank of

Tamakoshi River.

It is also under risk of Tsho Ropla GLOF as reported by ICIMOD (2011). Despite the fact that both

of the villages are largely threatened by risk of GLOF, they are still popular trekking destinations

and have great potential of adventurous trekking.

Tibetan culture is the major socio-cultural attraction of Jagat and Beding. There are numerous

monasteries in these areas with religious and cultural importance. Tsho Rolpa Lake itself is the

major attraction of Rolwaling and both of the villages are on the way to Tsho Rolpa. Beding is

popular campsite for Tsho Rolpa and Tashi Lapcha pass trek.


Agriculture and livestock: People of Jagat village have been experiencing gradual increase in

potato production because they are using fertilizers; whereas the production of wheat and maize

are decreasing since four to five years mainly due to frequent occurrence of diseases. As for

example Leaf roll (Beruwa) in wheat and Sindure in barley has become nuisance to the farmers

in Jagat village. The decreasing agriculture productivity is the common problem in Beding village

also. As a result, young generations are now involved in mountaineering business as a guide or

labor. According to the villagers, more than 50-60percent households have already migrated to

Kathmandu for better opportunities and education.

Due to increasing frequency of landslide, which is possibly associated with intense rainfall events,

pastureland has been degraded. In addition, overgrazing in these landslide prone steep mountain

slopes is making these fragile areas more sensitive to landslides.

Water resources: The main water sources for piped drinking water system in Jagat villages are

Deulang Kulkoti and Gohibara spring; both of them are drying up. In case of Beding village people

don’t have any water supply system. For their daily water demand they depend on the nearby

Beding River. Villagers of Beding have experienced increasing frequency of short but intense

rainfalls rather than usual mild and continuous rainfall during the monsoon.

Forest and biodiversity: People of Jagat are maintaining the quality of forest through community

forestry program. However, an invasive species called Mikanai micrantha (Banmara) is dominating

the forest. According to the local people Artemisia vulgaris (Titepati) is now hard to find in the forest.

Similarly, Berberis aristat(Chutro) species is getting less abundant. In case of Beding village,

firewood is the main problem because of declining forested areas. Natural hazards like windstorm

affecting the forest largely in recent years adding burden to the livelihood of the mountain

communities. As for example windstorm of March 2011 destroyed many trees in the lower part of

the forest in Beding putting extra pressure on firewood availability.


To avoid the seasonal water scarcity and grazing land, people of Beding migrate in search of water

and pasture land. During dry period (winter) people of Beding migrate to low land Neymare village

where they can get abundant water from Gaurishankar Khola.

While during monsoon season people migrate upland with their livestock to the Neymare village

where snow feed Beding Khola is the prime source of water. People are controlling the growth of

invasive species by using it as a source of fodder for domesticated animals.


1. Drying water sources is the major problem of Jagat village. People have identified three

potential water sources nearby village. Hence, detail study on these newly identified water

sources and implementation of drinking water supply system will be helpful minimizing the

water deficiency of the local communities. Construction of central collection chamber for all

water sources is essential which can be used to store water for dry season.

2. Beding village has a micro-hydro plant with installed capacity of 22 kW. Since two years it is

not in operation because of much lower consumption (only 5 kW) than production. The micro-

hydro plant should put into operation once again.

3. To optimize the usage of energy generated people should be encouraged to use electricity for

cooking and space heating which in turn will reduce the firewood dependency.

4. As Beding village don’t have access of drinking water and they are forced to migrate seasonally

in search of water. Water supply project is their immediate need. Constructing a water storage

reservoir can collect water from Beding Khola, which can then distributed through pipe water

supply system.

5. Forest conservation practices are essential in Beding village as the forest area is decreasing.

Community forestry can be a good practice for forest conservation. Bioengineering techniques

should be applied to the landslide prone areas to reduce the risk of landslide. Plantation of

selective species as per livestock fodder requirement will be an intelligent concept to minimize

landslide and solve the problem of decreasing grazing lands.

6. As mentioned above both of the villages can be developed as Tamang Cultural Trek. Moreover,

both of the villages are on the way to Tsho Rolpa Trek, hence promotion of tourism in these

villages might attract trekkers to spend some time during their Tsho Rolpa Trek.




3.6 Dolpa District3.6.1 Location Profile

Dolpa District lies in the Karnali Zone and borders China to the north. The headquarters is

Dunai. The district covers an area of 7,889 square kilometers and has a population of 29,545.

The elevation ranges from1, 225 to 7,625 meters. Lake Phoksundo lies in this district at elevation

of 3,613m. The climate is alpine and temperatures are cool. Dolpa is considered as the largest

district of Nepal covering 5.36percent of the country’s total area.

It is the least developed district of Nepal with poor literacy rate and high poverty (CBS 2007).

Climate change is adding extra pressure to the livelihood of this remote mountain location.

Meteorological data analysis of Dunai climate station indicates changing climatic pattern in Dolpa.

Temperature analysis over 19 year period reveals decreasing trend for mean monthly maximum

temperature; whereas, monthly minimum temperature steadily remains the same. There has

been gradual decreasing trend for average annual rainfall over the 30-year period (1981-2010)

with pronounced inter-annual variability. Dolpa district is highly vulnerable to climate change with

very high vulnerability index for drought, rainfall, temperature, and landslide.

Ecologically it is highly sensitive to changing climate (GoN/NAPA 2010). Because of low socio-

economic status and limited infrastructure, the climate change adaptation capability of Dolpa

district is very low (GoN/NAPA 2010).

Untouched by the outer world, the natural beauty and cultural diversity of Dolpa has been well

preserved. However, the wilderness beauty of Dolpa is yet to be explored. Dolpa serves high

mountains like Dhaulagiri, Churen, Kanjirowa and Mukut Himal. Nepal’s largest protected area

i.e.,Shey-Phoksundo National Park(SPN) is the major tourist attraction in Dolpa. Other natural

attraction of includes Shey Phoksundo Lake, hot water springs, waterfalls, caves, and colorful

rhododendron forests.

Phoksundo VDC

Phada VDC

N


Walking around Dolpa Trek one can have great opportunity to know about Buddhist and Tibetan

culture and observe oldest ancient Nepalese monasteries. The research was mainly focused on

the two villages namely Bhutingra village of Phada VDCs and Ringmo village of Shey Phoksundo.

Bhutingra lies on lower track of the Great Himalayan Trail. It possesses socio-cultural and

geographical uniqueness. People of Bhutingraare highly deprived from abundant water availability

and basic sanitations. Yarsa Gumba is the main source of income for local people. Ringmo village

lies on upper track of the GHT and encompasses extreme scenic beauty and rich biodiversity.

Shey-Phoksundo National Park and Shey-Phoksundo Lake are the major tourist destination in

western Nepal nearby the village.

3.6.2 Perception on Climate Change

Both the villages have witnessed significant changes in existing system of agriculture, land use,

settlements, ecology, and livelihood of local people. People have experienced remarkable changes

in climatic pattern. Winter is getting warmer than the past in Bhutingra village. Windstorms are

now common and more frequent. There is a general increasing trend of monsoon rainfall in

Bhutingra village however decreasing trend in case of Ringmo village.

Both the villages have experienced prolonged drought in winter. According to villagers, there used

to be about three feet of snowfall some 10 year back, currently they get only six to seven inch of

snow in winter. In case of Ringmo village, snowfall durations are increasing. In the past there used

to be snowfall till March but now it stays till May.

Water resources: Bhutingra village is situated in the barren hill and suffering from the water

scarcity since the past. In recent years, the decreasing rainfall is adding extra stress to the

livelihood. People have to face severe water scarcity for four months in winter.

There are only four community taps for 65 households, which are not sufficient to meet their

demands. Furthermore, prolonged drought is another main water related issue in Bhutingra village.

Lack of safe and hygienic water and sanitation facility is making the situation of human health

even worse. In case of Ringmo, both the winter and monsoon rainfall has been decreased largely

affecting the water availability of the people. The water level in nearby rivers is decreasing.

Hence, water availability for drinking and irrigation purpose is now a biggest problem. Due to

declining water sources, water is supplied only for two hours a day through community tap

system; however, there used to be 24 hours water supply in the past.

Agriculture: Prolonged drought has significant impacts on crop germination in Bhutingra. Reduction

in winter rainfall and snowfall has been affecting the winter crop such as barley, maize and potato.

Decreasing winter rainfall in recent years is serious threat to the rain-fed agriculture system. On

the other hand, increasing monsoon rainfall is causing massive soil erosion. This has caused loss

of fertile soil affecting the agricultural productivity.

Respondents also mentioned that flowering of apple and pear has been delayed by one and half

months since last four years. In case of Ringmo there is a large reduction of agriculture production

in recent years. Food security is the biggest threat to the community. According to the local people,

food they grow is sufficient only for three months. The main crops are Wheat and Potato and

production of both of these have been reduced largely. Desertification of grazing land is another

problem affecting the livestock food requirements.

Human Health: Due to lack of drinking water during dry season people of Bhutingra are now

forced to collect water from other sources. Mostly children and women are engaged in collecting

waterway far to other villages increasing health stress to the women and children further.

Though they collect water and store in their home, the water is not so safe to use for drinking

purpose. Hence, lack of safe drinking water is causing water borne diseases in the vicinity. Poor

sanitation is another important factor degrading the health status of the people.

Infrastructure: Increasing monsoon rainfall is triggering more landslides in Bhutingra. There

was a huge landslide adjacent to the village. In 2008 five households and large number of arable

lands were swept away by the landslide. The Bhutingra village has been threatened by the risk of

landslide and highly vulnerable to it.


No noticeable coping mechanisms were observed during the field survey. However, in Bhutingra

village to avoid the impact of drought, people have delayed the cultivation date by a month (from

January to February).


1. The decrease in rainfall and snowfall has direct impact on the rain-fed agricultural practices in

both Bhutingra and Ringmo villages, so emphasis should be given in this sector. Water pools

or canal system should be constructed in the villages so that people can irrigate the agriculture

field during dry seasons.

2. Water scarcity is one of the main problems in both of the villages. Thus, water conservation

practices like rainwater harvesting should be carried out along with construction of water

supply project to facilitate the villagers with pure drinking water throughout the year.

3. Health and sanitation is one of the major needs in Bhutingra village. Awareness campaign on

sanitation should be conducted and proper health service should be provided.

4. Awareness on climate change, its impact and locally available adaptation measure should be

conducted to enhance the knowledge of local people.

5. In case Bhutingra, the landslide vulnerable community (10 households) should be relocated to safer area.

6. Being situated in Shey-Phoksundo national park and adjacent to the beautiful Shey-Phoksundo

Lake, both of the villages have great potential of tourism. Both of the villages is on the way

to Shey-Phoksundo Lake, hence tourism potential along with some basic infrastructure

development activities like water supply, sanitation might, trial development, and other

accommodation facilities might change socio-economic status of the local people.




3.7 Doti District3.7.1. Location Profile

Doti District is located in the Seti zone of far western Nepal. Geographically Doti lies in the

mountainous zone with numerous lowland valleys carved by Seti River. Climate change in Doti

has been affecting the livelihood of the people in recent years because of decreasing temperature

and increasing rainfall pattern. Temperature analysis of Silgadi climate station for the 30-year

period (1980 to 2009) shows that both annual average maximum and minimum temperature are

decreasing. Similarly, the average annual rainfall trend is also decreasing over the 30 years from

1978-2009 at the rate of 2.009 mm per year.

Doti is highly vulnerable to climate change because of very low socio-economic adaptive capability

(GoN/NAPA 2010). Poverty is another triggering factor for low adaptation capability as the human

poverty index for Doti is 53.4 (UNDP 2004). The vulnerability index for Doti is very high in terms of

landslide and drought and it is ecologically highly sensitive district (GoN/NAPA 2010).

Doti district is popular for its religious as well as natural beauty and have immense potential of

tourism. Khaptad National Park (KNP) is the one of the main attraction of Doti district.

There are numerous religious temples in Doti for domestic as well as international visitors. Natural

beauty of Seti River and its landscape if promoted could be an attractive place for nature trek.

Similarly, there are various lakes and ponds in Doti which yet to be explored and promoted for

tourism.

Wagalek VDC

N


Present research was carried out in Wadi village of Baglekh VDC, Doti. Agriculture and remittance

are the main sources of income. Firewood is the major source of energy for cooking and space

heating, however in recent days; use of solar energy is growing. Though agriculture is the main

occupation in Wadi village, the food they grow is only sufficient for three to four months (Field

survey 2012).

In recent years, due to decreasing rainfall pattern, the rain-fed agriculture in Wadi village added

extra pressure on agriculture productivity worsening the food security condition.

3.7.2 People Perception of Climate Change

People of Wadi village believed that climate change in terms of increasing temperature is not

so significant. Summer is usual but winter is getting shorter since the last 20 to 30 years. The

frequency of snowfall has been declined remarkably as Wadi village receives snowfall in every

four to five years interval. This is the noticeable change because in past there used to be snowfall

every year. Similarly, people are experiencing more foggy days in winter. Increasing frequency of

heavy storm is another severe climate induced hazard in the Wadi village.

Agriculture: The agricultural production has been largely declined in recent years. Crop varieties

like black lentil, buckwheat, and legumes are no more in practice these days. According to the

villagers, the production of black lentil per unit land has been greatly reduced from 70 kg/Ropani

(1 Ropani = 0.05 ha) to about 10 kg/Ropani over the 10 years period. Similarly, quantity of cereal

crops like rice and wheat has been reduced remarkably (approximately 25 percent) as compared

to the past 20 to 30 years.

Prevalence of new species of beetles is affecting the buckwheat (Eleusine coracena) production.

Baglekh VDC is food deficit VDC and World Food Program supports food aid. In recent years, due

to declining agriculture production the food security level of Wadi village is getting worse and

people are forced to depend upon the food aid. According to the local people agriculture, water

resources, forest and biodiversity, and human health are the sectors where noticeable changes

have been observed;

Water resources: Water availability is a growing issue in Wadi village affecting the livestock and

livelihood of the people. Natural ponds are disappearing leading to drinking water scarcity in the vicinity.

Similarly, during monsoon season due to heavy rainfall excessive soil erosion and landslides are

affecting fertile agriculture land. Though, people of Wadi village have piped water supply system,

occurrence of Leeches in the drinking water is another water related issue affecting the human health.

