Outcrop analogue models of the Precipice Sandstone - ANLEC R&Danlecrd.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/7-0314-0228_Final-Report... · Outcrop analogue models of the Precipice Sandstone

2016

Outcrop analogue models of the Precipice Sandstone

ANLEC 07-0314-0228 Final Report of Outcrop Analogues

and Preliminary Models

Valeria Bianchi1

Davide Pistellato1

Fengde Zhou1

Samuele Boccardo2

Joan Esterle1

1School of Earth Sciences, the University of Queensland2 School of Geosciences, the University of Studies of Padua

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Title

Outcrop analogue models of the Precipice Sandstone

ANLEC 07-0314-0228 Milestone 6 Final Report-Outcrop Analogues and Preliminary Models

Disclaimer

This report and the data on which it is based are prepared solely for the use of the person or corporation to whom it is addressed. It may not be used or relied upon by any other person or entity. No warranty is given to any other person as to the accuracy of any of the information, data or opinions expressed herein. The authors expressly disclaim all liability and responsibility whatsoever to the maximum extent possible by law in relation to any unauthorised use of this report.

The work and opinions expressed in this report are those of the Authors.

The authors wish to acknowledge financial assistance provided through Australian National Low Emissions Coal Research and Development (ANLEC R&D). ANLEC R&D is supported by Australian Coal Association Low Emissions Technology Limited and the Australian Government through the Clean Energy Initiative.

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Contents

1 Executive Summary..................................................................................1

2 Project Scope ...........................................................................................4

2.1 Original aim .......................................................................................4

2.2 Modifications......................................................................................5

3 Background...............................................................................................6

3.1 Outcrop modelling .............................................................................6

3.2 Geological Setting .............................................................................8

3.3 The Nature of the Precipice Sandstone...........................................10

4 Methods for Precipice Analysis and Characterisation.............................11

5 Observations from Outcrops ...................................................................13

5.1 Facies database ..............................................................................13

5.2 Carnarvon Gorge National Park ......................................................24

5.3 Carnarvon Highway road cut ...........................................................30

5.4 Forest Hill ........................................................................................30

5.5 Flagstaff...........................................................................................33

5.6 Isla Gorge National Park road cut #1 and #2...................................34

5.7 Nathan Gorge ..................................................................................38

5.7.1 Cabbagetree Creek in Nathan Gorge .......................................39

5.8 Database of facies, geometries and dimensions table ....................42

6 Well Scale Analysis ................................................................................46

6.1 Core Descriptions ............................................................................46

6.1.1 West Wandoan 1 (WW1)..........................................................46

6.1.2 Woleebee Creek GW4..............................................................52

6.2 Wireline logs and image logs...........................................................53

7 Precipice Sandstone Characterisation....................................................54

7.1 Depositional model ..........................................................................54

7.2 Regional synthesis ..........................................................................57

7.3 Speculation on modern analogue ....................................................57

7.4 Application for Glenhaven area .......................................................58

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8 Conclusions and Recommendations ......................................................59

9 References .............................................................................................61

Appendix 1 Photogrammetry Techniques and Outcrop Models

Appendix 1a Facies Analysis and Geobodies

Appendix 2 Static Geological Models of Outcrops

Appendix 3 Detailed Subsurface Model

Appendix 4 Project Extension: Integrated facies analysis of Evergreen Formation

Figures and Tables

Figure 1: Static geological model of inferred porosity distribution relative to bounding surfaces, sedimentary fabric and grainsize within the Precipice Sandstone outcrop in the Carnarvon Highway, visualized in a geological modelling package. Gold and pink rendering represents road cut faces. Colours from blue to orange represent inferred increase in porosity (grainsize). No scale. Image courtesy CTSCo. .........................................5

Figure 2: Location map of outcrops and Glenhaven area (EPQ7) with relative cores discussed in this project. Outcrops of Precipice Sandstone overlain on Google Earth image. ............................................................................6

Figure 3: The workflow for an upscaling procedure conducted in the study of Mikes et al., 2006......................................................................................7

Figure 4: Chronostratigraphic column of Surat Basin infill from Shields & Esterle (2015) .....................................................................................................10

Figure 5: Rose diagrams plotted in the outcrop line of Precipice Sandstone map showing palaeoflow direction. Martin, 1976 in A and Mollan et al., 1976 in B. Some outliers pointing toward North are circled in red. ......................11

Figure 6: Sedimentological log for Boolimba Bluff, A) detail of the rippled very-fine sand and silt intercalated in the ‘cave-facies’ subunit; B) cross-section of 'cave-facies' subunit prograding toward North; C) sand-sheet deposits and small bedform non-channelised; D) large macroform at the base of the succession. .............................................................................................26

Figure 7: A) Photomosaic of the South wall in front of Boolimba Bluff of Carnarvon Gorge National Park ; B) superimposed line drawing in the photomosaic A with the location of the detailed model show in D; C) line drawing of A with traced the boundaries between storeys. They have a tabular character along the outcrop. FA1b, FA2 and FA1m belong to the lower allounit of Precipice Sandstone, FA5 belongs to the upper allounit. The dense vegetation coverage hides mostly of the FA1b storey. It is worth to notice that the upper allounit is not preserved by erosion everywhere in

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the highwall. Unfortunately basal surface and top surface of Precipice Sandstone are not detected here; D) interpreted detail with facies and facies association codes. For the codes please refer to Table 1 and Table 2..............................................................................................................27

Figure 8: Correlation between Carnarvon Gorge National Park and Boolimba Bluff section. ...........................................................................................28

Figure 9: A) Photogrammetric model of the West wall of Carnarvon Highway, the coloured square are the hyperspectral survey discussed in Pistellato et al., 2016); B) line drawing of A and logs trace C) elongated hummocky and swaley cross-lamination with plane parallel fine-grained sandstone with associated line drawing of one detail on the right-hand side, this is overlaid by distributive channel and erosive boundary (A orange label); D) wavy-bedding and flaser in organic-rich mud; E) thin horizontal cosets of planar cross-stratification with subordinated ripples in the bottom set; F) coarsening-upward sequence characterised by symmetrical megaripples and vertical bioturbation, capped by wavy bedding and organic-rich mud (D). Here boundary (B orange label) is not erosive. For the facies and facies association codes please refer to Table 3 and 4. .........................29

Figure 10: A) Plan view of Forest Hill outcrop; B) overview of remote access Forest Hill outcrop; offshore transition facies in C and D; E) show vertical and horizontal bioturbations (F). .............................................................32

