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CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to power electronics:
The study of controlling the flow of electrical energy with the help of electronic
circuits is defined as Power Electronics. Power electronics is the applications of
solid-state electronics for the control and conversion of electric power.
Power Electronics Embraces the study of
(a) Power:-
It deals with both rotating and static equipment for the generation, transmission,
distribution and utilization of vast quantities of electrical power.
(b) Electronics:-
It deals with the study of semiconductor devices and circuits for the processing of
information at lower power levels.
(c) Control:-
It deals with the stability and response characteristics of closed loop system.
Power Electronics deals with the use of electronics for control and conversion of
large amount of electrical power.
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Representation of Power Electronic System:
Fig.1.1.Block diagram of power electronic system
The main power source may be either AC or DC based on the application
.The output of the power electronic circuit may be variable ac or dc, or it may be
variable voltage and frequency based on the requirement.
The feedback component measures a parameter of the load (say forexample speed) and compares it with the command signal.
The difference between these two signals, through the digital circuit
controls the instant of turn on of the semiconductor device. The load circuit can
be controlled over a wide range with the adjustment of the command signal.
In between Power Electronic circuit to load, the Filter is added in most of
the applications. A filter is necessary to prevent any harmonics generated by the
converter from being feedback to the mains or from being radiated into space.
Power electronic converters - to modify the form of electrical energy (voltage,
current or frequency).
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Power range - from some mW (mobile phone) to hundreds of MW (HVDC
transmission system). With "classical" electronics, electrical currents and voltage
are used to carry information, whereas with power electronics, they carry power.
Thus, the main metric of power electronics becomes the efficiency.
The first very high power electronic devices were mercury arc valves. In
modern systems the conversion is performed with semiconductor switching
devices such as diodes, thyristors and transistors. In contrast to electronic systems
concerned with transmission and processing of signals and data, in power
electronics substantial amounts of electrical energy are processed.
An AC/DC converter (rectifier) is the most typical power electronics device
found in many consumer electronic devices, e.g., television sets, personal
computers, battery chargers, etc. The power range is typically from tens of watts
to several hundred watts. In industry the most common application is the variable
speed drive (VSD) that is used to control an induction motor. The power range of
VSDs start from a few hundred watts and end at tens of megawatts power
conversion systems can be classified according to the type of the input and output
power
AC to DC (rectification)
DC to AC (inversion)
DC to DC (chopping)
AC to AC (transformation)
The subject of power electronics is the merger of the field of electrical
power system and solid state electronic devices. It is the discipline that involves
the study, analysis, and design of circuits that convert electrical energy from one
form to another.
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Difference between the linear Electronics and Power Electronics:
The specifications in linear Electronics are Gain and Bandwidth. Whereas
the specifications in Power Electronics are Efficiency and Distortion.
Study of Power Electronics involves
Power Semiconductor Devices like construction, characteristics, operation,
protection
Energy storage elements
Various Power Converter Topologies
Control Strategies, Drive circuits of Topologies
EMI, EMC, Heat Dissipation techniques
Advantages of Power Electronics System:-
High efficiency due to low loss in power semiconductor devices.
High reliability of power electronic converter system.
Long life and less maintenance due to absence of any moving parts.
Flexibility in operation
Fast dynamic response compared to electromechanical converter system.
Small size and less weight, thus low installation cost
Disadvantages of Power Electronics System:-
Circuits in power electronics system have a tendency to generate harmonics
in the supply system as well as the load circuit.
AC to DC and AC to AC converter operate at low input power factor under
certain operating condition.
Regeneration of power is difficult in power electronic converter system.
Power Electronic controllers have low overhead capacity
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Applications:
We can realize the applications of Power Electronics everywhere in our
day-to-day life (home, office, factory, car, hospital, theatre etc.)
Some of the typical applications are
Domestic and theatre lighting
Industrial Process in the chemical, paper and steel industries
Motor drives from food mixers, washing machines through to lifts and
locomotives
Power supplies for laboratories and uninterruptible power for vital loads
Generation and transmission control
Industrial Applications:
Industrial applications mainly consist of two areas, motor control and
power supplies. The motors which are controlled vary from very large to smaller
ones . Power supplies for battery charging, induction heating, electroplating and
welding.