Forest and biodiversity: Invasive plant species are replacing local fodder trees like, Saurauia

nepaulensis (Gogan),Ficus nerifolia (Dudhelo), Ficus semicordata (Khanio), as a result livestock

grazing is now under pressure. Invasive species like, Azaratinum haustonianum (Nilo gandhe

jhar), Eupatorium adenophorum (Banmara) are getting more abundant putting pressure on forest

biodiversity and agricultural system. However, these invasive species are good source of firewood for

local people. Though, community forestry and buffer zone management is under way, the availability

of medicinal plants in nearby forest and Khaptad National Park (KNP)and buffer zone is declining.

Human and animal health: Occurrence of previously known and some new unidentified human

diseases is getting more common. Number of cases with Typhoid and skin allergies are increasing

these days. Due to unavailability of fodder, livestock populations are decreasing. Frequency of

livestock death is increasing as explained by the local people. The cases of Diarrhoea are now

common in livestock affecting the livestock population.

In the past people used to cure such diseases by applying local herbal medicines, however, these

medicines have no effect any more. People think that such occurrence of diseases in livestock is

due to the growth of invasive species like Michania micrantha, and Azaretinum haustonaianum.


People use synthetic fertilizers in the agriculture field to enhance the agriculture production. People

have introduced the hybrid seed varieties and synthetic seed, however such practices are not enough

to enhance agriculture productivity, as they are less tolerant to environmental stress. Black lentil,

Buckwheat, Legumes etc are not more in practice these days, as they do not produce significantly.


1. Use of chemical fertilizer should be discouraged. Bio-fertilizer made by agriculture and

household biodegradable water should provide option for chemical fertilizer. To avoid the

nuisance of beetles, inter-cropping, rotational farming system, multiple cropping, and strip

cropping agricultural practices should be some possible alternatives.

2. The water quality of piped drinking water supply should be improved by sources conservation

and treatment. Realizing the issue of declining water sources, new water sources should be

explored if available. Water conservation practices is essential to use water wisely especially

during dry period. Construction of water storage facility is essential in both community and

household level. Rainwater harvesting might be on possible option to collect and use water

during wet season.

3. Conservation of forest through community forestry should be strengthened. Forest based

entrepreneurs should be promoted to benefit from forest products particularly medicinal plants.

4. Health centre for human and livestock is also important, as occurrence of new diseases is

more common these days.

5. Use of solar energy is getting popular in the locality, which should be encouraged

further. Use of improved cooking stove is good way to use firewood efficiently.

It also helps to reduce the risk of indoor air pollution. To promote the clean energy, micro-

hydro is the most potential alternative energy option in the village.




3.8 Gorkha District


Gorkha District lies in Gandaki Zone. The headquarters is Gorkha Bazar. The district covers an

area of 3,610 square kilometers and has a population of288,134. The elevation ranges from 488

to 8,166 meters (Mt. Manaslu), with several peaks above 7,000m.

In recent decades Gorkha is witnessing the impact of climate change with overall increasing

temperature and decreasing rainfall (GoN/NAPA 2010). The rainfall data from Larke Samdo

precipitation station shows decreasing trend of average annual rainfall (30.40 mm/year) over

the 31 years period (1980 to 2010). The decrement rate is relatively large and the inter-annual

variability is more pronounced than other districts.

Gorkha district is highly vulnerable to climate change as the combined vulnerability index is

high (GoN/NAPA 2010). GLOF and landslides are the major threat to the people in Gorkha. An

unnamed glacial lake in Gorkha district is among the 20 potentially dangerous glacial lakes of

Nepal (Bajracharya et al., 2001). Because of the low socio-economic status, the climate change

adaptation capability is comparatively low for this district (GoN/NAPA 2010).

Gorkha district is well known for its socio-culture, religious and natural richness. Gorkha

palace is one of the main attractions of Gorkha. Besides this, Tibetan culture, Monasteries and

historic temples are other highlights. From Gorkha one can have a great view of Annapurna,

Manaslu, Ganesh ranges. Manaslu Conservation Area is the main tourist destinations in Gorkha.

Adventurous caves, hot springs, and beautiful waterfalls are other natural highlights.

Chhaikampar VDC

N


Rafting in the Aankhu Khola/Budhi Gandaki is another adventurous activity that can be done in

Gorkha. The study area Chhekam village consists of two settlements; Chhekam settlement and

Paro settlement located on Tsum valley of Gorkha. Tibetan speaking Mongolians are the dominant

ethnic group in Chhekam village.

The main income source for the villagers is the trade of Cordicepts sinensis (Yarsa Gumba) from

Tsum to Tibet.

Beside this seasonal business of Yarsa Gumba, agriculture is another major occupation. Chhekam

village is rich in natural beauty and cultural diversity. The Tibetan culture is the major attraction

of Chhekam village. Beside this, stunning views of Ganesh Himal range to the south and Himlchuli

and Budha Himal to the southwest are other major natural attractions.


According to the local people agriculture, water resources, forest and biodiversity are the main

sector where significant impacts have been observed:

Agriculture and livestock: Shear and Lung Rivers are the prime source of water for irrigation to

supply water for crops like wheat, buckwheat (Phapar), and Tibetan mustard. However, declining

water discharge in these rivulets has largely affected subsistence farming in the village. River flow

during March to May is not sufficient to supply the water need for crop growth affecting the

agriculture production. In case of livestock, animal grazing is the main problem due to intense

rainfall, soil erosion, and landslides.

Water resources: Water scarcity is the major problem in Chhekam village. According to the local

people, natural rivulets like Lung Lungba and Saki Lungba are now drying up. People recall that,

some 10-12 years back there used to be continuous flow throughout the year. In recent years it

is hard to see flowing water in these rivulets during dry season. There has been a remarkable

change in snowfall duration as stated by the local people.

In the past there used to snowfall for six months, but now it has reduced significantly. People have

noticed remarkable retreating of Churke Himal Glacier in recent decades. They reported that the

Churke Himal glacier and a small river namely Manglba have completely disappeared. Because

of seasonal drying of natural streams the traditional culture of using water mills is disappearing

these days. Three abandoned water mills downstream of Saki Lungba are example of it.

Forest and biodiversity: Frequent windstorm is affecting the nearby forest in recent years. As

for example severe storm of February 2012 had serious impacts on the forest. Number of trees

was uprooted by the massive windstorm. People have never witnessed such heavy storm in their

entire life.


The traditional culture of grinding cereals by water mill is now about to vanish because of drying

rivulets. To grind their cereals they are now using petrol powered mills. To cope with drying water

sources people are now using Chesong (a bronze vessel) to store the water for dry winter months.

In agriculture sector people are now growing less water demanding Tibetan mustard instead of

wheat, which used to be a major crop in the village. People are also growing different vegetables

like cabbages, spinaches in the field. To enhance the productivity they are using cow dung and

organic manure in their field.


1. Water is the main issue in Chhekam village. Integrated water resource management project

should be formulated to fulfill people’s drinking water demands as well as the irrigation needs.

Sanitation facility should also be considered into the water supply project for better health

of the people. Water conservation practices including concept of rainwater harvesting will be

helpful to use water wisely. Proper sanitation facility is also essential

2. People should be pre-informed about the extreme weather as frequent windstorm is affecting

the livelihood largely.

3. Landslide and soil erosion control is another issue that needs especial attention. Bioengineering

techniques can be one effective solution. It will not only control the landslide and soil erosion

but also provides fodder requirements of livestock.

4. From the field visit Chhekam village is a step forward in low carbon development mechanism.

Micro hydro is the basin energy source for lighting. People are using improved cooking stoves

for efficient use of firewood. Some households are using gas stoves for cooking purpose. Such

climate friendly energy use practices should be encouraged further.

5. Promotion of market-based trade of Yarsa Gumba might bring some economic in the

community, as agriculture production in these days is not so impressive to sustain their life.

Another important key to enhance socio-economic status of local people is the promotion of

tourism. Chhekam village can be developed as a minor Trek to explore Tibetan culture. It also

has possibility of promoting perfect site for Mountain View of Ganesh Himal, Annapurna and

Manaslu.




3.9 Humla District3.9.1 Local Profile

Humla District is located in the northern corner of Karnali zone and boarders China to the north.

The headquarters is Simikot. The district covers an area of 5,655 square kilometers and has

population of 40,595 (2001). The elevation of Humla ranges from 1,524 to 7,337 meters. Simikot

also serve as the administrative headquarters of the Humla district.

In recent years, significant impacts of climate change have been observed in Humla district.

Climate data from Simikot station in Humla district shows slight decrease in annual rainfall over

the 28 years from 1979-2006 at the rate of 2.727 mm per year. In case of temperature, data

analysis for 17 years period (1989-2005) shows decreasing trend for monthly mean maximum

temperature, while monthly minimum temperature is increasing.

The best part about Humla district is its incomparable beauty. With magnificent green valley

cutting through its rugged high peaks, wild rivers running across the land, and is the perfect

picture of natural beauty and diverse wildlife. Aside from these natural treasures, the district has

many ancient temples and other places of worship that speak about its rich history. However,

due to lack of infrastructure, communications, severe cold mountain climate and difficult walking

conditions, Humla is amongst the most treacherous trekking route in the country. Despite of

these underlying issues, Humla has great potential for an adventurous trekking and wilderness

experience. One of the popular tourist destinations along Humla trek is the Halji village (study

site in this research) in Limi VDC. Halji is the biggest (about 96 households) village among three

villages such as Jang and Til in Limi and is the monastic headquarter as well.

Limi VDC

N


Halji village provides beautiful landscapes, rivers, meadows, exquisite wildlife and vegetation. Halji

has the 11th century Rinchenling Monastery and is considered as one of the oldest Ngyingmapa

Sect monastery in west Nepal.

In addition, trekking to Halji offers glimpse of Mt. Kailash, Mt. Saipal, Mt. Mendun and Ghur-La

Mandala along with several waterfall and hot springs. The combined vulnerability index for Humla

is moderate; however Ecological Vulnerability Index (EVI) is relatively high (MoE/NAPA 2010). The

adaptive capability of Humla is very poor as the Combined Adaptation Capability Index (CACI) for

Humla is very low (MoE/NAPA 2010).

Not only the Humla itself, the small Halji village is also experiencing remarkable effect of changing

climate. The Halji village is threatened by frequent floods and associated hazards. This village

faces number of challenges due to flood that has washed out the village and the Gompa property;

lamas and monks were having difficulty to conduct day-to-day rites and rituals.


Most of the respondents believe that, temperature has increased in past decades while the

rainfall pattern is getting more erratic. Temporal pattern of monsoon rainfall and winter snowfall

have been changed largely affecting the agriculture and livelihood. In particular, monsoon rainfall

arrives one month earlier than past and drought prevails in pre-monsoon season (mainly April-

May).

The noticeable impact of climate change in Halji village is the melting of Halji Glacier and expansion

of glacial lake upstream. Since 2006, Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) has repeatedly struck

the village, which have occurred annually destroying buildings, farmlands and infrastructure,

however; there are no reports of human casualties so far.

Large areas of agricultural land have been washed away and historical monastery has also been

affected. Summary of historic GLOF events and associated impacts to Halji village is given below:

SN Date Time Impacts Remarks

1 30 June 2011 4:30 PM Seven water mills were destroyed, 7 Horses and 17

Chauri were killed, two houses were damaged, and

more than hundred agricultural fields were affected

Currently

they have 7

Water Mills.

2 July 2009 9:00 am Six water mills and some agricultural lands were

washed away

3 July 2008 10:00 am Four water mills were washed away completely

4 July 2007 8:30 am Four water mills, two local bridges and agricultural land

were washed away

5 July 2006 9:00 am Two bridges and two water mills were destroyed

Source: Field Survey (2012)

Other impacts associated with Halji Glacier are the raising water level in nearby river. According

to the locals, the water level of Halji River has increased approximately by 4 m. Due to frequent

flood and increasing discharge in river (due to melting of glacier), river erosion and bank cutting

are getting more severe.


In order to minimize the risk of frequent floods, gabion walls have been constructed annually

since 2006 with a financial support from District Development Committee (DDC). A native fast

growing willow trees and shrubs have been planted.

By planting those native trees, the local people hopes that the water retention and reduce erosion

potential of the streambed and embankment. According to local sources, an approximately

80percent of the native trees i.e., willow planted along the riverbank has grown successfully.

In addition, the plantation of native trees on the flat area, approximately 2000 a bag with sands

has been placed near the riverbed to support the gabion boxes.

People of Halji have implemented Community Based Approach (CBA) and each individual is

contributing for it. According to villagers approximately 700-800 m river length has been protected

with gabion walls. Unfortunately, this effort is not sufficient to reduce the potential impact of

GLOF. The construction of gabion wall has not proven to be a dependable solution as each year

the community constructed gabion wall is swept away by the flood.


1. To raise the living status of local people new opportunities for income generation should

be created. Promotion of tourism can be one of promising solution as Halji village is

destinations for historical and religious monastery, unique culture and beautiful landscape.

The “Limi Valley Trekking Route (LVTR)” is one of the famous trekking routes in Humla, hence,

promotion of LVTR route considering the possible mitigation option to climate change on a

climate smart way is essential.

2. The prime source of energy for cooking and space heating is firewood. In order to implement

the low carbon development strategy, other environment friendly technology should be

endorsed. Example includes improve cooking stoves.

3. Halji village has one micro hydro with 6.5 KW capacities but current generation is only 4 KW

of electricity.

To fulfill their electric demand, most of the people in Halji are using solar energy. These

environment friendly technologies should be promoted further.

4. The major threat, which needs immediate action in Halji village, is GLOF.

5. Early warning system should be developed to evacuate the villagers in order to minimize the

risk of GLOF. River training work should be intensified, as the current effort of gabion wall

construction is not sufficient to mitigate the effects of flood. Research on Glacial hydrology

should be conducted to monitor the glacier and glacial lake activities.

6. Disaster preparedness regarding the GLOF and associated risks should be implemented

immediately. Lowering of water level in glacial lake by constructing a dam with a gated canal

opening in order to mitigate the GLOF should be developed.