Figure 11: A) Photomosaic and superimposed line drawing of a detail of Flagstaff outcrop, in detail is highlighted the backset beds recording a hydraulic jump occurring at the toe of the foreset (FA4); B) logs and line drawing associated, location of log 1 in A. For the facies and facies association codes please refer to Table 3. .............................................34

Figure 12: A) Photogrammetric model of Isla Gorge 1 outcrop along Leichhardt Highway; B) line drawing of A with facies association labels; C) red mudstone with horizontal grazing bioturbation (facies 16); D) combined-flow rippled very fine sandstone and kaolinite (facies 14); E) mud clast deformed and mud soft-deformed (facies 20); F) sedimentological log (location in B); the topmost facies-association label is probably a mixture of FA3 and FA5, thus an offshore mud which show deformation for loading coming from a distal part of mouth bar. ..................................................36

Figure 13: A) Photogrammetric model of Isla Gorge 2 outcrop along Leichhardt Highway; B) line drawing of A with facies association labels, yellow geometry is for indicating channels which have multi-channel character and the grey geometry is the sidebar; C) detailed line drawing of the outcrop with log location, represented below and connected with the A layer. .......................................................................................................37

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Figure 14: Photomosaics with superimposed line drawings of Cabbagetree Creek in Nathan Gorge. For detailed facies description see table 3 and 4.................................................................................................................41

Figure 15: Rose diagrams showing paleoflow direction for the lower allounit from the outcrop......................................................................................42

Figure 16: Rose diagrams showing paleoflow direction for the upper allounit from the outcrop......................................................................................42

Figure 17: Line drawing (no vertical exaggeration, taken from Isla Gorge 2 figure 13) of profile A-A’ (above) and plan-view representation (below) of braided fluvial system, highlighting the spatial extension of a large side bar superimposed to a multichannel system.................................................43

Figure 18: Environments of deposition interpreted for outcrops of the Precipice Sandstone (upper allounits), superimposed on plan view of eastern margin outcrops. .................................................................................................44

Figure 19: Attempt to recreate the spatial extent of lobes in Cabbagetree Creek outcrop....................................................................................................45

Figure 20: Low resolution sedimentological log of WW1 with facies and facies association with rose diagrams of palaeocurrents interpreted from the image log ................................................................................................48

Figure 21: High resolution sedimentological log with scale 1:20 for WW1. ....49

Figure 22: Comparison between WW1 and outcrops described in text. Note that Nathan Gorge is the Cabbagetree Creek outcrop in the gorge...............50

Figure 23: Comparison between Boolimba Bluff and WW1 sedimentary logs.................................................................................................................51

Figure 24: Sedimentological log of GW4 with the related facies association. For the facies association description see Table 4. Note that Nathan Gorgeoutcrop is the one at Cabbagetree Creek in the gorge. Carnarvon Highway outcrop photo is coloured by occurrence of kaolinite (red), oxides (green) and water spectra from hyperspectral survey (Pistellato et al, 2016)......53

Figure 25: Conceptual model of the lower allounit deposits in the main trunk and in the floodbasin, characterised by braided facies and sand sheet deposits. .................................................................................................57

Figure 26: Paleogeography interpreted by this project of the Precipice Sandstone time 1 is during the deposition of the lower allounit, the time 2 is related to the deposition of the upper allounit......................................57

Table 1: Facies database for Precipice Sandstone.................................................. 15

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Table 2: Facies associations for Precipice Sandstone............................................. 21

Table 3: Occurrence of facies in outcrops and cores. Code label for outcrop: Cn, Carnarvon Gorge National Park (and Boolimba Bluff), FH Forest Hill, Fl Flagstaff, IG1 Isla Gorge 1, IG2 Isla Girge 2, Cn HGW Carnarvon Highway. Code for cores: WW1 is West Wandoan 1 and GW4 is Woleebee Creek GW4......................................................................................................................... 23

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1 Executive Summary This project was designed to develop analogues or conceptual sedimentary models and to obtain measured parameters on architectural elements and their sedimentary facies that will assist in modelling the CO2 geosequestration reservoir flow units of the Lower Jurassic age Precipice Sandstone that floors the Surat Basin. The Precipice Sandstone is a target reservoir for CO2

geosequestration in the Glenhaven area, Queensland. A series of milestone reports for the different concurrent phases were delivered over the project to date and are summarised in the appendices of this report that focusses on the observations from outcrop and core. The outputs will assist in understanding the Precipice Sandstone at different scales that will impact on near and far well bore behaviour during injection and migration of a CO2 plume. The approach of the project was to:

� 1) conduct outcrop scale sedimentary analyses using 3D photogrammetry(Milestone 1 report);

� 2) produce a geological database of outcrop analogues and sedimentary geobody geometries with detailed facies analysis (Milestone 4 report);

� 3) develop workflows and static geological models of the outcrops and their facies that provide parameters and statistics for upscaling to reservoir flow units (integrated through Milestone 2, 3 and 5 reports);

� 4) compare sedimentary facies observed in outcrop to those in core (Milestone 5 and this report); and

� 5) develop multi-well regional and field scale static geological models that assist in understanding the spatial variability of the Precipice Sandstone lithofacies in the subsurface, in particular the distribution of lithologies that will control porosity and permeability (Milestone 5 report).

Outcrops that were investigated belong to the "sandstone belt" defining the perimeter of the Surat Basin, with preference given to the less studied eastern outcrops up dip of the Glenhaven lease area, Isla Gorge, Forest Hill, Flagstaff, Nathan Gorge (including Cabbagetree Creek), as well as the most famous section of Carnarvon Gorge National Park in the western flank. The resulting facies schema was based on an allostratigraphic-sedimentological approach, which describes the depositional environment based on facies associations. Twenty three (23) facies units were recognised with their own architecture and 6 depositional environments able to be grouped into 2 main allounits: one lower allounit in continental settings and one upper allounit in transitional settings. The facies of the lower allounit shifts from a bedload dominated, coarse grained fluvial environment tracking southeast, to a bed- and mixed load fluvial system, bounded by thin fine-grained layers. The upper allounit records a change in palaeoflow from southeast to northward and is characterized by a multitude of different depositional environments, pointing to a coastal setting. Although a

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new interpretation, this model is consistent with the transition to the overlying Evergreen Formation, a siltstone dominated sealing unit that is interpreted to have formed in an open water environment under rising base level.