Consumer Applications:
Consumer applications cover many different areas in the home, such as
audio amplifiers, heat controls, light dimmers, security systems, motor control for
food mixers and hand power tools.
Transportation Applications:
Transportation applications like motor drives for electric vehicles,
locomotives. In addition to this non-motor drive applications like traffic signal
control, vehicle electronic ignition and vehicle voltage regulation.
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1.2. INTRODUCTION
Equipment in home or office that can be affected includes computers,digital clocks, answering machines, VCRs, electronic cash registers and security
systems. Other equipment impacted by power quality problems includes energy
management systems, variable speed drives and phone systems.
Most electrical devices can tolerate short-term power disturbances without
any noticeable effects. However, more serious power disturbances can cause data
loss, memory loss, altered data, product loss, and other functional errors-as well
as equipment damage. These problems often cause expensive downtime,
inefficiency, lost orders, scheduling problems and accounting problems. It is often
necessary to troubleshoot to determine the cause of these problems. Having the
right kind of power protection for your electronic systems becomes more
important every day. It is difficult to predict when a minor power-related problem
might become a major problem for your home or business.
Identifying the Problems
Since power disturbances are almost always intermittent problems, they
can be difficult to identity. Once a problem has been isolated as a power problem,
it is important to identify the type of power disturbance so that the cause can be
found and a solution can be implemented. Sometimes identifying the cause of a
power disturbance can point to a low or no-cost solution.
Types of Disturbances
There are three types of irregularities, which could affect your power supply:
1.Voltagefluctuations
2.Switchingtransients
3. Power outages
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Power Outages
Power Outages, often referred to as Power Interruptions, can best be
defined as a complete loss of voltage for a few seconds or longer. Sensitive
electronic equipment generally does not respond well to any type of power
interruption. Momentary (short duration) Outages generally range from less than
one cycle to a few seconds. If the momentary interruption is caused by an event
outside of ones home or business, the interruption is likely caused by a device
known as a recloses. A reclose turns off the power in response to a short circuit or
an electrical fault on the utility system, commonly referred to as the power line.
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CHAPTER 2
COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION
2.1. List of components:
Table. 2.1 List of Components
S.No. Name of the
component
Type Number
1. Diode 1N4007 82. Voltage
regulator
7812 1
3. Capacitor 220f/25
v
1
4. Capacitor 100f/63
v
2
5. Resistor 10k
1/4w
3
6. Resistor 1k 1/4w 47. Variable
resistor
10k pot 2
8. Transistor BC 547 2
9. Op-amp LM 324 1
10. Pin base 14 pin 1
11. LED 5 MM 1
12. Relay 12v 1
13. Transformer 12-0-12v 1
14. General board PCB 1
2.2. Op-amp LM324:
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As the name implies it is an operational amplifier. It performs
mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, log, antilog etc.. The main
reason for OPAMPS used over transistors is that transistor can only amplify AC
while OPAMPS can amplify AC and DC. You can get good amplifier gain in
OPAMPS. The most commonly used OPAMPS are 741 and 324. IC741 is used in
close loop configuration and LM324 in open loop configuration. i.e. LM324
mainly used as comparator while 741 for amplification, addition etc...
2.2.1 Features:
Internally frequency compensated for unity gain.
Large DC voltage gain 100 dB
Wide bandwidth (unity gain) 1 MHz (temperature compensated).
Wide power supply range: Single supply 3 V to 32 V or dual supplies 1.5
V to 16 V.
Very low supply current drain (700 A)-essentially independent of supply
voltage.
Low input biasing current 45 nA (temperature compensated).
Low input offset voltage 2 mV and offset current: 5 nA.
Input common-mode voltage range includes ground.
Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage.
Large output voltage swing 0V to V+ - 1.5 V.
2.2.2 Description:
The LM324 series consists of four independent, high gain internally
frequency compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically
to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation
from split power supplies is also possible and the low power supply current drain
is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage. Application areas
include transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks and all the conventional op amp
circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply
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systems. For example, the LM324 series can be directly operated off of the
standard +5V power supply voltage which is used in digital systems and will
easily provide the required interface electronics without requiring the additional
15V power supply.