3.10 Jumla District3.10.1 Location Profile

Jumla District lies in the Karnali zone in the mid-western development region of Nepal. Khalanga

is the headquarters of the Jumla district. The district covers an area of 2,531square kilometers

and had population of 89,427. The elevation ranges from 915-4,679 meters. Jumla is main access

point to Mugu, Humla, and Dolpa. Jumla is the main access point to Mugu, Humla, and Dolpo.

In particular, it is well known for its high potential of rice production. However, the agricultural

productivity is highly rainfall dependent. In recent years, climate change is affecting the monsoon

rainfall, which in turn has severe impacts on agriculture of this mountainous region.

As the economic status of people in Jumla is highly agriculture dependent; any shortfall in

agriculture production leads to direct effect on their livelihood. The climate data analysis of Jumla

meteorological station shows that there is overall decreasing trend in average annual rainfall

for the period 1983-2010. Similarly, the 28 years temperature analysis shows that both average

annual maximum and minimum temperature are increasing.

Regarding the climate change vulnerability of Jumla district, the combine vulnerability index for

Jumla district is moderate, however, drought and ecological vulnerability is relatively high. Located

in the mountainous region and limited developments, adaptive capability is very low.

According to NAPA vulnerability assessment, the combined adaptation capability for Jumla is very

low (GoN/NAPA 2010) for Jumla.

Rafting and Kayaking in the Karnali River are the main attraction of Jumla. In addition, Jumla is

well known for its Tibetan and Matwali Chhetris culture. It also includes natural attractions like

waterfalls and hot water springs. For this piece of study, Dipayalgaun of Dipayalgaun VDC and

Pipal gaun of Kartik Swami VDC of Jumla district were selected.

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Kartikswami VDC

Depalgaun VDC


Agriculture is the main source of income in both of the VDCs. Both of the VDCs have large potential

of rice production. However, people rely on weather dependent rain-fed paddy production for

their livelihoods, which is severely affected by changing climate. Besides agriculture, trading of

Cordicepts sinensis (Yarsa Gumba in local language) is season income source in Dipayalgaun.

In case of Pipalgaun village, government service is other important occupation, which may be due

to the high literacy rate (73.2percent) in Pipalgaun as compared with Dipayalgaun (46.2percent).


Majority of the respondents are not well informed about the issues of climate change. However,

most of the respondents have experience-increasing trend of temperature in recent years.

Rainfall amount has been decreasing while it is getting more intense and causing flash flood and

hailstorm. In particular, monsoon rainfall is getting more erratic and temporal variation is more

pronounced. Consequently, agriculture sector in both of the VDCs is largely affected by changing

climate. Besides this, there are some noticeable impacts on water resources and biodiversity.

However, most of the respondents have experience-increasing trend of temperature in recent

years. Rainfall amount has been decreasing while it is getting more intense and causing flash

flood and hailstorm. In particular, monsoon rainfall is getting more erratic and temporal variation

is more pronounced. Consequently, agriculture sector in both of the VDCs is largely affected

by changing climate. Besides this, there are some noticeable impacts on water resources and

biodiversity.

Agriculture: Because of decreasing monsoon rainfall and its temporal and spatial variation,

agriculture production has been greatly reduced in both Dipayalgaun and Pipalgaun village.

In particular, production of local rice variety (Orizya sativa) is commonly known as Asian rice has

been reduced by 50percent. Prevalence of new diseases is the major problem in rice production.

Similarly, the production of barley, corn and potato are also decreasing due to early snowmelt,

intense hailstorm and less rainfall. In case of Pipalgaun, seasonal migration of local people was

reported due to declining crop productivity. Hence, food security is now growing as a serious

problem in Pipalgaun and the situation is even worse in case of marginalized people. Another

emerging issue in agriculture sector is declining available grazing and pastureland.

The rangeland is both of the VDCs seem to have largely affected by changing rainfall pattern. As a

result, the livestock grazing has become a serious problem in Dipayalgaun and Pipalgaun Village.

Water resource: In both of the villages, water availability was not a serious issue in the past,

however, in recent years; the quality of water has been degraded due to the frequent flash flood

and associated erosion. The major sources of drinking water (natural spring) are drying up and

people (especially women) have to spent longer time to collect water for household use.

Forest and biodiversity: Non Timber Forest Product (NTFP) is the main biological resource in

both Dipayalgaun and Pipalgaun VDCs. NTFP is another important source of income generation

for these poor people.

Local people are selling these valuable products into the market and generate additional income.

Since last decade, these wild species are decreasing and getting less abundant. Similarly, the

flowering time of plants species have been shifted by one month. Consequently, the livelihood

of local communities has been greatly affected adding extra pressure to the economic status of

these poor people.


People of Dipayalgaun and Pipalgaun are now using new varieties of rice like Chandanath I and III

because people believed that the previous rice variety no more appropriate for current climatic

condition. People have now shifted their cropping pattern because of the temporal shifting

of rainfall (or snowfall). To cope with the drinking water scarcity, in both village water storage

tank have been constructed to supply water for household use through community tap system.

Being rural mountainous communities with limited livelihood options, adaptive capacity in both

Dipayalgaun and Kartikswami VDCs are low due to limited information, poor access to services,

and inequitable access to productive assets.


1. Agriculture sector should be placed on top priority, as agriculture is being a major source of

income for both of the villages. As the rice production is highly rain-fed, hence to minimize

the untimely monsoon rainfall, irrigation facility is needed both in Dipayalgaun and Pipalgaun

village. New rice varieties for changing climatic condition should be tested and provided to the

farmers for better production.

2. Drinking water is emerging as serious problem in both of the villages; hence, construction of

reservoir to collect water and distribution throughout the year is important. Water treatment

facility is essential to avoid the sediment problem during rainy season.

3. Forest management and protection should be carried out. The concept of community forestry

and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) can be some good examples. Such practice has two

advantages; the first one is the forest conservation itself and the second one is the benefits

from forest products, carbon trading, soil erosion control, and water conservation.

4. During field visit it was observed that most of the villagers have Improve Cooking Stove (ICS)

installed in their home. Similarly, most of the respondents have solar energy for lighting. In

both villages, micro-hydro facility is available; however, the current generation capacity is not

sufficient to fulfill their demand. Hence, use of solar and micro-hydro should be encouraged

and the micro-hydro capacity should be upgraded.

5. The impacts of climate change are not evenly distributed between different communities. Poor

and marginalized communities, who often live in vulnerable areas with limited information,

limited livelihoods options and low adaptive capacity, are obviously most vulnerable to climate

change. Hence, the adaptation needs of marginalized community should be emphasized.

6. Places in Jumla are the gateway to most popular trekking route to Rara and Dolpa. However,

Dipayalgaun and Pipalgaun of Jumla district have great potential of tourism development. In this

regard, these villages can be promoted as a remote and wilderness site for adventurous trekking.




3.11 Kaski District3.11.1 Location Profile

Kaski District lies in the western development region of Nepal and one of the major tourist

destinations in Nepal. The climate change scenario in Kaski district shows increasing trend of

both rainfall and temperature. The climate data analysis from Pokhara Airport meteorological

station in Kaski shows increase in average annual rainfall over the 31 years from 1980-2010 with

inter-annual variability.

Similarly, the 30 years temperature analysis shows that both average annual maximum and

minimum temperature are increasing over the period 1981-2010. The climate change vulnerability

status of Kaski district is moderate (GoN/NAPA 2010). However, the ecological sensitivity towards

climate change for Kaski district is very high. In addition, it is also highly vulnerable for landslide

hazards. The most interesting fact about Kaski district is its impressive adaptive capability to

climate change.

According to GoN/NAPA (2010) the combined adaptation capability for Kaski is very high. The

individual adaptation capability index in terms of infrastructure, technology and socio-economic

condition are also very high.

Kaski comprises the most famous tourist destinations in Nepal namely Pokhara.

The serenity of Phewa Lake and the magnificence of the fishtailed summit of Machhapuchhre

(6,977 m) rising behind it create an ambience of peace and magic.

Beside this, the spectacular panorama of the Annapurna range (Annapurna I to IV) is another

major attraction of Kaski. Kaski district falls under the Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) and is

well known for its biological diversity. Because of its diverse climatic regime, Kaski district provides

N

Parche VDC


suitable habitat for various flora and fauna species, hence it is an attractive place for tourists to

enjoy wildlife.

The study area Sikles is located to the north east of Pokhara in the shadow of Annapurna II and

Lamjung mountains. It is a large village, possibly the second largest Gurung village in Nepal. Sikles

is a good example of well-preserved traditional Gurung culture.

Above the village is Rishing Danda, from where a panoramic view of the peaks of Annapurna II and

Lamjung can be seen. Folk songs and dances are an important part of Gurung life and cultural. In

particular, traditional Ghantu dance performed by three young girls is precious tradition in Sikles.


Very few respondents know about the climate

change while majority of them are not familiar

with the issues of climate change. According

to the local people, effect of climate change

in Sikles is not so pronounced and visible.

The local people of Kaski stated that climate

change impacts on different sectors like

agriculture, ecology, water resource has not

been experienced so well till date.

However, some respondents have experienced

hotter summer and colder winter these days.

About 40percent of respondent believe that

there are some changes in temperature and

rainfall pattern as they are facing extreme

rainfall and hailstorm events in recent years.

The consequence of such extreme events that

was reported during the field visit is the large

shortfall in rice production in recent years. Rice

is the major crop in Sikles and it is the important

income-generating source for local people, hence

the livelihood of local people has been greatly

affected by such climate related hazards.

According to the local people, agriculture

sector is the highly affected sector due to the

changing change.

Disaster in Kaski district

On 05 May 2012 an avalanche in the Annapurna Mountains caused floods in the Seti River, Kaski district. The level of Seti River was as high as 30 ft. at some locations during the time of flooding. The bad hit area is 40 km north from Pokhara valley. Twenty houses, two temples and one community building have been swept and half of a kilometer of the road section, three suspension bridges and water supply system to the Pokhara valley that supplies around 60 percent of water supply in the valley and electric poles have been damaged. Most of the deceased are pilgrims, locals, tourists and laborers working on sand/stone quarry in the riverbank.

Agriculture: Heavy hailstorm and extreme rainfall events are the major threat to agriculture

(especially rice field). The heavy hailstorm of October 2012 is recent example of such extreme

events. The impact of hailstorm was so severe that there was 60percent reduction in rice

production in that particular year.

Human and animal health: Prevalence of mosquitoes is the only growing nuisance for people in

Sikles village. However, local people are well aware about the environmental health and sanitation.


Though there are no any severe water related impacts, which are being experienced by the local

people, they have well managed water supply system. They have constructed a large reservoir

to collect the water from nearby spring. The collected water is then distributed to individual

household through private tap.


1. The Gurung dominated Sikles village have immense potential of tourism where trekkers can

easily spend several day to avoid the normal Annapurna tourist trail and find a forgotten

and unspoiled area of Himalayan Nepal. Being a largest Gurung village in Nepal, Sikles is

rarely visited place by outsider. Thus, it can be developed as a model trekking village along

the Annapurna circuit where visitors will have opportunity of enjoying distinct flavor of local

Gurung life-style, observing handicraft production and sight-seeing of different mountainous

peaks including Annapurna and Manaslu. Of particular interest are the local cloth weaving and

the ancient water driven flourmills.

2. Furthermore, Sikles is particularly good for bird watching because of its pristine forested

surroundings where different species of birds thrive.

3. Agriculture is the sector in which pronounced impacts have been observed; hence, it should be

prioritized for adaptation programs. People should be pre-informed about the extreme rainfall

and storm events. Similarly, disaster preparedness plan and programs for climate induced

hazards especially hailstorm should be implemented. Awareness about climate change and

associated impacts is essential as most of the local people and unaware about the issues of

climate change.

4. Though most of the respondents have improved cooking stoves in their homes for cooking

and space heating, firewood is still the prime source of energy. Hence, to develop Sikles as a

climate smart village use of firewood should be discouraged and alternative options like solar,

biogas etc should be promoted. The existing micro-hydro plant with 100 kW capacities should

be upgraded in order to fulfill increasing demand of electricity in the village.




3.12 Lamjung District3.12.1 Location Profile

Lamjung District lies in Gandaki Zone. The district headquarter is Besishahar. The district covers

an area of 1,692 Square kilometers and has population of 167,724. Lamjung is in the western part

of the country and well known for its biological diversity and natural beauty.

The main attraction of Lamjung is eye-catching mountains like Manaslu (8,162 m), Manaslu South

(7,937 m), Lamjung chuli (6,988m), Annapurna II (7,939 m), and Himal chuli (7,947 m). The “Lamjung

Himal Trek” is one of the popular trekking routes of Annapurna region. In addition Lamjung is also

popular for white water rafting in Marshyangdri River. However, the tourism industry in Lamjung

district has been threatened by changing climate.

Climate data analysis of Khudi Bazar Station from 1981 to 2010-show gradual warming trend.

Both of the average annual maximum and minimum temperatures are increasing. Similarly, the

rainfall analysis for same period show increasing trend, however, the inter-annual variability is

more pronounced than temperature. According to NAPA vulnerability assessment, the overall

vulnerability index from Lamjung is very high. The major climate induced hazards include Landslide

and GLOF. The combined adaptation capability index for Lamjung is moderate (GoN/NAPA 2010).

The study site Suirung village is located in Khudi VDC of Annapurna region. Suirung is one of the

popular tourist destinations along Annapurna circuit because of its natural beauty and religious

diversity. Being very rich in natural resource, Suirung is one of the ideal destinations for mountain

views.

In addition, the clustered houses of village are another attraction of Suirung. Thus, trekking to

Suirung is not only way to observed mountain views and sceneries, one can also learn about the

culture, tradition and lifestyle of the local community.

NKhudi VDC



People of Suirung have not experienced any noticeable changes in the local climate. Though,

Lamjung district is highly vulnerable to climate change, Suirung village seem to be have

insignificant impacts of climate change. However, there was severe water deficiency is 2010 as a

result agricultural productivity was dropped drastically. According to the locals, snowfall in recent

years is short lived and amount of snowfall has been decreased in recent years. In addition, new

plant species have been seen in the village. Similarly, prevalence of caterpillars in Cauliflower

is increasing in recent years. Despite of these changes, there were no other impacts of climate

change reported during field visit.

The most interesting fact about Suirung is its way towards low carbon development strategy

reflecting the status of awareness of local people in terms of carbon mitigation and environment

protection.