Outcrop models provide high-resolution data on bounding surfaces of sedimentary architectural elements or geobodies, their dimensions, internal facies, fabric (e.g. cross bedding) and grain size distributions which will influence the heterogeneity of porosity and permeability that is a control on subsurface reservoir behaviour. The outcrop serves as a bridge between facies interpretations from a single drill core or wireline data, mapping of reservoir boundaries and potential structural features from seismic surveys, interpolation of geobodies and their internal facies from dense drilling patterns and extrapolation of the same in the sparsely drilled Glenhaven area. In particular, the outcrop observations can influence correlation of potential baffle units between drill holes at a local to regional scale. The different outcrops were modelled according to their facies and bounding surfaces. The successful workflow helped in contextualising the information from the outcrop and how to utilise it.

Essentially the geobodies are populated by lithofacies that are defined by relative grain size variation arranged by the patterns of sedimentary structures, which we called fabric. Once the fabric was modelled within the geobody layers, they were populated with real grain size as observed in the outcrop. Parallel, planar and trough cross stratification fabrics can occur across a range of the sand-pebble grain sizes, and this approach was used to capture this variation. Fabric, as well as grain size, will influence the flow behaviour in dynamic reservoir simulation of CO2 injection, and capturing this detail may reduce the uncertainty in the prediction of plume migration.

The regional subsurface model was used to test the insights gained from the outcrop facies studies, and determine the gaps needed to improve subsurface modelling for the Glenhaven site. In outcrops and West Wandoan 1 core the channel and lobe stacking patterns is complex, but the actual size and extent of a complete geobody is difficult to detect because their preservation is limited compared to their conceptual dimension. This preliminary model was set up to develop a workflow for further, more sophisticated subsurface facies modelling for the Precipice Sandstone, and to test the lateral connectivity of the lower permeability units that potentially baffle flow within the Lower Precipice allounit. Observations of the lower braided fluvial facies were exposed best at the Carnarvon Gorge, and here discrete finer grained units could be tracked for about 2 km. This suggests that one can correlate, or at least model, the finer grained units and facies in the braided facies at the kilometric scale. In the regional model, regardless of variogram used, a "baffle free" belt trending southeast was present and, coupled with southerly marching, cross bedded bar forms in the lower unit, could act to control flow pathways in the reservoir. The

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shift in palaeocurrent direction and flow energy creates increased heterogeneity within the system stratigraphically upward, and eastward across the basin that will impact on porosity and permeability in different areas of the basin.

In summary, the facies scheme and interpretations could be used in every outcrop of the Precipice Sandstone and it assisted in assigning environments and their spatial dimensions in core. The workflow developed to create static geological models of the outcrops can be adopted for local and regional subsurface modelling, but there is still a degree of uncertainty for how the different geobodies would stack in 3D space. The subsurface stochastic lithofacies model developed from a densely drilled area along strike from the proposed Glenhaven site gave insights into the distribution of lithofacies and the geometry of the baffle free portion of the reservoir likely to have the best flow properties in the Lower Precipice Sandstone. The occurrence of lower permeability baffle zones would compartmentalise the reservoir, in particular with vertical stacking of multi-storied channel bodies. The shift in depositional style in the transition to the Upper Precipice and Evergreen Formation presents different architectures solvable in a variety of geometries. When integrated with the high variability in grain size this creates internal baffles for CO2 migration as the reservoir seal is approached. Knowledge gained from the outcrop studies should be integrated with newly available 3D seismic data to develop a detailed static model of the spatial heterogeneity of the Precipice Sandstone. The heterogeneity in sedimentary facies that will influence the sealing properties of the overlying Evergreen Formation is the next piece of the puzzle.

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2 Project Scope

2.1 Original aim

A study of the sedimentary architecture of Precipice Sandstone outcrop in the Surat Basin was conducted to provide analogues for subsurface heterogeneity in reservoir character. The Precipice Sandstone crops out as a major cliff forming unit in the “Sandstone Belt” of Queensland (Figure 2) providing excellent exposures in which to understand vertical and lateral continuity of different lithology that potentially act as reservoir and intra-formational permeability baffles to flow of water or gas. The Precipice Sandstone has been studied for its reservoir properties for hydrocarbons (Martin, 1976), groundwater (summarised in QWC, 2012), CO2 geosequestration (Hodgkinson et al, 2010) and water reinjection (APLNG, 2013).

This project was conducted as part of the Australian National Low Emissions Coal Research and Development (ANLEC R&D) program in the Surat Basin. It will inform reservoir models of the subsurface, in particular in the development and understanding of flow units and the potential behaviour of injected CO2 at depth and its migration pathways. The premise is that flow pathways will be influenced by differences in texture and fabric in the reservoir caused by sedimentary processes. Whereas drilling core within the target area can give local detail on lithology texture, structure and composition, lateral continuity and internal geometry of specific bedding features are best determined from outcrop.

Preliminary in house studies by CTSCo utilised 3D photogrammetric techniques (http://sirovision.dataminesoftware.com) on selected outcrops in the west of the Surat Basin near Carnarvon Gorge as input for static geocellular models of the Precipice (Figure 1). This study builds on the preliminary findings and extends the approach, combined with traditional sedimentological analysis, across available outcrops within the Sandstone Belt, with a focus on the eastern outcrops considered proximal to and up dip from the Glenhaven lease area.The aim was to determine whether sedimentary facies and architectural elements are of similar style and dimension across the belt, and eventually trackable into the subsurface via drill core and wireline logs.

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The importance of analogue modelling is to assist in the “scale up” and “scaleout” of reservoir properties. Those properties are based on rock properties which are detected with high resolution in the near well bore. In order to expand the understanding of these properties away from the well bore, the analogue modelling assists developing an adaptive approach to gridding and re-assignment of properties (Mikes et al., 2006).