2.2.3 Pin Diagram and Internal architecture of LM324 :
Fig. 2.1. Internal architecture
Fig. 2.2 Pin diagram
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LM
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2.2.4. Characteristics:
In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range includes ground
and the output voltage can also swing to ground, even though operated from only
a single power supply voltage
The unity gain cross frequency is temperature compensated
The input bias current is also temperature compensated
2.2.5 Advantages
Eliminates need for dual supplies.
Four internally compensated op amps in a single package.
Allows directly sensing near GND and V out also goes to GND.
Compatible with all forms of logic.
Power drain suitable for battery operation.
2.2.6. LM 324 as Comparator:
Comparator is an analog circuit with two inputs and one output. It watches
and compares two voltages at the inputs and decides if the output should change
or not based on the inputs. For example, if the voltage on one of the inputs goes
above a fixed trigger voltage on the other input, the output could go from LOW to
HIGH. This is only one configuration. There are lots of other possibilities, and the
test circuit will help you understand them. Comparators are good at
"conditioning" analog signals and turning them into digital signals. The output
can be hooked up directly to any logic input on another chip, a BASIC Stamp,
SSR etc. You can hook it up to a transistor (i.e., TIP120/122 or TIP125/127) todrive relays, motors, solenoids etc. We are going to use the LM324 quad
operational amplifier (opamp). There are four general purpose opamps in the
LM324. Each of them can be used as a comparator. We will start with just one, so
connect all unused inputs to ground.
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Fig 2.3 Op-amp as a Comparator
Build this circuit on your breadboard to learn how comparators work. The
pots can be any value, but 10K or more is best. The pots supply adjustable
voltages to the inputs. Measure and set them with a DMM as described. One pot
sets a trip point (reference voltage) called Vref.
Another pot simulates a fluctuating voltage signal, called V in. In your projects
Vin could be from a photocell, flex sensor, microphone etc. A comparator is an
analog circuit with two inputs and one output. It watches and compares twovoltages at the inputs and decides if the output should change or not based on the
inputs. For example, if the voltage on one of the inputs goes above a fixed
trigger voltage on the other input, the output could go from LOW to HIGH. This
is only one configuration. There are lots of other possibilities, and the test circuit
will help you understand them. Comparators are good at "conditioning" analog
signals and turning them into digital signals. The output can be hooked up directly
to any logic input on another chip, a BASIC Stamp, SSR etc. You can hook it up
to a transistor (i.e. TIP120/122 or TIP125/127) to drive relays, motors, solenoids
etc. We are going to use the LM324 quad operational amplifier (opamp). There
are four general purpose opamps in the LM324. Each of them can be used as a
comparator. Well start with just one, so connect all unused inputs to ground.
NonInverting Comparator
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In this example POT1 is used to set the reference voltage and POT2
supplies the input voltage (V in).
Use the DMM to measure Vref at TEST POINT A. Turn POT1 to set it.
You can set it to whatever you need, but for now lets set it to 3 volts.
Now measure V in at TEST POINT B. Turning POT2 changes the voltage
up and down.
Whenever V in is HIGHER than 3 V (Vref) the output is HIGH (LED turns
on).
Whenever V in is LOWER than 3 V (Vref) the output is LOW (LED turns
off).
Inverting Comparator
In this example POT2 sets Vref and POT1 supplies V in.
Use the DMM to measure Vref at TEST POINT B. Turn POT2 to set it.
Lets use 3 volts again.
Now measure V in at TEST POINT A. Turning POT1 changes the voltage.
Whenever V in is HIGHER than 3 V (Vref) the output is LOW (LED turns
off).
Whenever V in is LOWER than 3 V (Vref) the output is HIGH (LED turns
on).
2.3. RELAY
2.3.1. Relay Design.
There are only four main parts in a relay. They are
Electromagnet
Movable Armature
Switch point contacts
Spring
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The figures given below show the actual design of a simple relay.
Fig.2.4 Design of relay
2.3.2 Relay Construction:
It is an electro-magnetic relay with a wire coil, surrounded by an iron core.
A path of very low reluctance for the magnetic flux is provided for the movable
armature and also the switch point contacts. The movable armature is connected
to the yoke which is mechanically connected to the switch point contacts. These
parts are safely held with the help of a spring. The spring is used so as to produce
an air gap in the circuit when the relay becomes de-energized.
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2.3.3 Relay working
The working of a relay can be better understood by explaining the following
diagram given below.