The main source of energy in Suirung is the micro-hydro having capacity of 5 kW. Similarly, use

of climate friendly energy sources like solar and biogas is also growing. The main driver of such

development seems to be tourism.

Hence, Suirung village is a good example of how tourism can contribute to the local livelihood

development as well as other development activities. People have access of safe drinking water

through community tap system with storage tank. They also have proper sanitation facility in

their homes. People of Suirung have enough water supplies for agriculture and livestock farming.

From field observation it was observed that, Suirung village is rapidly growing village in terms of

development activities. Though no any sever impacts of climate change has been observed in

Suirung till date, the village is developing itself as climate resilient village. Tourism is the prime-

governing factor for such radical changes in socio-economic status of people in this remote village.


People of this region sell goat and sheep and the manure from these animals as an alternative

income sources for the livelihood. Firewood was the main source of energy for cooking and

heating purpose. The people of this region fulfill their demand through nearby forest and trees

from their own land. Some family’s uses kerosene as source of lighting during power cut and

some had installed solar power as substitute for kerosene.


1. Suirung village should be presented as a model village for climate resilient and low carbon

development. Suirung village is already way forward to become a climate smart village and

should be promoted as a model climate smart village. Visitors will then have great view of

natural beauty of mountains as well as opportunities to learn and explore about the climate

smart village.

2. Tourism activities in Suirung are relatively high, hence the potential negative impacts should

be identified and action should be taken to minimize it. The concept of sustainable tourism or

eco-tourism should be intensified and implemented with proper monitoring to maximize the

positive benefits.

3. People of Suirung is still using firewood for cooking and space heating, hence promotion of bio-

gas, improve cooking stoves will reduce their carbon emission which in turn mitigate the health

risk associated with indoor air pollution.




3.13 Mugu District3.13.3 Location Profile

Mugu District lies east of Humla in the Karnali zone and borders China to the north. The

headquarters is Gamgadi. The district covers an area of 3,535 square kilometers and has a

population of 43,937. The elevation ranges from 1,524 to 7,045 meters (Kanjirowa Himal). The

biggest lake (Rara) and smallest protected areas of Nepal Rara National Park (RNP) lies in the

Mugu District.

It is one of the least developed districts of Nepal having very less human development index

(CBS 2007). Lower literacy rate, very low social and economic empowerment index with high

human poverty index are the characteristics of Mugu district (UNDP 2004). Because of poor

human development status, Mugu district is considered as highly vulnerable to changing climate.

The climatic trend in Mugu district shows increasing temperature and decreasing rainfall (GoN/

NAPA 2010). The climatic data from Rara climate station shows decreasing trend for both monthly

maximum and minimum temperature over the period from 1979 to 2006.

Rainfall analysis of 36 years (1971-2006) reveals that the average annual rainfall is decreasing

over the period with significant inter-annual variability. According to NAPA’s climate change

vulnerability mapping of Nepal, the combined vulnerability index for Mugu is very high, however,

the combined adaptation capability is very low (GoN/NAPA 2010).

Mugu is highly vulnerable to landslide, drought, and rainfall/temperature extremes (GoN/NAPA

2010). The ecological sensitivity towards changing climate is also very high for Mugu district (GoN/

NAPA 2010).

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Pina VDC


Mugu district is popular for extraordinary beauty of Rara Lake. Nature trek to Rara Lake through

Rara National Park (RNP) is the major trekking route in Mugu. Along the trekking one can capture

the immense beauty of Chuchemara peak and coniferous forest.

Mugu comprises several rivers including Mugu Karnali, Humla Karnali, and Langu Khola. In

addition it includes numbers of beautiful high altitude lakes and ponds. Jhyari village of Pina VDC

was selected for this study, which lies within the RNP. People in Jhyari are facing water scarcity and

poor sanitation facility. Firewood is the main source of energy in Jhyari.

The agriculture practice in Jhyar is mostly rain-fed and is the prime source of income for the

livelihood. However, extreme water scarcity has great impact on agriculture and livelihood of

people. Jhyari village falls on the lower part of Great Himalayan Trail near Rara Lake where lower

and upper route of GHT meets. Being very close to Rara Lake, Jhyari has great potential of tourism.


Almost all respondents have experienced increasing rainfall trend in recent years while duration

of dry winter months are increasing. Prolonged drought is another extreme weather events being

experienced in Jhyari village. As for example in 2012 there was no rainfall for four months (March-

June). Since seven to eight years, people have been experiencing significant decrease in rainfall.

Not only the rainfall but also the amount and duration of snowfall are decreasing these days. Both

the summer and winter is getting hotter with frequent windstorm as compared to last 15 to 20

years. Agriculture, water resources and human health are the sector where people have noticed

significant impacts;

Agriculture: Wheat, potato and barley are the major crops, which are in practice. In recent years,

productivity of these crops has been declined significantly due to increase in the number of dry

days.

According to the local people, yield of potato and barley has declined by 50 percent since last 10

years. Besides, intense rainfall during monsoon leading to massive soil erosion, which has direct

impact on agricultural productivity. Similarly, local people have reported the occurrence of new

disease in potato, which did not occur four years before. Under all these circumstances the food

production of Jhyari is not sufficient to feed the people throughout the year.

Water resources: People of Jhyari are entirely dependent on the nearby river to fulfill their water

demand. However, in recent years due to extended dry months and increasing temperature

river discharge is decreasing. In case of rainy season, higher quantity of eroded materials and

debris carried by river makes water unusable. Decrease in the river discharge during dry months

and unsuitability of water during rainy season is posing direct implication on human livelihood

and comfort. Lack of piped water supply and sufficient water storage system further worsen the

situation. On a household level, the water storage capacity is about 22.5 liters per household,

which is not sufficient during prolonged water scarcity period.

Human health: Scarcity of clean and safe drinking water in Jhyari has created various health

related problems. The frequent occurrence of communicable diseases such as diarrhea and

cholera in Jhyari village as reported by District Hospital Gamgadi is reflecting the poor sanitation

facility. Out of total 112 HHs, only 12 have toilet facility, which is useless because of severe water

scarcity. Open defecation is one of the major reasons behind children being the most vulnerable

group in-terms of communicable diseases.

3.1.3.3 Coping Mechanism

From the field survey and observation it was found that people in village have not adopted any

coping strategies.


1. In order to address the water availability problem, water conservation practices are essential.

Promotion of rainwater harvesting system will be helpful to store sufficient water during

monsoon season, which can be utilized during dry months.

Similarly, community based water supply systems should be developed, for this construction

of storage tanks are essential. Occurrence of new disease in potato should be identified as

soon as possible and alternative crop variety should be provided to the farmers in order to

increase the production.

2. Annual food production is not sufficient to meet the demand. Thus, change in cropping

pattern; use of new crop varieties according to changing climatic condition is some solutions.

Construction of irrigation system with storage facility should be developed to supply water

during dry period.

3. Health and sanitation should be given higher priority. Occurrence of any kind of communicable

disease should be diagnosed and treated properly in order to control potential catastrophe in

future.

4. Awareness about climate change and its impacts as well as locally available adaptation

measures should be carried out to enhance people knowledge on climate change and

associated impacts.

5. Since Jyari village is nearest settlement to Rara Lake with high tourism potential. Tourism

promotion with basic infrastructure development might bring economic development in the

locality.




3.14 Mustang District3.14.1 District Profile

Mustang District lies in Dhaulagiri Zone. Jomsom is district headquarter of Jumla. The district

covers an area of3,573 square kilometers and has a population of 14,981. The elevation of

Mustang district ranges from 1,372 to 8,167 meters (Mt. Dhaulagiri, the 8th highest peak in the

world), with several peaks above 7,000 meters.

The total population of Mustang is 14,981 (CBS 2008) and ethnically dominated by Gurung,

Thakali and Chhetri. Mustang comprises 16 VDCs with average household size of 4.62. Despite

being a mountainous region, the literacy rate of Mustang is quite impressive i.e. 74percent (CBS

2008). Tourism is the main profession in Mustang because of its stunning mountainous beauty,

breathtaking landscapes and cultural diversity. Recently, Mustang has been listed as world’s third

best trekking destination of Best in Travel 2013 compiled by Lonely Planet (Lonely Planet 2013).

Besides tourism, agriculture is another major occupation. The Human Development Index (HDI)

for Mustang is comparatively low i.e. 0.482 (UNDP 2004). Not only the HDI, Human Empowerment

Index (HEI), Gender Development Index (GDI) and Human Poverty Index (HPI) are also low with

respective value of 0.475, 0.47 and 41 (UNDP 2004).

Hence, from these statistics it is clear that the overall development status of Mustang district is

moderate, thus development planning along with tourism promotion is essential in near future.

Climate precipitation data of Mustang district shows inter-annual variability with overall increasing

trend over the 53 years (1958-2010). However, temperature data were available only since 1981

and the 30 years (1981-2010) temperature analysis shows slightly decreasing trend for maximum

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Surkhang VDC

Chhoser VDC


temperature while average minimum temperature is increasing.(CVI) is moderate (0.45) for

Mustang district. In particular, Mustang district is highly vulnerable to GLOF with vulnerability

index of 0.95.

According to NAPA vulnerability mapping, the Combined Vulnerability IndexOut of 20 potentially

dangerous glacier lakes of Nepal, Mustang alone includes three of them (Bajracharya et al. 2001).

However, the adaptive capability of Mustang is also moderate as the Combined Adaptation

Capability Index (CACI) including infrastructure, socio-economic and technology is moderate

(0.314) (MoE 2010). The food security level of Mustang is relatively low with Global Hunger

Index (GHI) ranging from 20 to 29.9 (GoN, 2010). In particular landless, marginalized and dalit

populations are more vulnerable.


Most of the respondents in both of the VDCs believed that temperature has increased in recent

decades significantly. However, they argued that the snowfall (or rainfall) amount is decreasing.

This conclusion is also supported by the climate data analysis. In addition, monsoon rainfall

pattern on both spatial and temporal scale is getting more erratic.

As a result, frequency of flash flood during wet season and drought during dry seasons is

increasing. In case of Samjung, the irregular pattern of hailstorm is emerging as threat to the

agriculture and livelihood. Besides this, the total number of yearly landslides events is increasing

because of sudden and heavy rainfall causing severe soil erosion and loss of fertile topsoil. In

general the agriculture and water resource sectors (particularly drinking water sources) have been

greatly affected by climate-induced extremities.

Water resources: The major climate induced hazards in Samjung village includes flash floods,

hailstorm, landslide, channel erosion and it’s widening. In addition, frequent seasonal drought has

added extra pressure on drinking water sources including natural spring and lakes. Similarly, in

case of Dhe, the major impacts have been observed on the water sector. Natural springs and lakes

are drying up and the river flow is decreasing which has great impact on drinking water sources.

Agriculture: Frequent landslide and flash floods have caused loss of fertile soil as well as

destruction of irrigation canal. In Dhe village due to the declining water sources, the irrigation

system has been affected significantly; as a result some people have already migrated to other

place in search of water.

According to the locals, the agriculture productive has been declined largely. The impact on

livestock is also experienced as the fodder and water availability has been reduced remarkably. Due

to these underlying issues, ten households have completely moved elsewhere within last 5-6 years.


Realizing the consequence of changing climate, the villagers of Samjung have implemented some

river training works by constructing gabion wall on riverbanks in order to minimize riverbank

erosion especially during flash flood.

Similarly, they have planted Bhote Pipal (a local tree) around the agricultural field and along the

river to control the erosion and loss of productive soil. In Dhe village, people have constructed

artificial lakes (more than six in numbers) to fulfill their water demand for agriculture and

household (drinking) use. On a household level, people of Dhe have constructed small reservoir

in their homes to conserve the water for dry season and drought periods.


1. Both Samjung and Dhe villages have been threatened by the risk of flash flood. Hence,

resettlement plan should be implemented as soon as possible in order to prevent the potential

loss of life and property in near future.

2. In Dhe village, resettlement process has already been initiated a year before, however, this

effort need to be intensify further.

3. Though Annapurna Conservation Area Program has provided some support in planting cash

crop like apple in their farm to raise their economic status, additional financial support is

needed to intensify river training works and other construction activities.

4. In case of Dhe village, drinking water supply should be on top priority as people are facing the

chronic water scarcity mainly during dry season.

5. No doubt Mustang is the attractive destination for trekking, so promotion of sustainable tourism

will bring more opportunities for the local people along with economic and developmental

benefits.

6. Realizing the Mustang’s potential on solar and wind energy, one step towards GHG mitigation

could be promotion of alternative energy technologies to minimize the fuel wood dependency.




3.15 Myagdi District3.15.1 Location Profile

Myagdi Districtlies 290 km West of Kathmandu in the Dhaulagiri zone. It is a mountainous

district dissected by many rivers and streams. Myagdi is witnessing climate change by increasing

temperature and rainfall (GoN/NAPA 2010). The temperature data from nearby Baglung climate

station shows increasing trend for average annual maximum temperature and decreasing trend

for average annual minimum temperature over the 30 years period (1980-2010).

For the same period, the average annual rainfall shows decreasing trend. The vulnerability index

for rainfall and temperature is moderate. It is ranked as highly vulnerable district in terms of

landslide hazard (GoN/NAPA 2010). In general, the combined vulnerability index for Myagdi is

moderate. Likewise, the combined adaptation capability is moderate with moderate socio-

economic adaptation capability (GoN/NAPA 2010). In terms of infrastructure, the adaptation

capability is very low (GoN/NAPA 2010).

Myagdi district has great potential of tourism because of its mountainous beauty. Mt. Dhaulagiri in

the west and Mt. Annapurna in the east are the major tourist attractions. One can enjoy the view

of world’s deepest gorge called Andha gorge carved by Kaligandaki River. Similarly, Dhorpatan

Hunting Reserve is another destination in Myagdi for nature trek.

The famous trekking route in Myagdi is the Tatopani-Ghoreaani-Poonhill, which starts from

Tatopani of Myagdi and passes through Khibang, Sikha and Chitre. Poonhill is popular place for

sunrise view as well as the panoramic view of Dhaulagiri range. During the Tatopani to Poonhill

trek, one can experience the largest Rhododendron forest and find eight different species of

rhododendrons.