2.2 Modifications

As with most projects, technical issues were encountered in the course of the project. Outcrops on the eastern flank are remote and non-continuous and their relative stratigraphic relationship to core was poorly constrained. Good “3D” exposures of the outcrops are sparse and along or set back from road cuttings, but these only expose 2 to 4 m of the 100 m plus Precipice Sandstone. The photogrammetric technique used in previous studies was not suitable for measuring curvilinear sedimentary bedding, resulting in a platform shift to Agisoft Photoscan (see Appendix 1 for details). Although the general workflow was transferrable and the photographs useful for traditional line scan interpretation, a lot of time and effort was lost in the project. Correlation from the outcrop to the subsurface is hindered through a lack of drilling into shallow Precipice Sandstone, especially on the eastern margin of the basin, and there is an issue with stratigraphic nomenclature for the contact between the Precipice and overlying Evergreen Formation. Delays in core delivery for analysis resulted in use of proprietary and open file core from other companies to achieve sedimentary facies logging. Finally, outcrops rarely preserve a complete sedimentary geobody, so there is an element of interpretation for their

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geometry. This fact resulted in an additional exercise to develop a subsurface 3D lithofacies model using data from a densely drilled area through the Precipice Sandstone which targets Permian coal seam gas. This densely drilled model allowed the statistical analysis of different lithofacies observed in outcrop, core and wireline that can inform static and dynamic models in sparsely drilled areas like the Glenhaven lease. Although not the focus of the project, examples of static geological outcrop models (similar to Figure 1) and a workflow for their development are included in the appendices (see Appendix 3).

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3 Background

3.1 Outcrop modelling

Outcrop analogue modelling has been used to study reservoir heterogeneity (Mikes et al., 2006; Keogh et al., 2015), reservoir properties (Palermo et al., 2012), geostatistical variability (Amour et al., 2013) and fluid-flow simulation (Kirstetter et al., 2006). The approaches considered reservoir space from detailed regional geological study (Luthi & Flint, 2013), modern analogues of depositional environments (Longhitano et al., 2015), development of sedimentary architectural database (Colombera et al., 2013), and 3D virtual imaging (Enge et al., 2007). All of these approaches provide a conceptual model within which the spatial dimensions of different scale sedimentary features can be estimated (Figure 3).

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For assisting in the “scale up” and “scale out” of reservoir properties, essential information such as porosity, permeability and reactivity are the key features for CO2 injection. Although they require physical testing from the core, or during well production monitoring, they can be estimated through relationships with sedimentary attributes (bedding, internal layering and orientation, grain size, sorting, etc.) and structure (fracture, joint sets). The core allows the measurement of these properties locally, but the outcrop mapping allows the recognition of the spatial variability of sub-units and then predicts peculiar geometry of geobodies as reservoir flow units.

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Based on preliminary survey of the literature, there are some key papers that summarise the workflow and application of detailed mapping to enhance the accuracy and visualisation of sedimentary and reservoir flow units within 3D static and dynamic models, and these served as good examples for this project to follow (Mikes et al., 2006). Highlighted in this is the need to also access measurements on modern systems, and have multiple working hypotheses for the depositional environment, tested in the fieldwork. Most, if not all, of the papers (e.g. Rittersbacher et al., 2014; Rarity et al., 2014; Keogh et al., 2014; Howell et al., 2014; Hodgetts, 2013; Buckley et al., 2010) focussed on laser scanning techniques and for large outcrops from 100’s of metres away.

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This project used a different approach with 3D photogrammetry. With this technique every pixel in the image is a 3D data point, rather than a modelled point cloud draped with an image. Once the images are acquired and 3D models are built, the models can be queried for internal geometries (bed thickness and composition, bedding plane attitudes, large to small scale sedimentary features) as well as structural components (joints and fractures). Although this method is inexpensive and portable, it also requires accurate survey for georeferencing of multiple images to build an error free model. The larger the model, the more images, the more potential for error, in particular when the target outcrop is blocked by vegetation or ponds. For more detail please visit Appendix 1.

3.2 Geological Setting

The Surat Basin area is large as the extent of France, and it disconformably overlays the deep and narrow Permo-Triassic Bowen Basin with a shallow but large clastic blanket. The Surat Basin is separated from the Clarence Moreton Basin to the east by the Kumbarilla Ridge and the Eromanga Basin to the west by the Nebine Ridge. In the past the Surat Basin has been considered an intracratonic sag basin, overlying the foreland axis of the Taroom Trough (Exon, 1976). The subsidence was considered constant and undisturbed by syn-tectonic deformation (Fielding et al., 1990). Recent geodynamic modelling recognized alternation in subsidence and a shift of depocentre within the basin (Matthews et al., 2011) suggestive of subduction related dynamic topography (Flament et al., 2013) as a control. Uplift pulses expressed by internal basin wide unconformities, for instance the Springbok unconformity (Bianchi et al., 2016b), support this. Studies by Korsch and Totterdell, 2009 and others (Raza et al., 2009; Waschbusch, 2009; Hamilton et al., 2014) proposed and support this hypothesis, which invoke the far-field effect of subduction-related dynamic tilting. Further evidences of syn-tectonic deposition and strike slip faulting may be found in the infill (Babaahmadi et al., 2016).

The Surat basin infill (Figure 4) is characterised by five sequences (Hoffmann et al., 2009) and each sequence is fining-upwards and comprises sandstone to mudstone dominated units, some coal- bearing, as well as intermittent volcanic tuffs deposited in a mainly continental fluvial to lacustrine setting (Power and Devine, 1970; Exon, 1976; Veevers et al., 1986; Fielding et al, 1990; Fielding, 1996; Hamilton et al, 2014). Although bases of sequences are easily recognizable in wireline log, cores and seismic lines, the gradual change between sandstone and mud-dominated formations creates inconsistency in picking boundaries. For this reason Hoffmann et al. (2009) defined a sequence to start with sharp change in lithology and include the conformable passage between sand and mud-dominated formations. For example, the Precipice Sandstone composes, with Evergreen Formation, the basal sequence

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(sequence A ��Hoffmann et al., 2009). Likewise, the Precipice Sandstone has been variably subdivided into two units (lower and upper), which follow a fining-upward trend (Martin, 1980), but there is still some debate about the correlation of intra-formational divisions across the basin and their interpreted depositional environments. Although the main interpretations promote a fluvial setting passing stratigraphically from a sandy braided bedload system to a meandering mixed-load system (Power, 1966; Mollan et al., 1972; Martin, 1976; Fielding et al., 1990; Ziolkowski et al., 2015), the occurrence of subaqueous environments of deltaic (Treves, 1971) or shallow marine (Moran and Gussow, 1963; Sell et al., 1972) deposits is less recognised. Overall the succession records a lowering of energy, consistent with the onset of the conformable mud-dominated deposits of the Evergreen Formation (Exon, 1976). The Evergreen incorporates a sand-dominated localised body called the Boxvale Member, interpreted as a prograding delta (Fielding, 2007) or an incised-valley system (Ziolkowski et al., 2014), and the Westgrove Ironstone Formation, which is a semi-continuous layer in the basin made of chamositic oolitic concretions, formed during a period of relative stability in the basin (Mollan et al., 1972). These latter features in the Evergreen Formation support interpretation of continental transgression passing to marine at the top (Ziolkowski et al., 2014;Exon, 1976; Mollan et al., 1972). The spatial extent of this transgression has relevance for subsidence and the paleogeographic evolution of the basin.