Fig. 2.5 Internal diagram of relay
The diagram shows an inner section diagram of a relay. An iron core is
surrounded by a control coil. As shown, the power source is given to the
electromagnet through a control switch and through contacts to the load. When
current starts flowing through the control coil, the electromagnet starts energizing
and thus intensifies the magnetic field.
Thus the upper contact arm starts to be attracted to the lower fixed arm
and thus closes the contacts causing a short circuit for the power to the load. On
the other hand, if the relay was already de-energized when the contacts were
closed, then the contact move oppositely and make an open circuit.
As soon as the coil current is off, the movable armature will be returned by
a force back to its initial position. This force will be almost equal to half the
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strength of the magnetic force. This force is mainly provided by two factors. They
are the spring and also gravity.
Relays are mainly made for two basic operations. One is low voltage
application and the other is high voltage. For low voltage applications, more
preference will be given to reduce the noise of the whole circuit. For high voltage
applications, they are mainly designed to reduce a phenomenon called arcing.
Relay Basics
The basics for all the relays are the same. Take a look at a 4 pin relay
shown below. There are two colors shown. The green color represents the control
circuit and the red color represents the load circuit. A small control coil is
connected onto the control circuit. A switch is connected to the load. This switch
is controlled by the coil in the control circuit. Now let us take the different steps
that occur in a relay.
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Fig. 2.6 4-pin relay
Energized Relay (ON)
As shown in the circuit, the current flowing through the coils
represented by pins 1 and 3 causes a magnetic field to be aroused. This magnetic
field causes the closing of the pins 2 and 4. Thus the switch plays an important
role in the relay working. As it is a part of the load circuit, it is used to control an
electrical circuit that is connected to it. Thus, when the relay in energized thecurrent flow will be through the pins 2 and 4.
Fig. 2.7 Energized Relay (ON)
De Energized Relay (OFF)
As soon as the current flow stops through pins 1 and 3, the switch opens
and thus the open circuit prevents the current flow through pins 2 and 4. Thus the
relay becomes de-energized and thus in off position.
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Fig. 2.8 De-Energized Relay (OFF)
In simple, when a voltage is applied to pin 1, the electromagnet
activates, causing a magnetic field to be developed, which goes on to close the
pins 2 and 4 causing a closed circuit. When there is no voltage on pin 1, there
will be no electromagnetic force and thus no magnetic field. Thus the
switches remain open.
2.3.4 Pole and Throw
Relays have the exact working of a switch. So, the same concept is also applied.
A relay is said to switch one or more poles. Each pole has contacts that can be
thrown in mainly three ways. They are
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Normally Open Contact (NO) NO contact is also called a make contact.
It closes the circuit when the relay is activated. It disconnects the circuit when the
relay is inactive.
Normally Closed Contact (NC) NC contact is also known as break
contact. This is opposite to the NO contact. When the relay is activated, the circuit
disconnects. When the relay is deactivated, the circuit connects.
Change-over (CO) / Double-throw (DT) Contacts This type of contacts
are used to control two types of circuits. They are used to control a NO contact
and also a NC contact with a common terminal. According to their type they are
called by the names break before make and make before breakcontacts.
Relays are also named with designations like
Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) This type of relay has a total of four
terminals. Out of these two terminals can be connected or disconnected. The other
two terminals are needed for the coil.
Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) This type of a relay has a total of
five terminals. Out of these two are the coil terminals. A common terminal is also
included which connects to either of two others.
Double Pole Single Throw (DPST) This relay has a total of sixterminals. These terminals are further divided into two pairs. Thus they can act as
two SPSTs which are actuated by a single coil. Out of the six terminals two of
them are coil terminals.
Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) This is the biggest of all. It has
mainly eight relay terminals. Out of these two rows are designed to be change
over terminals. They are designed to act as two SPDT relays which are actuated
by a single coil.
2.3.5. Types of Relays
Before going on to a deeper classification of the relays there are some basic relay
circuits that must be kept in our mind. They are
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Voltage Suppression Relays
As relays are used in industrial purposes very often, they are mostly controlled
with the help of computers. But when relays are controlled with such devices,
there will surely be the presence of semi-conductors like transistors. This will in
turn cause the presence of voltage spikes. As a result, it is really necessary to
introduce voltage suppression devices , otherwise they will clearly destroy the
transistors.