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Dhar VDC


The current research was carried out in Chitre village of Myagdi district. Dhaulagiri and Annapurna

is the main mountain that can be viewed from this village. Chitre village lies along the Tatopani-

Ghorepani trekking route-a section of Annapurna Circuit Trekking. Panoramic views of Dhaulagiri

range and Annapurna range, Rhododendron valley, views of Kopra ridge are the main highlight

of Chitre village.


According to the local people agriculture, water resources are the two sectors in which significant

impacts have been observed.

Agriculture: Production of main agricultural crops like potato, maize, garlic, and barley are

decreasing. Agriculture is the prime source of income in Chitre village, however in recent years

people are migrating (especially youth) in search of income due to decreasing production. Lack of

labor for agriculture is one of the main issues related with this sector. Besides this, frequency of

extreme hailstorm is now increasing. This has notable impact of agriculture production due to the

physical damage caused by hailstorms.

Water resource: Villagers of Chitre said that the Pyari Baraha pond nearby Chitre village is

shrinking significantly. Pyari Baraha pond is considered as a holy pond having both cultural as well

as religious significance. According to the local people, size of the pond is gradually decreasing

since past eight to ten years. Not only the size but also the water level has been greatly reduced.

Development of marshes and swampy areas around the lake is another problem affecting the

water quality.

Energy sector: The village is connected to the national electricity grid; however the main source

of energy in 40 percent of household is still firewood. According to villagers, they are collecting

firewood from nearby community forest throughout the year. They have reported the forest cover

nearby the village is declining. This has created pressure on firewood collection, as they have to

spend more time on firewood collection.


The trend of farmer’s adaptation in this region has changed from traditional agricultural practices

to new kind of tourism business. The people of Myagdi have adopted diversification of crops that

including farming of diverse crops both in open and green house. The people of this region also

introduced kitchen water harvesting technologies to fight water shortage.


1. Adoption of new crop varieties, which are suitable for changing climatic condition, is essential

to enhance the agriculture productivity.

2. Forest conservation is essential as forest cover area is decreasing. Community forestry is

suitable option to conserve forest and get benefited from forest products.

3. Immediate conservation practices should be implemented to protect the Phyari Baraha pond.

Proper fencing and regular cleaning activities could be short-term management plan. The long-

term plan should include water sources conservation. Awareness program is also essential to

mitigate further degradation.

4. Availability of firewood is an emerging issue. Adoption of energy efficient technology like

improved cooking stove is one way to reduce the firewood consumption. In addition, use

electricity for cooking and space-heating purpose should be encouraged in order to minimize

firewood dependency.

5. Awareness program on climate change, its effects, and local adaption measures should be

conducted to build climate resilient community.

6. As mentioned above Chitre village is on the way to Tatopani-Ghorepani Trek along the

Annapurna Circuit. Promotion of tourism with basic infrastructure development will bring new

opportunities for local people. It can also possibly solve the problem of migration.




3.16 3.16.1 Location Profile

NUWAKOT Districta part of Bagmati Zone is one of the seventy-five districts of Nepal with Bidur

as its district headquarters, covers an area of 1,121 km2 and had a population of 277,471 in 2011.

The district contains places of historical significance such as Nuwakot 7 storey old Palace located

in the village of Devighat at the confluence of the Tadi and Trishuli River.

Nuwakot district is located in the central part of Nepal facing natural hazards including soil erosion,

forest degradation, and drought. On top of that in recent years, Nuwakot has been experiencing

noticeable evidence of climate change. The climatic data from Nuwakot climate station shows an

increasing trend of temperature. The 26 years (1984-2010) temperature analysis shows that average

annual maximum and minimum are decreasing. On the other hand, 38 years (1972-2009) rainfall

data indicates decreasing trend with pronounced inter-annual variability. Nuwakot district is highly

vulnerable to landslide hazard. Besides this, the rainfall/temperature and ecological vulnerability is

moderate. However, the overall vulnerability index for Nuwakot is very low (GoN/NAPA 2010).

The adaptation capability for Nuwakot is high in terms of infrastructure and technology, while

the socio-economic adaptation capability is relatively low. In general, the combined adaptation

capability is moderate (GoN/NAPA 2010).

Nuwakot is known as a one of the historic place of Nepal. The historic seven-storied palace built between

1763 AD to 1770 AD reflects the perfect cultural and civilization images of the region in the very ancient

days. In addition, temples like Nuwakot Bhagbati, Bhairabhi and Panchya kanya are other historic and

religious attractions. Besides the historic importance, Nuwakot also serves is natural beauty.

The Panoramic Mountain view of Mt. Manaslu and Mt. Langtang is one of the major attractions of

Nuwakot. Two settlements of Nuwakot district; Taruka and Gerkhu VDC are selected for present study.

Gerkhu VDC is one of the most vulnerable VDC of Nuwakot in terms of landslide and extreme

Nuwakot District

N

Gerkhu VDC

Taruka VDC


precipitation. Within past five years (2006-2011) there have been 32 events of landslide due to

which about 186 people were injured (Red Cross 2012). Agriculture is the prime occupation and

mostly rain-fed; however, seasonal irrigation facility is also available.

Majority of people in Gerkhu have access of national grid electricity and liquid petroleum gas for

lighting and cooking purpose. However, few households have biogas plant for cooking purpose.

In Taruka VDC, Dalit population dominates the community. These are the poor, illiterate, and

marginalized people. People in Taruka have very less agricultural land and their family basically

depends on remittance. Firewood is the main source of energy in Taruka VDC for cooking and

space heating. Taruka also have access of national grid electricity.


Water resource: Water resource in Trauka VDC is emerging as a major threat. Natural water

sources are drying. More than five drinking water sources including Kuwa pani, Khote pani, Badelo

dhara, Tallo rajkaw dhara have already been disappeared completely. Gerkhutar shares the

common problem with Trauka. Numerous wells and other fresh water sources have completely

dried out in last few years. As a result people are now forced to travel one to two hours for

drinking water collection. In addition, rainfall pattern is getting more extreme with pronounced

temporal variation. Unexpected and intense rainfall events are more common leading to flash

flood, soil erosion and landslide.

Agriculture: In recent years, the agriculture production has been reduced largely because of

water deficiency. Most of the agricultural field doesn’t have irrigation facility; hence, the effects

are even severe during dry season.

Prevalence of beetles and insects is becoming nuisance to local farmers. In particular, white beetle

in rice, Kalpole in Maize, Gawaro and Snail in Maize are common cases. Some traditional crop

varieties have been replaced with new varieties because of declining productivity of older one.

Some examples include cereal crops like Pisum sp., Machyang and varieties of rice like;

Makawanpur, Phalame, Bindheshwor replace Anandi, Masino, Kajira etc. Along with changing

weather pattern some crop varieties are not able to grow well hence, such crops are completely

not in practice these days.

Example includes Dhaiya dhan, Kharbhuja (Water melon), Sweat potato (Sutuni), Chile Brinjal

and varieties of lentils like: Lathyrus sativus (Khesari), Junelo (Sorghum vulgare Pers.) and Lens

culinaris (Musuro, red lentil).

Forest and biodiversity: New exotic and invasive species like Eupatorium adenophorum,

Ageratum houstonianum and other invasive weeds are replacing local fodder plants in both

villages. Forest fires are getting more frequent putting pressure on availability of timber and

timber products. People have also experienced declining wild birds and animals. In particular,

leopard, fox and deer are now getting rare.

Human and animal diseases: Records on Tar Taruka Aurvedic Treatment Centre of Taruka village

reveal that, cases of skin allergies are increasing in Taruka VDC. In recent years occurrence of heat

waves are increasing which may also have impacts on human and animal health.

In case of livestock, new diseases have also been reported particularly in chicken and goat. In

addition Khoryat in Oxen, buffalo and Cows is another livestock related health issue.

Similarly, the parasites including liver flukes, round worms, and tapeworms are a major problem

affecting livestock production. Skin diseases appear the most common form of infection followed

by diseases such as pneumonia, respiratory diseases, mastitis and foot and mouth disease.


The status of coping strategy in both of the villages is not so impressive. Agriculture sector is one of the

highly affected sectors than other. People have adopted some coping mechanism in order to improve the

productivity. To avoid the extreme weather condition mainly drought and storm, people have changed

the crop cycle. To enhance the agriculture productivity, people are using chemical fertilizer widely.


1. Infrastructure development in both of the VDCs should be a long-term plan, which in turn

will help to enhance the adaptive capability of local communities through socio-economic

developments. Construction of irrigation canal and its equitable distribution is important to

sustain the agricultural water demand throughout the year.

2. Similarly, well-managed drinking water supply project should be implemented (especially in Taruka

VDC) because the existing water supply system is not sufficient to meet the local demands.

3. To conserve the existing water sources, forest conservation and watershed management are

important. On a household level, rainwater-harvesting technique is a viable solution. Similarly

on a community level, construction of artificial ponds to store the water during wet season

and using it during dry season possibly solve the water scarcity problem. In case of agriculture,

water conserving irrigation techniques like drip irrigation system or sprinkle irrigation system

should be encouraged. Similarly, use of chemical fertilizer should be replaced with bio-

fertilizer. The prevalence of insects and pests can also be minimized by crop rotation and

multiple cropping methods.

4. Dalits and other marginalized communities are more vulnerable to the climate change than

other ethnic group. Hence, priority should be given to such people who really need support to

cope with changing climate.

5. Firstly, community should be provides with information about climate change and its potential

impact on ecosystem and livelihood. Secondly, capacity building programs like fish farming, goat

and chicken farming; bee farming should be put into practice to enhance socio-economic status of

local people with the support of national and international agencies and government bodies.

6. Thirdly, disaster preparedness planning should be formulated considering the major climate

induced hazards like landslide, drought, extreme rainfall etc. Use of firewood should be

discouraged (especially in Taruk) to reduce the carbon footprint and air pollution related

health impacts. Use of clean energy sources line biogas, solar home system, and micro-hydro

are possible solution. To promote these climate friendly energy sources as an alternative to

firewood, subsidy should be given to poor and marginalized people.




3.17 Sankhuwasabha District3.17.1 Location Profile

Sankhuwasabha Districtlies in Koshi Zone. Khandbari is the district headquarters of Sankhuwasaba.

The district covers an area of 3,480 Square kilometers and has a population of 1,59,3023 in 2001.

The elevation ranges from 345 to 8,463m (Mt. Makalu), which is the fifth highest peak in the world.

The Makalu-Barun National Park and Buffer Zone is in this district.

Due to its great altitudinal variation i.e. 300-8463 m, Sankhuwasabha comprises various climatic

regimes from warm tropical to cool temperate and alpine climate. Over the northern part,

several east to west stretching mountains are present. The major peaks include Makalu (8,463

m), Kumbakarna (5m858 m), Lumba Sumba (8,463 m), Panch Pokhari (5,000 m) and Jaljale (4,832

m). Among these mountains, Makalu is one of the fifth tallest mountains on earth. Because of

its mountainous beauty and diversified climatic regime, Sankhuwasabha has great potential of

tourism industry. The major tourist destinations in Sankhuwasabha include natural sites like

Arun Valley, Tinjure Milke Jaljale (TMJ); a rhododendron preservation area, historic sites Dingla

Hedangna Gadi etc.

In addition, Sankhuwasabha encompasses Makalu Barun National Park (MBNP) and Buffer

Zone (BZ), can also be an interesting destination for trekkers. The study site Nundaki VDC and

TMJ represents middle and High Mountain landscape along with Kanchenjunga Conservation

Area (KCA) and Makalu-Barun National Park (MBNP). This is why TMJ is one of the major tourist

destinations for trekking and river rafting.

Situated in the high Himalayan region, Sankhuwasabha is highly sensitive to the climate change.

The TMJ falls in the eastern Himalayan climatic regime where monsoon starts early (June) and

stays longer than in Western Nepal (until late September).

The area has a wide climatic range, from warm temperature in the lower region to alpine in the

upper hill slopes. The temperature drops with increasing altitude and results in different climatic

zones within a short vertical distance.

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Nundhaki VDC


Climate data analysis of Chainpur station of Sankhuwasabha shows increasing trend in annual

rainfall over the 63-year period (1947-2009) with inter-annual variability. Similarly, the 23 years

(1987-2009) temperature analysis shows decreasing trend for both maximum and minimum

temperature, however, the decrement rate (-0.173oC/year) is large in case of minimum

temperature. According to NAPA vulnerability mapping, the Combined Vulnerability Index (CVI)

for Sankhuwasabha is moderate (MoE/NAPA 2010). GLOF is the biggest threat to the people of

Sankhuwasabha with high vulnerability index.

The Combined Adaptation Capability Index (CACI) is moderate however; adaptation capability

in terms of infrastructure development is relatively higher than technology and socio-economic

adaptation capability (MoE/NAPA 2010). Sankhuwasabha is experiencing climate-induced hazards

like fire and flood hazards intermittently. According to MoHA (2009), 43 fire events and 26 flood

and landslide events have been recorded from 2058 to 2065 B.S causing severe damage to life

and property.

3.17.2 People Perceptions on Climate Change

Most of the respondents believed that temperature has increased in recent decades significantly.

However, they argued that the snowfall (or rainfall) amount is decreasing. In particular, changes in

monsoon rainfall pattern are the most noticeable and prominent indication of changing climate.

On the other hand, drought occasions are also getting common in past several years. Hailstone is

another problematic climatic hazard in this region, which has increased in its frequency since last

decade. Similarly, the occurrence of frost during winter season has also increased remarkably.

In addition, majority of respondents experienced spreading of animal diseases quite often. In

general the water resource, agriculture, human health and biodiversity sector have been greatly

affected by climate-induced extremities.

Water resources: In recent 10 years, significant impacts on water resources have been noticed.

The remarkable example is the shrinking of Guphapokhari Lake; one of the prime drinking water

source for people in Nundhaki VDC. Previously, the water level in Guphapokhari used to remain

same year around (i.e. no significant seasonal variation), however in recent years the water level

during winter (dry) season usually drops well below the normal level. Similarly other water sources

are also drying up rapidly thus people of Nundhaki are looking for immediate alternatives to fulfill

their domestic water demand especially during dry period.

Agriculture: Agriculture is one of the major income generating sources for people of Nundhaki.

In recent years due to the increasing pest’s population, the agriculture productivity has decreased

largely. In addition, different kinds of diseases in livestock are of common occurrence and most

frequent in recent days. Moreover, availability of fodder especially during winter is emerging as

biggest threat to the livestock rearing.