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3.3 The Nature of the Precipice Sandstone

The sedimentology of the Precipice Sandstone has been previously studied for its reservoir properties for hydrocarbons (Martin, 1976), groundwater (summarised in QWC, 2012, QGC, undated), CO2 geosequestration (Hodgkinson et al., 2010), and water reinjection (APLNG, 2013). The Precipice Sandstone is interpreted as a fluvial succession from 50 to 150 m thick (Exon, 1976; Green et al., 1997) as an extended sand-sheets braided system that resulted in good but variable reservoir quality. The mostly variable part is the upper unit that is finer grained and contains higher proportions of siltstone and clay layers, interpreted as the deposits of a meandering system as the stream power fades (APLNG, 2013). The Precipice is capped by a siltstone-dominated unit, the Evergreen Formation that acts as a potential seal for the reservoir.

Although the main interpretation points out the fluvial setting (Power, 1966; Martin, 1976; Fielding et al., 1990; Ziolkowski et al., 2015), the idea that Precipice deposition could have been influenced by coastal or subaqueous environments is still commonly accepted (Treves, 1971; Moran and Gussow,

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1963; Sell et al., 1972). In addition the palaeoflow recorded has always been considered uniform in the succession, although some outcrops recorded a switch toward the North which is never discussed in the literature (Figure 5).This project revisited the Precipice outcrops and provides an alternative interpretation to explain the shift in palaeoflow direction, in addition to providing a facies analyses and associations that can be used to define geobodies and assist in upscaling to the reservoir flow unit.

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4 Methods for Precipice Analysis and Characterisation The workflow for the outcrop modelling encompassed three approaches:

A

B

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1. Outcrop analogue mapping. This study used outcrop mapping, through an allostratigraphic-sedimentological approach based on facies-analysis principles (see Appendix 1a). Facies associations and bounding surfaces were characterized via bed by bed logging and outcrop architectural panels, with the aim of identifying associations of spatially and genetically related facies. This approach is detailed in Appendix 1a. Two approaches were used to define the bounding surfaces of architectural elements: hand drawn line tracing on scaled 2D photo mosaics and georeferenced 3D photogrammetry using Datamine Sirovision and later Maptek I-SiteTM. Within these bounding surfaces, variation in grain size, fabric and sedimentary structures were recorded and used to develop a detailed schema. These are described in the main body of this report.

2. Photogrammetry. The application of 3D ground based photogrammetric models captures digital images that can be archived and analysed for sedimentary and structural features that can be related to reservoir properties. The result of photogrammetric procedures provides a precise three-dimensional geometric reconstruction of an object at a certain scale, which can then be visualized in perspective either as a static or dynamic representation. The assemblage of photogrammetric stereo-couples and the development of photogrammetric models have been completed in Datamine Sirovision,although alternative platforms are also being evaluated. Methods and Results are given in Appendix 1.

3. Static geological modelling. Static geological models of the outcrops were created using the bounding surfaces mapped in outcrop to create subunits that were populated by field data such as grain-size and fabric (internal bedding). The approach undertaken for nested geometry and fabric modelling includes building geometries for different units using outcrop measured boundary lines; building a fabric model by multiple-point statistical modelling (MPS); and building grain size distribution by a hierarchical Gaussian random function simulation with fabric distribution as a constraint. The geological modelling has been performed via Petrel2014™. Methods and Results are given inAppendix 2 and a multiwell lithofacies model developed from wireline logs is given in Appendix 3.

4. Sedimentary analysis of core. As a link between outcrop and Precipice Sandstone in the subsurface of the CTSCo Glenhaven lease two cores have been studied: West Wandoan 1 (WW1) and Woleebee Creek GW4.Palaeocurrents were interpreted from available image logs, and these

13

along with the facies analysis were used to correlate between the outcrops and the subsurface drilling to examine the spatial distribution of the main allounits within the Precipice Sandstone. Methods are described in Appendix 1a and results are described in the main body of this report.

5 Observations from Outcrops Seven outcrops were selected in the eastern flank of the outcrop line; Forest Hill, Flagstaff, Isla Gorge, and Cabbagetree Creek in the Nathan Gorge. A further investigation in Carnarvon Gorge National Park (Precipice Sandstone informal type section) and Carnarvon Highway road cut was performed in the western flank. Observations from the outcrops are detailed below and provide information for the static geological models of the outcrops and interpretations of geobody dimensions that can be used for both static and dynamic modelling. This section is written to provide enough detail for future field trips or reproducibility of the work. A total of 7 outcrops were surveyed and are presented, representing a spread across the sandstone belt, and capturing the heterogeneity in facies likely to present in the subsurface.

5.1 Facies database

The facies database (Table 1) proposed here is organised in facies code, name of the facies, description of grain size, sedimentary structures (pattern), trend and accessories (as roots, plant debris or bioturbation), interpretation of deposits and dimension in outcrop. The combination of facies (facies associations) (Table 2) and their occurrence (Table 3) are described in different tables. The facies association provides a sub-environment description. Indeed, channel belt and flood basin belong to continental settings, whereas shoreline, Gilbert delta and shoal-water delta populate transitional coastal settings. Deposits and associated depositional environment have been interpreted following Bull (1999), Miall (1996), and Bridge (2003) for fluvial-alluvial settings;and Nemec (1990), Reading (2004), Olariu & Batthacharya (2006) and Dumas & Arnott (2006) for transitional coastal deltaic and non-deltaic settings. Every facies unit has the associated picture in the Appendix 1a Facies, and a sketch of the distinguishing features is presented at a “core scale”. These facies can be applied to all of the outcrops in the Precipice and will assist in assigning environments and their spatial dimensions in core.