This voltage suppression can be introduced in two ways. Either the
computer provides the suppression or the relay provides the suppression. If the
relay provides the suppression they are called voltage-suppression relays. In
relays voltage suppression is provided with the help of resistors of high value and
even diodes and capacitors. Out of these diodes and resistors are more commonly
used. Whatever device is used, it will be clearly stated in the relay. Take a look at
the diagram of a voltage suppressed relay with the help of a diode.
Fig. 2.9 Voltage suppression relay using diode
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De-spiking Diode Relays
A diode in the reverse-biased position is connected in parallel with the relay coil.
As there is no flow of current due to such a connection, an open circuit of the
relay will cause the current to stop flowing through the coil. This will have effect
on the magnetic field. The magnetic field will be decreased instantly. This will
cause the rise of an opposite voltage with very high reverse polarity to be induced.
This is mainly caused because of the magnetic lines of force that cut the armature
coil due to the open circuit.
Thus the opposite voltage rises until the diode reaches 0.7 volts. As soon
as this cut-off voltage is achieved, the diode becomes forward-biased. This causes
a closed circuit in the relay, causing the entire voltage to pass through the load.
The current thus produced will be flowing through the circuit for a very long time.
As soon as the voltage is completely drained, this current flow will also stop.
Take a look at the figure given below.
Fig. 2.10 De-spiking diode relays
De-spiking Resistor Relays
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A resistor is almost efficient as that of a diode. It can not only suppress the
voltage spikes efficiently, but also allows the entire current to flow through it
when the relay is in the on position. Thus the current flow through it will also be
very high. To reduce this, the value of the resistance should be as high as 1 Kilo
Ohm. But, as the value of the resistors increases the voltage spiking capability of
the relay decreases. Take a look at the circuit diagram below to understand more.
Fig. 2.11 De-spiking resistor relays
2.3.6 Relay Applications
Relays are used to realize logic functions. They play a very important role
in providing safety critical logic.
Relays are used to provide time delay functions. They are used to time the
delay open and delay close of contacts.
Relays are used to control high voltage circuits with the help of low voltage
signals. Similarly they are used to control high current circuits with the help of
low current signals.
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They are also used as protective relays. By this function all the faults
during transmission and reception can be detected and isolated .
Relay Selection
Some factors are included during selection of relay. They are
Protection Different protections like contact protection and coil
protection must be noted. Contact protection helps in reducing arcing in circuits
using inductors. Coil protection helps in reducing surge voltage produced during
switching.
Look for a standard relay with all regulatory approvals.
Switching time Ask for high speed switching relays if you want one.
Ratings There are current as well as voltage ratings. The current ratings
vary from a few amperes to about 3000 amperes. In case of voltage ratings, they
vary from 300 Volt AC to 600 Volt AC. There are also high voltage relays of
about 15,000 Volts.
Type of contact used Whether it is a NC or NO or closed contact.
Select Make before Break or Break before Make contacts wisely.
Isolation between coil circuit and contacts
2.4. TRANSISTOR BC-547:
Features:
Low current (max. 100 mA)
Low voltage (max. 65 V).
Applications:
General purpose switching and amplification.
Description:
NPN transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package. NPN complements: BC546 and BC547.
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Fig 2.12 Transistor BC547
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Table-2.2 Transistor BC547 characteristics
2.5. Diode 1N4007:
Features:
Diffused Junction
High Current Capability and Low Forward Voltage Drop
Surge Overload Rating to 30A Peak
Low Reverse Leakage Current.
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Diode symbol:
Fig 2.13 Diode 1N4007
Typical forward bias characteristics:
Fig 2.14 Typical forward bias characteristics
2.6. Transformer:
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Transformer is a constant frequency, constant flux device. Transformers convert
AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power. Transformers
work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC.
Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage.
A step down power transformer is used to step down the AC voltage from
the line voltage of 110 VAC or 220 VAC i.e., it converts higher voltage at the
input side to a lower voltage at the output.
Fig 2.9 Transformer Characteristics
Fig 2.10 center tapped step down transformer 230V to 12V-0-12V
Working Principle of transformer:
The working principle of transformer is very simple. It depends upon Faradays
laws of Electromagnetic Induction. Actually mutual induction between two or
more winding is responsible for transformation action in an electrical transformer.
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Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction
According to these Faradays laws,
"Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is directly proportional to the
induced EMF in a conductor or coil".