Human health: With increasing temperature and changing climate, human health problems are

also increasing in Nundhaki village. According to a local health worker, new skin diseases are

spreading in recent 2-3 years. Skin irritation is the widely experienced problem and children are

more sensitive towards it. Besides this, occurrence of insects is also increasing affecting the water

sources and quality of sanitation.

Biodiversity: About 25 species of Rhododendron has been recorded in TMJ area (IUCN 2010). The

TMJ is renowned for its high diversity of Nepalese rhododendron species (25 out of the 32 species

found in Nepal). The area has high number of rhododendron arboreum (laligurans in Nepali), a

red bloom that was designated the national flower in 1962.

According to local, flowering period of Rhododendron has shifted earlier than usual. In addition,

the spatial distribution of Rhododendron is not homogeneous and the flowering time varies from

place to place within the same forest.


In order to minimize the effect of frost, farmers have adopted locally available technologies. They

have constructed sheds in the agriculture field to protect the crop form freezing cold. Similarly,

they are preserving and storing some crops like potato and radish in their homes for long-term

use especially during the dry period prevailed by drought. Similarly, to cope with increasing pest

effect, they have started using chemical fertilizer to increase crop productivity. In addition, they

are also experimenting new seed varieties to avoid the effect of specific pests.

To cope with drying water sources and seasonal drought, people have been storing water in a tank

or bucket during wet season and using it during dry period for drinking and household use. In

case of livestock, as mention above, outbreak of diseases is the main threat; hence people have

planned to make an insurance of livestock for compensation.


1. Gupha is one of the major tourist destinations in eastern Nepal along Kanchenjunga trekking

route to because of its religious, cultural, and historical richness as well as natural beauty.

However, due to the lack of infrastructure, this diversified place has not been explored in its

fullest. In this regard, tourism development and promotion along with awareness campaign

on environment protection issues (especially sanitation and water conservation) should be

considered.

2. Being one of the popular tourist destinations with high religious significance, Gorapokhari

Lake should be placed in top priority from conservation point of view. Immediate conservation

action should be implemented as the lake is shrinking year by year. Likewise, Gupha Pokhari

should be developed as major tourists hub with some information where the visitors will have

access to learn about the natural and cultural including the biodiversity of the area.

3. Water scarcity is growing as a main problem in Nundhaki VDC, hence, current water

conservation practices should be intensified and further water conservation programs should

be implemented. The concept of rainwater harvesting can be an economic solution. In addition,

proper sanitation practice should be applied in order to avoid water borne diseases in future.

4. To control the pests’ population and associated damage to agricultural production concept of Integrated

Pest Management (IPM) should be implemented along with awareness programs for farmers.




3.18 Sindhupalchowk District3.18.1 Location Profile

Sindhupalchowk District is located in the Bagmati zone to the north of Kathmandu. The headquarters is

Chautara. The district covers an area of 2,542 square kilometers and has a population of 305,857 2001.

The elevation ranges from 850 to 7,080 meters. The climate is sub-tropical to temperate in alpine. Part

of the Langtang National Park (LNP) lies in this district.

It is a hilly region of the Nepal and mostly inhabited by the indigenous community. In recent days due to

decreasing rainfall, people are at greatest risk of declining agriculture productivity. Data from Chautara

precipitation station in Sindhupalchowk shows slightly increasing trend in annual rainfall over the 31

years from 1978-2008 with inter-annual variability.

Sindhupalchowk district has been categorized under moderately vulnerable group in NAPA’s climate

change vulnerability mapping for Nepal (GoN/NAPA, 2010). Being surrounded by Langtang National

Park and Gaurishankar Conservation Area, ecologically it is highly sensitive to climate change (GoN/

NAPA, 2010). This district is also highly vulnerable in terms of rainfall and temperature (GoN/NAPA

2010). Similarly, this district is at high risk to climate-induced disasters such as landslides (NAPA,

2010). However, the socio-economic condition is relatively poor, which will significantly influence their

adaptive capacity.

Sindhupalchok have great potential of socio-cultural, natural as well as religious tourism. Indigenous

Tamang community is one of the interesting places to visit to learn about Tamang culture. View of Dorje

Lakpa (Jugal Mountain), natural beauty of Helambu, hot springs and waterfalls are major highlights of

Sindhupalchok. In addition, destinations including Panch Pokhari, Bhairabhi Kunda and Dudh Pokhari

have both religious and natural significance. Rafting, kayaking, and canoeing in Trishuli and Bheri River

are the adventurous activities which can be done in Sindhupalchok.

Similarly, Bungee jumping in Bhote Koshi River is another popular destination for people who love

adventure. Phulping village of Batase VDC and Phungboche village of Helambu VDC were selected for

current research. The phulping village lies on the lower track of the Great Himalayan Trail with socio-

cultural and geographical uniqueness.

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Batase VDC

Helumbu VDC


The village is entirely occupied by marginalized ethnic Tamang community of Nepal. Phungboche lies

in famous tourism destination (Helambu) of Nepal. This village is located in between upper and lower

tracks of the Great Himalayan Trail and occupied entirely Hyolmo ethnic community. Being at the

core of LNP, local biodiversity and forest resources are very significant for the people of Phungboche.

Forest, land and water are most important capitals for livelihood of local people.

Both of the Phulping and Phungboche village have been experiencing extreme rainfall pattern in

recent years. Monsoon rainfall is getting more intense while the duration of rainfall is getting shorter.

There has been growing evidence of delay (by two months) in monsoon rainfall in Phungboche village.

No consistent pattern has been reported in Phulping villager in terms of hotness and coldness in

different seasons. However, in case of Phungboche village both the summer and winter are getting

hotter than the past. Drought during dry period is now more common in both villages.

As for example during 2011, people of Phulping had experienced prolonged drought of four months without

a single drop of water. Temperature variability is more erratic and pronounced in recent years. The significant

change is weather pattern of Phulping village has been observed by local people is the winter snowfall.

Since last six years (2006-20012) there has not been any snowfall in winter. However, before this

period there used to be snowfall in every winter. The case is similar in Phungboche village. These

days, winter snowfall is occurring in three years interval; however in the past it used occur every year.

Another significant change in weather condition experienced in Phulping village is frequent fog events,

which are completely new to the people. Agriculture, water resources, human and animal health, and

infrastructure is being affected by changing climatic pattern;

Agriculture: Production of major crop (maize) has been largely affected by drought in both villages.

Intense monsoon rainfall is another serious issue related with agriculture in both villages. As for example,

millet harvest in Phungboche has been largely affected by heavy rainfall. In addition, due to intensified

erosion by heavy rainfall, loss of fertile soil is the dominant factor for loss in productivity. New diseases

particularly in Potatoes and Mustard are another major problem in Phulping village. Consequently, the

food security has been threatened, as the annual food production is only sufficient for six months.

Water resources: Due to prolonged dry winter, natural streams are drying up in Phulping village.

People have to face severe water deficiency during four months of dry season every year in both

villages. The existing water supply system is not sufficient to fulfill their annual water demand, in

addition prolonged dry winter and frequent drought is worsening water availability further. As a result

women and children are spending time in collecting water from nearby water source to meet their

household water demand. Poor sanitation is the main cause of communicable diseases in Phulping

village. Due to the excessive soil erosion, the water quality of nearby water sources is degrading. This

has added extra pressure on sanitation status of the local people. The story is not so different in

Phungboche village as the water availability is the common problem here also. People depend mainly

upon six different water sources in the village. The water availability is even severe during dry season

when the water in most of the sources decline significantly. The existing piped water supply system is

not functioning because of physical damage caused by high flow during monsoon period.

Human and animal health: Villagers in Phulping have reported that since three years domestic livestock

are suffering from an unidentified disease particularly in goats causing death. Due to the contamination of

water bodies especially during monsoon season number of cases with water borne diseases are increasing in

Phungboche village. This could be due to the higher sediment contamination during intense rainfall events.

Infrastructure: Along with increasing rainfall intensity, Phungboche village is getting more vulnerable to

the landslide hazard. Recent landslide events have damaged existing water supply system. Nearby school

and a monastery is now under threat of active landslide. Similar situation can be seen in the Phulping

village. Occurrence of landslide events is also increasing in Phulping village making it susceptible to

landslide hazard. 16 households are now under threat of landslide just down slope the settlement area.


People in Sindhupalchowk districts are coping with food insecurity by growing new paddy and broccoli

as new crop and vegetables. This broccoli would be the new vegetable as they can grow and sell this

vegetable and earn for their livelihoods. The paddy is considered another new crop because it can

be grown in winter season. Due to which they can solve the problem of buying rice from the market.

Likewise, the people of Sindhupalchowk have adopted different strategies to minimize environmental

risk and ensure food security and high agricultural production. Terraces on steep hill slopes have been

made to reduce erosion on one hand and in the other hand to obtain benefits of irrigations.Another

strategies adopted by villagers are the selection of crops like potato, maize, millet, wheat barley, which

are grown in un-irrigated, land. The unseasonal foods and cash crops have also been practiced in this

area. Likewise, people in this region are using different strategies to keep livestock at proper conditions.



1. Water scarcity status is severe in both villages especially during dry season. Infrastructure

development for water collection, storage, and distribution is essential to improve the water

availability status. In case of Phungboche village, the existing water supply system should be

maintained and upgraded so that it can also be in operation.

2. Soil erosion and landslide are the major threat to agriculture and livestock grazing in Phulping

village. Bioengineering techniques can solve both of these problems. Planting fodder plant varieties

will provide grazing land for livestock as well as it will prevent both landslide and soil erosion.

3. To control the soil erosion in the agriculture fields, different techniques like contour farming,

terracing, and Slope Agriculture Land Technique (SALT) can turn out to be some locally feasible

mitigation measures. In case of Pangboche village construction of gabion wall is essential to

prevent the nearby school from landslide hazard.

4. Due to extreme rainfall in Phungboche Millet production has been largely affected. Hence, people should

pre-inform about the extreme weather events in order to minimize the agricultural loss. New varieties of

potato and mustard, which are suitable for changing weather condition, could bring higher production.

5. Sanitation facility is one of the major concerns because communicable diseases are of common

occurrence in Phulping village as majority of households (110 out of 120) have lack toilet facility.

6. Diseases in livestock are another main issue related with animal health in Phulping. The Government

Animal Service Centre in Jalbire is not functioning any more. Access of animal health treatment facility

is very important to improve the animal health. There are many various possible trekking routes in

Helambu and minor trek to Phungboche is one of them. It can be promoted as a destination in which

one can learn about the Hyolmo culture along the Helambu trek.

7. Firewood is the main source of energy for cooking and space heating. Use of efficient technology

like improved cooking stove should be encouraged. In addition, use of alternative energy sources

like solar can be promoted with government subsidies to reduce firewood dependency.




Solukhumbu district lies in the Sagarmatha Zone and borders China to the north. It is divided

into two regions: Solu and Khumbu. The headquarters is Salleri. The district covers an area of

3,312 square kilometers and has a population of 107,686. The elevation ranges from 1,500 to

8,848 meters (Mt. Everest) the world’s tallest peak in the world. The district also contains the

Sagarmatha National Park (SNP). There are many peaks over 7,000 meters in this district. This

district has several high mountain glacier lakes.

However, these high altitude mountains and associated glaciers are highly sensitive to raising

temperature. The average annual maximum and minimum temperature from Khumbu region

over the 23 years period (1987-2008) shows increasing trend. Rainfall analysis for same period

shows decreasing trend with pronounced inter-annual variability.

Solukhumbu district is highly vulnerable to GLOF (GoN/NAPA 2010). Out of 20 potentially dangerous

glacial lakes in Nepal, 12 lakes are found in Solukhumbu (Bajracharya et al., 2001). Landslide is

another major natural hazard in Solukhumbu threatening the livelihood of the people.

3.19 Solukhumbu District

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Khumjung VDC


The combined vulnerability index for Solukhumbu district is high; however, it has low adaptation

capability (GoN/NAPA 2010). In particular, the infrastructure adaptation capability is relatively

lower than technological and socio-economic adaptation capability (GoN/NAPA 2010).

Solukhumbu is the most popular tourist destination in Nepal for trekking and mountaineering

and its economy depends highly on tourism ever since Sir Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing

Norgay first time successfully conquered world’s highest peak in May 1953.

Khumbu is home of famous Sherpas. Based on the 2001 census, Khumbu inhabits about 6000

populations where majority is of Sherpa within its three administrative Village Development

Committees (VDCs) viz. Namche, Khumjung and Chaurikharka (Pharakpa).The traditional

Sherpa culture, cultural museum, handicraft production are the main socio-cultural attractions.

Naturally Solukhumbu is the paradise of mountains comprising the highest peak of the world

(Mt. Everest). Besides this, Mt. Lhotse, Mt. Nuptse, and Mt. Cho Oyu, and Mt. Amadablam are also

located in Solukhumbu. Gokyo Lake, Dudhkunda Lake, Gokyo RI, Panch Pokhari, Kalapathar, Mera

Peak, Pharchamo Peak are other natural highlights. Despite of low infrastructure development,

Solukhumbu has immense potential of tourism industry. Two settlements are selected from

Khumjung VDC of Solukhumbu district for conducting the research. This study considered these

two settlements as a single village due to their homogeneity in socio-economy and geography.

Khumjung valley in Solukhumbu District lies in the upper tract of the Great Himalayan Trail in the

Khumbu region.


Khumjung VDC is witnessing impacts of climate change in recent years. The majority of the

communities in Khumbu regions are severely affected by climate change due to an increased

irregular snow and rainfall patterns. Rain and snowfall amounts are believed to have decreased

in total amount, but today arrive in the form of heavy storms and blizzards when more consistent

and predictable amounts fell in the past. For example, the Sherpas of Khumbu said that “it rains

when it should snow and snows when it should rain,” ruining our crops and agriculture.

Increasing monsoon rainfall is the widely experienced change in weather pattern. On the other

hand, prolonged drought is another example of changing climate. People have experienced

decreasing snowfall since last 10 years. People said that there used to be about four feet snow

during winter but now it is only 10 to 11 inch. Both winter and summer is getting hotter than the

past. Windstorms are getting more frequent these days. As for example, windstorm of January

2012 was the biggest windstorm people have ever experienced. Water resources, human health,

and tourism are the main sector, which is being affected the most;


Water resources: Except for a few small settlements, most villages in the Khumbu region have

access to drinking water from the snow fed river. Fresh water supplies in villages along the main

trekking trails are becoming scarcer during the winter and spring months because of a combination

of changing precipitation patterns.