14

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Page intentionally left blank

21

( ��)��

Facies code

Facies association code

Facies Facies association

DepositionalEnvironment

1 FA1 Channel lag Channel belt

Fluvial environment

(FAbr

1/2a/2b/3/4/6/7

FAme

1/4/5/9/8a/8b)

2a Transversebar

2b Side bar

3 Longitudinal bar

4 3D bedform in channel fill

5 Lateral accretion

6 FA2 2D bedform in small tributaries

Floodbasin

7 Sand sheet in small tributaries

8a Floodplain and paleosols

8b Peat deposits

9 Crevasse splay

10 FA3 Transgressive lag

Shoreline Coasts wave-dominated

11 Foreshore deposits

12 Upper shoreface deposits

13 Middle shoreface deposits

22

14 Lower shoreface deposits

15 Offshore transition deposits

16 Offshore deposits

1 FA4 Channel lag Gilbert Delta

Topset

4 3D bedforms

17 Debris-flow Foreset

20 Soft-deformed mud

18a FA5 Abandoned channel

Shoal water delta

Coast river-dominated

18b Distributary channel

19 Proximal mouth bar

20 Soft-deformed mud

8b Mire

1 Channel lag

8a Palaeosols

8b FA6 Mire Tidal deposits

Tidal plain

5 Lateral accretion

8a Palaeosols

21 Flaser and wavy bedding

Tidal flat

23

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Facies code Outcrops Core Cn FH Fl IG1 IG2 Cr Cn Hgw WW1 GW4 1 X X X X X

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20 X X X X X X

21 X X X

24

5.2 Carnarvon Gorge National Park

Carnarvon Gorge National Park is located at the extreme west of Precipice Sandstone outcrop line (Figure 2), reachable from Carnarvon Highway, 155 km North of Injune town. This park provides good lateral continuity of the outcrops. The fieldtrip was performed in the most commonly mapped cliff-walk of Boolimba Bluff. During the cliff walk it is possible to appreciate a continuous vertical stratigraphic section of the Precipice Sandstone. In Boolimba Bluff Precipice Sandstone unconformably overlays the Bowen Basin infill and is overlain by the Evergreen Fm in depositional continuity. From the point of view of this study the weakness of the Boolimba Bluff section is its geological location; it is placed in the western side of Merivale Fault system and Roma Shelf, which is considered to have been a persistent structural high during Precipice deposition. This affects the deposition promoting the preservation of a condensed section, which has less information than a depocentre section. A condensed section is characterised by numerous erosive or non-depositional events. However, the thickness of the Precipice Sandstone at Boolimba Bluff is similar to that in the West Wandoan 1 core (see Chapter 6)

The facies associations recognised belong to continental setting with the presence of fluvial facies and coastal facies (Figure 7). The succession shows a general fining-upward distribution of grain sizes and a thinning-upward of body thickness. In particular the lower allounit Precipice has been subdivided into a blocky subunit, a transitional subunit and a ‘cave-facies’ subunit. The informally named ‘cave-facies’ comes from the typical weathering in Boolimba Bluff outcrop forming small-scale cavities (Figure 6A). The main boundary for the mentioned units is a switch in palaeocurrent direction. The palaeocurrents in the lower subunit have a general mono-directional south-eastward trend;approaching the transitional subunit the direction is towards SE-NNE with alternating occurrence, then in the ‘cave-facies’ unit palaeocurrents switch to mostly northern direction. In the upper allounit part the paleoflow indicators show again the reactivation of the earlier direction towards south-east.

The first 40 m of the lower unit (60-m-thick in total) are characterised by an ~80-cm-thick (up to 150-cm-thick) cosets of planar cross- and plane parallel- to rare trough cross-stratified very coarse sand (Figure 6D). It is possible to recognise the dominance of inverse grading (Figure 6F) in the planar cross- and the plane parallel- stratification, indicating an avalanching process in frontal accretion, whereas the trough cross-stratification is characterised by an overall fining-upward trend with some small pebbly pockets at the base of the troughs. Erosional scours are mainly associated with the base of trough cross-stratification and they host small pebble or granules lags. The occurrence of grain size less than medium sand is rare. This sandstone is very well sorted and very porous and it contains more than 90% of quartz (visual estimation with lens 12x by counting a random sample of 2x2 cm). Log rests and sparse plant

25

debris are recognised in the lower part. Palaeocurrents measurements showan overall SE direction of flow.

Deposits belonging to the last 17 meters of the lower allounit are defined by the sudden thinning of cosets from metric to decametric (~10-20-cm-thick) and the switch of palaeocurrents toward NNW. This part has two subunits: one characterised by tabular thin cosets and one by lobes. In the first subunit cosets are characterised by planar-cross stratified medium to fine sand separated by very fine sand and silt organised in tabular lamination (Figure 6C). Erosional scours occur at the base of stacking cross-stratified cosets associated with medium-pebbly lag. The second subunit starts after the occurrence of a 30-cm-thick granules lag where foresets are organised in 3-m-thick lobes and characterised by rippled very-fine sand intercalated by laminated silt and clay, which become predominant passing downward (Figure 6B). Ripples have lee side accretion, but the crest is reshaped by wave current, conferring a symmetrical top. Lobes have a progradational geometry toward the northeast, showing a general upward coarsening. The sandstone in this unit is whitish very fine sand, still quartzose, but very rich in kaolinite matrix, which decreases the porosity of the sandstone and lends a powder effect to the outcrop (Figure 6B).The unit ends with 4 meters of siltstone and some very fine-sand size elongated ripples and deformed mud by fluidization. Vertical burrows as �!�� are frequent mostly in the siltstone intercalations. Plants debris are still present.

The upper allounit is 29-meters thick and it is characterised by the presence of thick fining-upward sequences thinning toward the top, from 14 to 3 meters. The sequences are constituted by thin cosets of 40 cm as average. In this unit a fining-upward sequence is characterised by medium to very fine sand organised in planar cross-stratified cosets, with some interference ripples. The sand is quartzose and moderately sorted with a low porosity. The very fine sand hosts �� ichnofacies. At the very top of the unit coarsening-upward sequence (80-120-cm-thick) from rippled fine to massive medium sand with mud clasts (mean diameter ~5 cm). Palaeocurrents measurements show a South direction.

26

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5.3 Carnarvon Highway road cut

This road cut outcrop is located along the Carnarvon Highway, 30 km south of the access with Arcadia Valley (Figure 2). It provides an exceptional exposure of the Precipice Sandstone due to the parallelism of its two walls, allowing the observation of sedimentary architectures in 3 dimensions.