Basic Theory of Transformer:
The alternating current through the winding produces a continually
changing flux or alternating flux surrounds the winding. If any other winding is
brought nearer to the previous one, obviously some portion of this flux will link
with the second. As this flux is continually changing in its amplitude and
direction, there must be a change in flux linkage in the second winding or coil.
According to Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction, there must be an EMF
induced in the second. If the circuit of the latter winding is closed, there must be
electric current flows through it. This is the simplest form of electrical power
transformer and this is most basic of working principle of transformer.
For better understanding we are trying to repeat the above explanation in
more brief here. Whenever we apply alternating current to an electric coil, there
will be an alternating flux surrounding that coil. Now if we bring another coil
nearby this first one, there will be an alternating flux linkage with that second
coil. As the flux is alternating, there will be obviously a rate of change of flux
linkage with respect to time in the second coil. Naturally emf will be induced in it
as per Faradays laws electromagnetic induction.
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Fig. 2.17 Basic transformer
The winding which takes electrical power from the source, is generally
known as Primary Winding of transformer. Here in our above example it is first
winding. The winding which gives the desired output voltage due to mutual
induction in the transformer, is commonly known as Secondary Winding of
Transformer. Here in our example it is second winding.
The above mentioned form of transformer is theoretically possible but not
practically, because in open air very tiny portion of the flux of the first winding
will link with second so the electric current flows through the closed circuit of
latter, will be so small that it may be difficult to measure.
The rate of change of flux linkage depends upon the amount of linked flux,
with the second winding. So it desired to be linked almost all flux of primary
winding, to the secondary winding. This is effectively and efficiently done byplacing one low reluctance path common to both the winding. This low reluctance
path is core of transformer, through which maximum number of flux produced by
the primary is passed through and linked with the secondary winding. This is most
basic theory of transformer.
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Fig. 2.18. Practical Transformer
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CHAPTER-3
BLOCK DIAGRAM
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Block diagram:
Fig. 3.1 Block diagram of voltage protection relay
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3.1. Main blocks
1. Power supply
2. Sensing circuit
3 .Reference and comparator circuit
4. Relay driver circuit
3.1.1 Power Supply
Power supply consists of step down transformer, bridge rectifier consisting
of four diodes, filter capacitors and voltage regulator IC7812.
Diode Bridge is an arrangement of four diodes in a bridge circuit
configuration that provides in the same polarity of output for either polarity of
input. When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating
current (AC) input into a direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge
rectifier.
Filter capacitors are capacitors used for filtering of undesirable frequencies.
They are common in electrical and electronic equipment and cover a number of
applications such as glitch removal on DC power rails, radio frequency
interference, capacitors used after a voltage regulator to further smooth DC power
supplies.
LM7812 is a three terminal fixed voltage regulator. It has many built in
features like thermal shut down, short circuit protection etc. It gives 12v DC
output voltage for operation of circuit.
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3.1.2 Sensing circuit
Sensing circuit consists of step down transformer, one rectifier diode, a
resistor divider network, and a filter capacitor. The output is given to non-
inverting terminal of op-amp.
The sensing circuit senses output voltage of the AC generator. As the
generator is loaded or unloaded, the output voltage changes and the sensing
circuit provides a signal of these voltage changes. This signal is proportional to
output voltage and is sent to the comparison circuit.
3.1.3 Reference and comparator circuit
It consists of sensing circuit and LM324. Two sections of IC are used as
comparator. References are generated by using resistor, potentiometer divider
network and are given to non-inverting terminal.
The reference circuit maintains a constant output for reference. This
reference is the desired voltage output of the AC generator. The comparator
circuit electrically compares the reference voltage to the sensed voltage and
provides an error signal. This error signal represents an increase or decrease in
output voltage.
3.1.4 Relay driver circuit
It consists of diodes connected to output pins of comparators, transistors
and a relay. A diode is connected across relay coil to protect the transistor when
relay is switched off. An LED is connected across the relay coil to know on/off
status of relay.
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The relay is connected between the positive rail and the collector of the
transistor. When the input signal passes through 1K resistor to the base of
transistor, it conducts and pulls the relay. By adding an electrolytic capacitor at
the base of relay driver transistor a short lag can be induced so that the transistor
switches on only if the input signal is persisting. Again even if the input signal
ceases, the transistor remains conducting till the capacitor discharges completely.