The current water supply through community tap system is insufficient to meet the demand of the

local people and the drying up of historically reliable springs, and new water demands imposed

by flush toilets and shower built for tourists along the major trekking route from Lukla to Everest

base camp, Gokyo and Thame valley.

There are in total 240 households with six members each in an average, for which only six

community taps are provided. Out of six taps only two are functioning. Water unavailability

problem gets even worse during peak tourist season (spring and autumn). Hence, water scarcity

has direct impact on people’s livelihood as well as on the tourism industry of the locality.

Human health: Poor sanitation due to water scarcity has resulted in the occurrence of various

communicable diseases. According to the Khunde Hospital, increasing cases of communicable

diseases such as diarrhea and cholera has been recorded. Similarly, women and children engaged

in fetching water from far distance are found to suffer from muscle and joint pains.

Weather pattern: Some trekking Sherpas reported that the climate of the Khumbu region is

definitely changing. In the past, after the post monsoon period, the weather from late September

to December was mainly clear and cold, and these three months had been the best for trekking

in the region. The majority of the trekking agents sold their trip packages during these months

because of the favorable weather conditions.

However, since the last decade, the weather has been changing from clear to cloudy conditions

during this period, with associated and growing problems in flying in and out of Lukla. In October

2011 thousands of tourists were stranded in Lukla for almost 10 days due to thick cloud cover,

which made it impossible for planes to land on the airstrip.

Tourism industry: The Sherpas of Khumbu frequently reported that the extreme climate

variability and hazard as a result of climate change is already posing uncertainty in the tourism in

future. The changing climate in the Khumbu region has affected their livelihoods especially those

who have been relying on tourism as their major source of income, primarily because in recent

years the weather has become less predictable than before. As a result, they reported that there

has been constant drop in tourist number in the region during the past several years.

Likewise, the impact of climate change in Khumbu region is wide and multi-faceted. Incidents of climate

hazards such as landslides, avalanches, glacial lake outburst and flooding are increasing, leaving

behind trails of destruction every year. Hundreds of local lives are lost and millions of rupees worth

of properties, infrastructure, transport systems, trails and bridges are either damaged or destroyed.


Mountain glaciers are melting fast. This phenomenon is starting to have adverse effects on local

biodiversity and livelihoods, particularly increasing vulnerabilities of poor and marginalized

communities. For example, the glaciers in the Khumbu are either retreating fast or in some

cases have disappeared, increasing both the risk of catastrophic GLOFs, and affecting freshwater

supplies for hundreds of millions of people downstream.

As far as the occurrence of GLOF in Khumbu, the first GLOF was occurred in 1977 near Pangboche

and in 1985 in the Bhote Koshi valley. Similarly, the Langmoche flood in the Bhote Koshi valley

was the most destructive GLOF in the Khumbu’s recorded history, destroying bridges, the ongoing

hydropower station at that time, drinking water systems, agricultural land, houses and killing five

people and lost approximately … worth property.

The Khumbu region is likely to experience longer periods of drought in the summer and freezing

in the winter, both contributing to water scarcity. The scarcity of water in Khumjung has direct

impact on tourism industry. Though there are few number of locally owned tourist lodges and

some are under construction, due to unavailability of water they are not in operation.

Local people even claim that due to unavailability of enough water in Khumjung valley, tour

operators do not prefer to take their tourists to this site. Another serious issue related with

tourism industry is the rapid melting of snow and ice from the glorious Hyalu Mountain. Hyalu

Mountain used to be the tourist attraction of Khumjung valley. Nowadays it’s getting less popular

because of vanishing beauty from 60 liters to 1000 liters. This is the most widely used adaptation

practice in Khumjung valley.


To cope with the increasing water scarcity, local people have started using rainwater-harvesting

technology. It has reduced the hardship of local people to collect drinking water to some extent.

The survey result shows that 62% of household in Khumjung valley are collecting rainwater in

different size of tank. The collection tank varies from 60 liters to 1000 liters. This is the most widely

used adaptation practice in Khumjung valley.


1. Water conservation practices should be adapted in order to minimize water scarcity problem.

2. Rainwater harvesting system should be promoted further. Community based water supply

system should be developed and water storage tanks should be constructed. The existing

water supply system can be maintained and set into operation again.

3. Occurrence of any kind of communicable diseases should be diagnosed properly, so that it

could not take any catastrophic form in near future. Similarly, health and sanitation facility

should be placed on higher priority.

4. Awareness regarding climate change and its impacts should be well disseminated and local

adaptation measures should be identified. The knowledge and skills of local people to cope

the adverse impacts of climate should be enhanced and strengthened.




3.20 Taplejung District3.20.1 Location Profile

Taplejung Districtlies in the Mechi zone, and borders China to the north and India to the east. The

headquarters is Taplejung Bazar. The district covers an area of 3,646 square kilometers and has a

population of 134,698 2001. The elevation ranges from 777 to 8,598 meters (Mt. Kanchenjunga),

the third highest peak in the world. The Kanchenjunga Conservation Area (KCA) is lies in this district.

Climate change scenario of Taplejung district is relatively severe than other districts. It is considered

as one of the highly vulnerable districts in Nepal as the high combined vulnerability index is very

high (GoN/NAPA 2010). GLOF and landslide are two major climate induced hazards affecting the

livelihood and ecosystem in Taplejung. In addition, Taplejung is also vulnerable for rainfall and

temperature related extreme events. Climatic data of Taplejung climate station also indicates

that Taplejung district is experiencing gradual warming and decreasing rainfall trends. The 29

years (1981-2010) temperature analysis shows that average annual maximum and minimum

temperature have increased over this period.

On the other hand, rainfall is gradually decreasing with a rate of 5.6 mm/year over the period from

1975 to 2009. The combined vulnerability index for Taplejung is moderate which may be linked

with low socio-economic status as well as other infrastructure development. Taplejung is the

well known for its biological diversity and natural beauty. The main attraction of Taplejung is the

world’s third highest peak Kanchenjunga. Besides Kanchenjunga, one can have breath taking view

of Yalung Kang, Mt. Kumbakarna (Jannu), Kabru.

N

Lelep VDC


In addition Alpine grassland, rocky landscape, dense temperate to subtropical forests, waterfalls,

and stunning river valley carved by Tamur River are other natural highlights. Taplejung is also

popular for religious trekking including Dikichholing Gompa and Pathibhara Temple trek.

Because of its cultural richness (Sherpa, Bhote, and Limbu culture) Taplejung is an interesting

destination for those who want to learn different cultures of Nepal.

The study area, Ghunsa village of Lelep VDC is one of the High Hill villages dominated by Sherpa

community. Ghunsa is the one of the popular tourist destinations along Kanchenjunga Base

Camp Trek. Similarly, it also lies in the Rhododendron Trail to Tinjure Milke Jaljale Trail (TMJT) and

Pathibhara Pilgrimage Trek. Natural waterfalls, traditional Sherpa culture, and mountain views are

some of the tourism attraction in Ghunsa.


Majority of respondents (>80percent) have reported that there is general increasing trend of

temperature in recent years. Number of days with snowfall is decreasing and reduction in amount

of snowfall has been experienced widely.

There has been remarkable temporal shifting of winter season with colder days. Some 10 years

back, winter season used to occur from December to second week of February, but now it stays

till March. Similarly, in the past, snowfall usually occurred for four months (December to March)

but these days it stays only for few weeks.

Agriculture: Due to diseases, untimely rainfall, the potato production in Ghunsa village has been

largely affected. The production of potato has been decreased by 90percent in past ten years. For

the people of Ghunsa such events are not totally new. Some 20 years ago people used to grow

buckwheat (Tite Phapar in local language) in the same farmland. They replaced the buckwheat

with potato because production of buckwheat dropped drastically.

The changing climatic pattern in Ghunsa also has significant impacts on livestock. Due to decreasing

pastureland, prevalence of new diseases, and drying water sources, livestock population is

decreasing year by year. This has serious impact on the livelihood of the people because livestock

is the main source of transportation in this remote mountainous region. Beside this milk and milk

products is another main source of food for local people.

Water resources: People have noticed notable changes in snow cover area of nearby mountains.

In the past there used to be thick layers of snow in the mountains year around, however, in recent

years it can be only seen during winter. This is a clear indication of melting snow and ice from

the mountains. As a result the water level in the river is increasing with frequently occurring flash

flood. On the other hand, nature water resources are declining.

Disaster: Along with increasing rainfall, the landslide events are also increasing. In 2012 due to

heavy rainfall and snowfall, there were numerous events of landslide. As a result, the micro-

hydro plant was badly damaged. Frequency of flash flood is also increasing in Ghunsa because of

extreme rain and snowfall events.


1. Ghunsa has potential of tourism where visitors can learn about Sherpa culture, views of

mountains and waterfall. Hence, Ghunsa can be developed as a mid way destinations to

Kanchenjunga and or TMJ.

2. With proper infrastructure development Ghunsa village can be developed as destinations

where visitors can stay for few days to interact with Sherpas, learn Sherpa culture and, enjoy

the beauty of waterfalls and mountains.

3. Development of basic infrastructure especially trails which has been damaged by frequent

landslides should be improved. To mitigate landslide along the Ghunsa trekking route,

appropriate bioengineering techniques should be implemented. In addition to this,

development of bridge joining Ghunsa to Sekhthum is essential because Sekathum connects

Ghunsa to both Kanchenjunga and TMJT.

4. Agriculture sector is the most affected sector in Ghunsa so it should be placed on top priority

for future adaptation programs.

New varieties of crop (especially potato) should be tested and appropriate variety that is most

suitable for current climatic condition should be provided to the local farmers in order to

enhance agriculture productivity.

5. Re-construction of Ghunsa micro-hydro is the urgent need of the people in Ghunsa. Similarly

disaster preparedness plan and programs are also necessary especially for GLOF, landslide,

and rainfall and temperature related extreme events.


None of the respondents reported about the coping mechanism. During the field visit also we

didn’t observe any indication of people’s coping strategy towards changing climate.



4 conclusion and recommendations

Our extensive field survey to 20 different districts along the GHT, other literature studies, and

rigorous discussions indicate that impact of climate change in the mountainous areas is tangible,

noticeable and measurable. The localized impacts of climate change are inevitable and mountain

people are more vulnerable to such changes due to low adaptation capabilities. Lack of basic

infrastructure, rugged terrain, harsh climate, lack of resources is the main driving factors for low

socio-economic development. Climate change on top of that is the additional burden to these

rural people. The rainfall data analysis shows decreasing trend for majority of districts. The large

reduction in rainfall was observed in Bajura, Baglung, Humla, Kaski, and Baglung. The temperature

trend is not so consistent with different locations. The average annual maximum temperature

is found to be increasing for majority of districts; however, the minimum temperature trend is

decreasing. Out to 20 districts pronounced warming trend was observed in Lamjung, Taplejung,

Jumla, Doti, Dolkha and Solukhumbu.

During the field visit to different villages of remote mountainous region of Nepal, local people

spoke about climate change they have experienced. The results are consistent with current climate

change projection and other similar studies. In most of the villages, people have been experiencing

increasing temperature trend. Rainfall is unpredictable with intense monsoon rainfall and

increasing drought periods. People have also experienced delay in monsoon with less number of

rainy days. Here are the voices of local people in different remote mountainous locations of Nepal;

• Warmer summer, drier winters with decreasing snowfall amount and duration

• Intense monsoon rainfall with decreasing rainfall duration, early or delayed onset of monsoon rainfall

• More frequent and intense windstorm and hailstorm

• Prolonged drought during winter or sometime during monsoon

• Declining water sources and widespread water scarcity

Agriculture is the highly affected sector due to changes in weather pattern. The crop productivity

is declining in most of the areas resulting into widespread food insecurity. Due to prolonged

drought and untimely onset of monsoon, people have no option left to irrigate their agriculture

field. In addition, occurrence of new diseases and dominance of invasive species is putting extra

burden to the livelihood of poor farmers. People are forced to depend upon food from local

market to meet their food deficiency. Food insecurity is increasing with decreasing agriculture

production and the situation is relatively worse in the respective villages of Doti, Jumla, Mugu,

Sindhupalchok, and Bajura.

4.1 Conclusion



The decreasing agriculture productivity is one of the driving factors for youth migration in search of

income generation. Moreover, increasing events of soil erosion and landslides are causing loss of

fertile soil, loss of infrastructure and grazing lands. Due to unavailability of grazing areas, livestock

agriculture has been largely affected. With increasing temperature and growth of invasive species,

new diseases in livestock are reported by most of the villagers.

Widespread water scarcity is the common problem in the most of the villages. However, the

situation is comparatively severe in the respective villages of Nuwakot, Dhading, Dolpa, Gorkha,

and Mugu. In most of the district natural water sources are declining remarkably. Drying of

natural springs, ponds, rivers especially during winter season is adding stress on women and

children because they are enforced to travel far to collect water. Extreme monsoon rainfall on

the other hand is causing flash flood, excessive soil erosion and frequent landslides threatening

the livelihood. Natural hazards like landslide, windstorm, hailstorm, and soil erosion have been

affecting forest biodiversity significantly. Similarly, due to changing climatic condition new invasive

species are replacing the existing fodder varieties and other NTFPs. Firewood is the prime source of

energy in the mountains, due to decreasing forest cover, women and children now forced to travel

far to collect firewood. Along with natural hazards, occurrence of new diseases has been reported

widely. Due to lack of proper health facility, the vulnerability of such diseases and magnitude

of impact is relatively large. Water scarcity along with limited sanitation facility is worsening the

health status of people further.

Realizing the widespread changes, people are trying to cope with it. They are growing new crop

varieties; shifting the date of cultivation; improving water management by reservoir construction,

source conservation, and rain water harvesting; community forestry programs; seasonal

migration and shift from agriculture to other occupation. People are adapting themselves to

changing climate to their own; however, further adaptation plan and programs are very crucial.