The road cut is 10 metres thick and 200 metres long, oriented N-S (Figure 9Aand B). Walking from North to South following the road, palaeocurrent measurements show a consistent paleoflow toward the North along the outcrop. The outcrop can be subdivided into three intervals characterised by different dominant grain-size: a basal coarse-grained, a middle fine-grained and an upper coarse-grained interval separated by surfaces A and B (Figure 9A).The facies belonging to the basal and the upper intervals are thick (~2 metres) blocky beds of cross-planar stratification (Figure 9F, 21-30º inclined) ending in an undulating surface with vertical fugichnia ichnofacies (�!�� and �� ) at the top (Figure 9E and LOG2), which indicate escaping feature; they are capped by centimetre thick layers of laminated organic-rich mud of the middle interval (as the logs show in Figure 9). This succession, showing a clear coarsening-upward trend, is interpreted as vertical stacking of mouth-bar deposits, influenced by slight wave processes (confirmed by the wavy top of every coarsening-upward sequence) and by tidal processes (as confirmed the tidal flat deposits recorded by wavy bedding and flaser). Both the intervals are cropping out for a maximum thickness of 10 metres each. The middle interval (maximum 7 metres thick) is characterised by fine-grained sandstone (Figure 9C) with frequent intercalation of siltstone and organic mudstone. In particular, there is a laterally persistent 30 centimetres thick layer of organic-rich mud with lenticular bedding containing sporadic small elongated ripples of white very fine sand, indicating a tidal influence (Figure 9D).�

5.4 Forest Hill

This area is located 30 km west of Leichhardt Highway in the Theodore State Forest (Figure 2). In this area the section is incomplete, reaching a maximum thickness of 50 meters. Here the outcrop shows a clear mesa shape, with high cliff and flat top. At the top all of the section is capped by reddish mudstone (perhaps Evergreen Fm), which being more erodible characterizes the top of the mesa.

The section can be subdivided in two main units reflecting a sharp change in palaeoflow direction. No big erosive surface divides the two units. The basal unit crops out just for the top part showing thick beds (4 meters) of trough cross-stratified to planar cross-stratified coarse sand with granules at the coset bases. Palaeocurrents measurements in this portion show SSE direction. The upper unit is characterised by frequent thin FU sequences with cosets 40 cm thick

31

made of well-sorted quartzose sand and some kaolinite weathering. They are organized in planar cross-stratified fine sandstone passing to rippled very fine sandstone, sometimes capped by mudstone (Figure 10B), up to highly laminated siltstone, bioturbated with thick horizontal �� (Figure 10C) and vertical �!��burrowed layers (Figure 10D). The upper unit ends when the reddish mudstone begins at this point. The palaeocurrent measurements show a sudden change toward an overall N direction, with some values toward NNW and NNE (Figure 10E).

32

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5.5 Flagstaff

This outcrop lies in Forest Hill road, 20 km west of Leichhardt Highway always in the precinct of Theodore State Forest (Figure 2).

The Flagstaff area has a continuous outcrop 10 meter thick and NE-SW trending (Figure 11). The section has an elevation of 330 m a.s.l. and it does not display either the bottom or the top of the Precipice Fm.

The outcrop shows a 4-meters-thick coarsening-upward (CU) sequence overlaid by a series of fining-upward (FU) sequences. The initial sequence pinches out laterally in both directions, mimicking a lobate shape (Figure 11B).The CU trend is organised in a thick planar cross stratification (35 degrees dip toward North and South) of fine sand at the base passing upward to coarse sand and granules. In the central part of the lobe trough cross stratification expresses 3D bedforms are marching on the top. Particular is the presence of some vertical burrows (�!��). The top of the central part is characterised by an important feature already mentioned: an erosive surface overlaid by thinly laminated siltstone passing into coarse ripple-stratified sandstone. At the bottom of the lobe is persistent soft deformation in fine sediments and evidences of hydraulic jump that generates backset beds as in Figure 11A.Following FU sequences are up to 1 meter thick and are composed by trough cross-stratified coarse sandstone with at the top some rooted muddy layers. Palaeocurrents show a general trend toward NE (40N) entering in the outcrop wall.

34

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5.6 Isla Gorge National Park road cut #1 and #2

The Isla Gorge road cut outcrops are found along the Leichhardt Highway aligned with the Isla Gorge National Park in Figure 2.

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Two outcrops were analysed in this area: Isla Gorge 1 and Isla Gorge 2, which show 15 m section and 7 m section, respectively. The section shows the contact between Triassic formations and the Precipice Sandstone in Isla Gorge 2, whereas in Isla Gorge 1 the section shows a sharp contact between the lower Precipice and the upper Precipice.

In Isla Gorge 2, which is located north with respect to Isla Gorge 1, the contact between Bowen and Surat basin is expressed by a sharp and erosional boundary characterised by scours and overlapped by an extended oxidized pebble lag (layer A in Figure 13) which makes the surface compact and prominent. Below the unconformity the section is characterised by finer CU sequence siltstone-dominated, with intercalation of fine sand and very fine sand organised in ripple cross lamination with silt, organic matter and roots in situ (Figure 13 facies below unconformity A in log representations). Above the surface interval is coarser and shows very quartzose medium sand organised in trough cross stratification filling erosional channel scours, passing to the top to a finer rippled sandy facies.

Above the surface palaeocurrent values show a general flow toward the South, whereas below the unconformity it is almost impossible to find palaeocurrent indicators due to the fine grain size. The fluvial system cropping out in this area is characterised by relatively shallow multichannel infill (as shown in Figure Figure 13B and in log 3 from facies 4). The width of channels varies from 1 m to 3 m, measured through the erosional concave base (not the channel belt). Barforms between channels are 1m thick on average; whereas the large side bar lying at the top of the outcrop is 2.5 m thick and 15 m wide. It is hard to establish the real size of barforms due to their partial preservation. This is a normal scenario in a fluvial environment where “cut and fill“ is a dominant process. As a plan-view representation, just the section above the unconformity has been considered because these deposits belong to the Precipice Sandstone; below the unconformity is the Eddystone Beds Formation (Late Triassic).

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In Isla Gorge 1, the section is characterised by a sharp horizontal contact between a 3-m-thick fining-upward (FU) sequence passing from trough cross-stratified coarse to medium sand to planar cross- and ripple-stratified fine to very fine sandstone (Figure 12 A). An important feature that characterises the upper portion of the FU sequence is erosional large-scale scours which do not contain coarse pebble lag; however they are associated with a coarsening-upward (CU) trend from very thin laminated siltstone to medium sandstone organised in plane parallel stratification, which drape the erosional surface(Figure 12 F). The surface between is an extended oxidized erosional pebblebed considered here as a transgressive lag. Palaeoflow values are from 130 to 70N, so an ESE direction. Above the lag the section displays up to 7 meters of well-sorted very-fine sandstone rippled, cross-laminated and organised in thin cosets of 5 cm. The ripples have a long elongated crest and they accrete in opposite ways. Palaeoflow indicators show values of 340N and 160N, therefore a N-S trend but opposite flow directions. At the top the section is capped by siltstone with soft deformation features and ripped mud clasts.