This avoids relay clicking and offers clean switching of the relay
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Fig.3.2. Block diagram of relay driver circuit
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CHAPTER-4
WIRING DIAGRAM AND WORKING
Fig. 4.1 Schematic diagram of voltage protection relay
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List of components:
Table 4.1. Parts list in wiring diagram
38
S.NO. Component Type
1
IC 1 LM
324
2
IC2 LM
7812
3
Q1 2N39
04
4
D1-
D4
1N40
07
5
ZD1 6 V
6
ZD2 6.8 V
7
C1 470
F
8
C2,
C3
0.1 F
9
LED -
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4.1 Working
From the circuit when the voltage is 220 V AC through a transformer T1. It
serves to reduce the pressure remaining 12 volts, through a D1-D4 connected to
direct rectifier bridge circuit. To convert the voltage, alternating current to direct
current. Then, through the C1 and C2 to the power filter smoothing .And entering
a pin. Or input pin of IC1, a loan IC Rex bit computing to 12-volt power supply is
fixed to the IC2. That it is IC Op Amp. Pressure acts edge IC2/1 High Voltage
Detector, High Voltage ICs, if this current work to the Q1 and relay function; it
works with, thus cutting off power from the load instantly. The IC2/2 serves to
detect the lower voltage. The two components can be specified by VR1, VR2.
LED 1 display when power or low power over a specified.
4.2. Explanation
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Generally, LM 324 consists of four op-amps, of which only two op-amps
are required.LED is an indication of relay position. In this IC, we have an
inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal. The voltage at inverting terminal is
6.0 Vand at non-inverting terminal is 6.8 V.
When input AC voltage is 200-250V, then comparator1 output goes high and
comparator2 output goes low.so the LED glows.
When input voltage exceeds 250 V the voltage at non-inverting terminal
increases more than 6.8v then output of op-amp1 is pulled high and output of op-
amp2 is also high.So electrical appliance is turned off by means of a relay
connected to the output pin of op-amp. So device is protected.
When input voltage is below 200 V , the voltage at inverting terminal is less
than the voltage at non-inverting terminal, then output1 and output2 of op-amp is
low.So electrical appliance is turned off by means of a relay connected to the
output pin of op-amp. So device is protected.
When comparator1 output goes high and comparator2 output goes low
then only LED glows, otherwise LED is in off position.
4.3 Advantages:
1. Fit and Forget system
2. Low cost and reliable circuit
3. Complete elimination of manpower
4. Can handle heavy loads up to 7A
5. Auto switch OFF in abnormal conditions
6. Auto switch ON in safe conditions
4.4. Applications:
1. Industrial machinery
2. House hold items like TV, refrigerator, AC
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3. Agriculture Motors
4. Water pump
CHAPTER-5
CONCLUSION
Thus over and under voltage protection relay is used to get output
voltage efficiently ,it is mainly preferable when sudden fluctuations is there
in input and to protect the electronic devices like refrigerators, AC.
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CHAPTER-6
FUTURE SCOPE
The present invention generally relates to devices and systems for
providing protective control to power networks. To further enhance the utility
of a digital protective relay, and to provide more comprehensive protective
control of power distribution systems, it would be desirable to improve the
communications capabilities of digital protective relays. More particularly, it
would be desirable for a protective relay to include a Human Machine
Interface which incorporates a common off-the-shelf software package
which is not product-specific. Known protective relays do not sufficiently
address these needs.
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The Universal Relay family of protection and control products are built
on a common modular platform. All UR products feature high performance
protection, expandable I/O, integrated monitoring and metering, high speed
communications, and extensive programming and configuration capabilities.
The UR is the basis of simplified power management for the protection of
critical assets.
Appendix
Reference books1.Power electronic circuits by John Wiley, 2003
2. R. W. Erckson, D. Maksimovic, Fundamentals of power electronics, 2 nd ed.,
Springer, 2001
References
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1 Fadooengineers.com
2 www.wikipedia.org
3 www.engineersgarage.com
4 www.electrofriends.com
http://www.wikipedia.org/http://www.engineersgarage.com/http://www.electrofriends.com/http://www.wikipedia.org/http://www.engineersgarage.com/http://www.electrofriends.com/