Empowering communities with information, technological skills, education and employment are

the essential elements, which should be included in adaptation programs. On a long run, climate

change mitigation will also be demanding, hence, carbon mitigation through green economy, low

carbon development mechanisms are equally important. As proposed, the concept of climate

smart living will provide fundamental solution for this.

Situated in the mountainous region, most of the villages have immense potential of tourism. It has

been realized that tourism can be a driver to bring overall socio-economic development in these

remote mountain areas. Most of the areas possess numerous natural, cultural, and religious

attractions which are not explored yet to their fullest.

Some of the areas, which are already a tourist destination, like Laitak village of Dhading, Suirung

village of Lamjung, Ghunsa village of Taplejung, Sikles village of Kaski, and Khumjung valley of

Solukhumbu. However, there are some other location with immense tourism potential which

needs to be explored and promoted including Ringmo and Bhutigra village of Dopla, Dipayalgaun

and Pipalgaun of Jumla, Jhyari village of Mugu, Samjung village of Mustang and Chitre village of

Myagdi. With basic infrastructure development, these unexplored areas are expected to attract

people in near future. Promotion of tourism to these pristine areas under the GHT will be a step

towards capacity building of local people through socio-economic development, which in turn will

help to build a climate resilient community.


4.2 Recommendations

Life for mountain people, as a rule, has always been a challenge. People in mountain are facing

multiple issues both existing and new challenges. Mountain communities in Nepal are often

marginalized from developmental influence and economic opportunities as a result these rural

people generally have to face high levels of poverty. The ecosystems they dwell in are among

the most sensitive because of harsh climatic condition, fragile geology, and steep terrain. These

resource poor isolated people are frequently being exposed to multiple natural hazards including

Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF), landslide, hailstorm, extreme rainfall, floods etc. The region

is also confronted with issues like environmental degradation, natural resource depletion, water

scarcity, and desertification (Schild 2008). Mountainous region are manifested by low income,

low access to health facilities, poor education, and low skills. Moreover, the high dependency on

natural environment, physical vulnerability and limited entrepreneurial capacity are resulting into

poverty and lower socio-economic development. The underlying cause relating these fundamental

problems is lack of development which in a sense has been close to non-existent. Poor physical

and economic infrastructures, limited access to market, technologies, and information; poor

institutional services, and limited economic opportunities are some of the examples of issues

related to development in the mountains.

In recent years climate change is expected to place additional stress on these already challenging

ecosystem and livelihoods. Decline in rainfall and its erratic behavior, drought, flash floods, glacier

melting and GLOF are some well documented impact of climate change in the mountains. These

natural calamities often pose serious threats to local food production and trigger land degradation

and desertification (UNDP 2010). The combined effect of natural disaster and impacts of climate

change in the mountains has great damage mainly on the agriculture, water resource and human

health. Decreasing agriculture productivity in the mountainous region is causing out migration

to raise family income and also adapt to the changing climate (Karki 2012). The potential of

population migration and redistribution due to climate change associated hazards have also been

documented by IPCC in Fourth Assessment Report (IPCC 2007). The cases of people migration and

climate refugees in the mountainous region of Nepal due to above mentioned climate induced

hazards is getting more attention these days. As for example, the first recognized case of climate

change refuges in Nepal is the complete migration of 23 households of Dhe village in Upper

Mustang (Khatri 2013). These climate refugees are relocated due to the severe impact of climate

change on the livelihoods of the people. Labor migration is also increasing because of lack of

employment opportunities in the mountain. In order to raise family income and also adapt to the

changes taking place especially that caused by climate change in recent years, male population in

the mountain are declining because of labor migration (Karki 2012).

The persistent limited employment and economic opportunities in mountain communities have

now further hindered by the impacts of climate change. Poverty always being a synonymous

to the mountain communities is the main determining factor for climate change adaptation

process. According to UNDP (2009) the human poverty index by topographic region is high

in the mountains (i.e. 43.3). This indicates that about 43.3% of the total populations are living

under poverty line. Poverty in the mountainous regions has been recognized as the key driver

of vulnerability and low adaptive capability to climate change (Macchi et. al. 2011). Realizing


these underlying issues, poverty alleviation through economic development is the only option

left for these resource poor mountain people. Livelihood assets are essential for adaption to

changing climate providing multiple options to cope with or adapt to changing conditions (Macchi

et. al. 2011). By far Mid-hills and Terai have been more in priority for developmental projects

because of electoral compulsions. Given Nepal’s chaotic socio-political situation, it is unlikely that

conventional industries including large energy projects will be implemented any time soon in the

mountains. This has created limited employment opportunities in the mountain communities with

lower entrepreneurial capabilities. Hence, market driven value chain initiatives are indispensable

to bring radial economic development in these areas. Efforts to improve the economic situation

of mountain communities need to consider innovative financing mechanisms and approaches

such as payments for environmental services. Supportive and enabling environment for the

promotion of high-quality niche products and services from mountain areas would be critical for

improving livelihoods and protecting mountain environments. This would require assuring access

of mountain products to national and international markets.

Climate Vulnerability is more likely to increase in the coming years tremendously if some smart

interventions (that are possible even in the political uncertainly) are not made. One has to look

around and find competitive advantage that need least investment and lead time to prosper.

Though development brings overall socio-economic enhancement in rural mountainous region,

“Development as usual”, without considering risks and opportunities related with climate

change will not allow us to face emerging challenges. Although adaptation should remain

Nepal’s priority, in course of development, it is essential to opt for a green economy through

low carbon development path. Nepal is endowed with potentials for hydropower which should

be promoted for all domestic energy requirements. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and

Forests Degradation (REDD+) programme provides opportunities to reduce GHGs emissions

bringing investments in forest-related sustainable development for the dependent communities.

Green economy model for sustainable development and poverty alleviation will open windows

of opportunity to resolve the weakness of earlier development models. Nepal’s Climate Change

Policy, 2011 focus on promoting the use of renewable energy; however, it needs to be affordable

and accessible for remote mountain communities. Promotion of clean and climate friendly energy

sources like solar energy, bio-gas energy, micro-hydro with government subsidies in the mountain

will substantially decrease the firewood dependency and reduce carbon footprints. Though, Nepal

has promoted CDM projects in areas of biogas, micro-hydro and improved cooking stoves, but

mountain people are yet to benefit from it. Hence, it should be implemented effectively so that

people who really need financial support for their livelihood can be benefitted.

Tourism industry is the only hope in the mountain which has been a boon to the local economy.

In Nepal, mountain tourism comprises about 20 to 25% of the total tourist inflow; however it

is a significant income source for numerous people living in and around popular mountain

destinations such as the Everest and Annapurna regions (Nepal, 1999). Besides these popular

tourist destinations, Nepal comprises other numerous places for adventurous trekking with

tremendous potential. Promotion of pro-poor sustainable tourism will help emphasizing market

and local product diversification for enhancing income generation and poverty alleviation;

conserving historical, cultural, and religious heritage and natural resources; and necessary

infrastructure development as a whole. Developing the Great Himalaya Trail is one such brilliant

option. Promoting GHT would not be a very capital intensive project- the Ruggedness of the

Mountain Trails being considered a ‘plus’ by the adventure tourists who come to Nepal for Trekking


and Mountaineering. Most sections of the trails are already in use by the local population- only

some of the sections need investment- and that too would attract public participation making

the project even less expensive. GHT, however, must be developed in climate smart ways

considering the issue of environment protection and carbon mitigation. This can be accomplished

by promoting Climate Smart Living in model communities across the length of GHT, and then

replicating them across the trail, making the entire GHT a climate-smart undertaking. Many of

the 20 locations this research covered qualify for promoting Climate Smart Living. Some are more

suited than the others (see annex).

Dealing with Climate Change does not need brand new solutions. Conventional development

(Trails. Roads, Airstrips, Schools, Telecommunication, Healthcare) are the only way to move ahead-

the only improvement needed that all of these must be Climate Smart. Climate Resilience build-

up needs climate-smart economic empowerment. Climate Smart GHT exemplifies it. This would

become a driver of all-round development (Trails. Roads, Airstrips, Schools, Telecommunication,

Healthcare). Examples are Sagarmatha and Annapurna. Apa Sherpa’s life is an individual example.


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Appendix 1

Climatic data from district wise

Annual precipitation of Bajhang from 1981-2010

Annual Precipitation distribution Bajura from 1976 to 2011 Annual Precipitation distribution from Dhading 1978-2008

Annual precipitation of Baglung from 1980-2009

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

1978

1981

1984

1987

1990

1993

1996

1999

2002

2005

2008

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

in m

m)

Year

y = -18.25x + 38324

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1975 1985 1995 2005

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

mm

)

Year

y = -5.476x + 12919

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1979 1989 1999 2009

An

nu

al P

reci

pit

ati

on

(m

m)

Year

y = -12.47x + 27117

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

mm

)

Year


Annual Precipitation distribution in Dolakha from 1981-2010

Annual Precipitation distribution of Doti from 1978 to 2009 Annual Precipitation distribution Gorkha from 1980 to 2010

Annual precipitation distribution of Dolpa from 1981-2010

y = 11.42x - 20486

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

1980 1990 2000 2010

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

mm

)

Year

y = -12.26x + 24841

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

mm

)

Year

y = -2.009x + 5350

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

1980 1990 2000 2010

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

mm

)

Year

y = -30.40x + 61730

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1980 1990 2000 2010

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

mm

)

Year


Annual precipitation distribution Kaski from 1980-2010 Annual precipitation distribution Lamjung from 1981-2010

Annual Precipitation distribution Humla from 1979 to 2006 Annual precipitation of Jumla from 1983 to 2010

y = -2.727x + 5977

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1978 1988 1998

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

mm

)

Year

y = -0.911x + 2615

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1983 1993 2003

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

mm

)

Year

y = 1.658x + 51.64

0500

100015002000250030003500400045005000

1980 1990 2000 2010

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

mm

)

Year

y = 5.762x - 7597

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

1980 1990 2000 2010

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

mm

)

Year


Annual precipitation distribution Mugu from 1971-2006 Annual precipitation distribution Mustang from 1958-2010

Annual precipitation distribution of Nuwakot from 1972-2009 Annual precipitation distributions Sankhuwasaba from 1947-2009

y = -4.026x + 8878

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1970 1980 1990 2000

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

mm

)

Year

y = 0.085x - 8.332

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

1958 1968 1978 1988 1998 2008

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

in m

m)

Year

y = -7.990x + 17815

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

mm

)

Year

y = 3.658x - 5844

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1947 1957 1967 1977 1987 1997 2007

Pre

cip

ata

tio

n (

mm

)

Year


Annual precipitation distribution of Sindhupalchowk from 1980-2009 Annual precipitation distribution Solukhumbu from 1987 to 2008

Annual Precipitation distribution at Taplejung Station, Taplejung from 1975 to 2009

y = -8.085x + 19036

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

1980 1990 2000 2010

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

mm

)

Year

y = -9.074x + 18567

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1987 1992 1997 2002 2007

Pre

cip

ata

tio

n (

mm

)

Year

y = 5.654x - 9028

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

1975 1985 1995 2005

Pre

cip

ita

tio

n (

mm

)

Year


Appendix 2

Climate Smart Living in the GHT: Need for Solutions

No discussion of tourism and environmental management in the mountain areas of Nepal is

complete without reference to the socio-economic environment as tourism can play an essential

role in the development of mountain communities. However, tourism sector in Nepal has been

advanced in largely demand driven and unplanned way, resulting in damage to the pristine

mountain environment in certain parts of the country. On the other hand, a changing climate is

affecting the overall mountain system rapidly supplementing additional pressure to the mountain

tourism as well as livelihood of mountain people.

Realizing the issues like shortcoming of traditional tourism approach, increasing developmental

demand of poor mountain people and their need to cope with climate variation, HCI has formed

a conceptual framework on Climate Smart Living (CSL).

The premise of climate smart living is inspired by the realization of the fact that sustainable tourism

can be a driving factor of socio-economic development for mountain people. CSL considers nature

conservation as a central theme and believes that protection of physical environment and socio-

economic development can have a symbiotic relationship provided there a holistic approach that

addresses the needs of the environment conservation, promotion of tourism and development of

mountain community.

Hence, climate friendly sustainable tourism along with climate smart living in different trekking

routes around GHT may provide means of development in those parts as well as creates

opportunities for overall environment protection, climate change mitigation and adaptation

processes. In this win-win scenario, tourism enhances the socio-economic status of the local

community, which in turn improves the climate change adaptive capability, and encourages

people to protect their fragile mountain environment.

In general CSL is a conceptual model, which seeks practical solutions to develop strategy for

climate change adaptation and mitigation particularly over the mountainous region of Nepal. HCI

is working on developing a ‘Climate Smart Living Framework (CSLF)’ based on a list of indicators

to help build different sectors into a model for sustainable development (Fig 1). HCI has identified

four fundamental bases including awareness, adaptation, Low Carbon Development (LCD), and

governance in order to address the issue of climate change adaptation and mitigation (Fig 1).

CSLF conceptualized by HCI is an intervention based on the identified thematic areas (agriculture,

waste, health and sanitation, water, energy, forest and biodiversity, infrastructures and disaster)

for developmental activities.

By adopting CSL modality, economic development can be achieved in a climate smart way with

minimum disturbance to environment. Furthermore, HCI is attempting to make this model

replicable in several developmental sectors like industries, tourism as well as corporate sectors.

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The diagram is missing


Climate Awareness

Climate Smart LivingThe Framework

Governance

CLIMATE SMART LIVING

Climate

Resilience

actionaction

Climate Adaptation

Low Carbon

Development

It is well known that mountain people are struggling with high poverty rates, exacerbated by

climate change, environmental degradation, and an increasing rural-urban migration, making

traditional livelihood options increasingly unsustainable.

Relating to these issues, tourism can be a viable adaptation strategy, providing mountain people

with alternative options, building on the strengths of the region through tourism and associated

development activities. CSL includes promotion of locally appropriate climate change adaptation

practices and carbon mitigation strategy through low carbon development facilitated by good

governance. Thus, implementation of CSL in the trekking routes along GHT identified by HCI can

prove an attractive solution to produce climate resilient Himalayan communities.

GPO Box: 12123, House No. 692Subarna Marg, Baluwatar, Kathmandu, NepalPhone: +977 1 4428976, Fax: +977 1 [email protected]

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Supported By: ICIMOD Karuna Foundation

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