The upper allounit is characterised by tabular bedding with plane parallel stratification and re-shaped ripples (they are not reproducible in the static geomodel due to resolution issues) with clay layers (Figure 12 D); they may represent low relief hummocky and combined-flow ripple cross stratification typical of an offshore transition setting between the fair-weather and the storm wave base. The overlying mud is typical of a rising of the water level (flooding surface, Figure 12 C). It shows an overall transgression sequence from continental to shoreface to offshore. It is uncertain whether the water body was marine or lacustrine but palaeohydraulic calculations regarding the dimension of bedforms (Appendix Facies Analysis) suggest that the water body was larger than 100 km and large enough to develop tides.

The spatial extension of the beach facies is very difficult to detect; it could be extended kilometres southward. The reliable extension could be associated as a belt shape, but what is clear is that the system is affected by a persistent transgression characterised by increasing clay and mud sequences at the top of the upper Precipice Sandstone leading into the Evergreen Formation. The facies and facies association involved are illustrated in Table 1 and Table 2.

5.7 Nathan Gorge

This location is found along the Dawson River at Nathan Gorge in proximity of Cracow village (Figure 2).

The lower Precipice allounit has been identified here, where the unit has been logged in a gully and an extensive wall is cropping out on the other side of the

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river (Figure 2). It has a thickness of 51 meters and preserved is a portion of the upper unit. The lower unit is characterized by the presence of 2-meter-thick planar cross-stratified very-coarse to medium sand and sub-rounded pebble lags. In some cross stratification is it possible to identify the normal grading in sets, indicating an avalanching front. Toward the top of the outcrop is possible to recognize the small cosets with cross-stratified sand and fine-grained bottomset of the 2D dunes (bedforms characterized by single planar cross-stratification avalanching). This outcrop was not photogrammetrically surveyedor modelled.

5.7.1 Cabbagetree Creek in Nathan Gorge

This outcrop area is located at the intersection between Nathan Gorge Roadand Cabbagetree Creek, a tributary of the Dawson River (Figure 2). This outcrop was initially called “Nathan Gorge” in early reports but later renamed to identify its locality. It was used for detailed analysis and modelling.

The upper Precipice has been recognized here, where the upper Precipice and Evergreen formation crop out. This outcrop area is located close less than 1 km to the Precipice Sandstone boundary mapped in the 70s’ geological map,although the outcrop belongs to the Precipice Sandstone extent. Here three outcrops are positioned along the creek path, providing a 3D view of the system. The middle outcrop has been shot with photogrammetry. Integrating the three outcrops, four bodies have been recognized. As the bottom of the first body never crops out it is hard to establish its thickness. It shows a general pinching out toward SW, which is highlighted by the same pinching of the internal strata. In some places it has a thickness up to 2 m and it is characterized by medium to fine sand in plane parallel or cross planar stratification. Palaeocurrents are toward North (Figure 16).

At the same stratigraphic elevation toward South a similar body has the opposite geometry, it pinches out toward the NE, with a relative pinching of internal strata. The stratigraphic relationship between the bodies of these two bodies is still unclear, but it can be described by a compensational stacking of lobes. A 10-cm-thick mud layer floors the lobe 1 (Figure 14). The second body (from 1.50 to 3 m thick) has channelized features on the top and pinches out toward NE. Clear planar cross stratification shows that the general accretion of these forms was toward the N-NE, on the right-hand side of the channel. Moving a bit upstream the same body is expressed as rippled very fine sand and laminated silt, indicating a low energy system, maybe a marsh with the associated feeder channel and the lobe preserved on the downstream part. This lobe seems to lay on the intersection of the first 2 lobes in lower stratigraphic elevation (Figure 14). The third body is not always detectable due to the pinching out toward SW, but it shows a fining and thinning laterally. It is

40

composed by rippled very fine sand or compact medium sand, which is organized in tabular sets in transverse section. The fourth body has a typicalcoarsening and thickening upward trend, with the intercalation of medium to fine sand and very fine sand and silt, ascribable to a lobated system. An unresolved question is the direction where these bodies were directed. In this area the typical ‘cave-facies’ expression has not been found, but the previouslylobate shape of the before-mentioned bodies is very similar.

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5.8 Database of facies, geometries and dimensions table

In this section, plan view representations of the spatial extent of the geobodies are shown, along with their relative dimensions. Sites without photogrammetric model do not have geobodies dimensions estimated, i.e. the Gilbert Delta in the Flagstaff area and the braided system in the Cracow area. In particular, Isla Gorge 2 displays the braided channel facies lower allounit (Figure 17), whereas Isla Gorge 1 and Cabbagetree Creek in Nathan Gorge host the mixed flood basin and shoreline facies of the upper allounit of the Precipice Sandstone(Figure 18 and Figure 19).

There were some limitations in achieving a complete dataset of geobodydimensions:

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- one outcrop is a 2D plane where the geobodies are cut at an unclear angle and no corners or edges were exposed to give a confident 3D exposure for dip measurements;

- not every outcrop was accessible to survey or placement of the camera to acquire photogrammetry amenable to the measurement and extrapolation of strike and dip;

- although facies present within an outcrop were adequate to recognize a section of a geobody, the exposures were not always adequate to project its complete geometry.

In particular, it is worth noting that it is not possible to predict the length of delta lobe bodies without control points in the southern area of the eastern flank. The overall fining-upward succession shows a transgression of the sea/lake level inland, consequently the delta would have had a retrogradational behaviour. The extension of this backstepping is unknown at this stage of the project, but will be mapped from the subsurface drilling records in the next stage. The same problem is experienced when we deal with longitudinal attributes of the braided system (Figure 17). A river has a strong avulsive behaviour when loaded with a large amount of sediments. However, we can interpret that the Isla Gorge 2 and Cracow braided channel facies belong to the same system (Figure 13).

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6 Well Scale Analysis As a link between outcrop and the Precipice Sandstone in the subsurface of the CTSCo Glenhaven lease two cores have been studied: West Wandoan 1 (WW1) and Woleebee Creek GW4 (called here GW4), then integrated withimage log for WW1, isopach map and detailed correlation model in the APLNG area.

6.1 Core Descriptions

6.1.1 West Wandoan 1 (WW1)

The core intersects from Precipice Sandstone to Hutton Sandstone. For this project it has been logged with low resolution up to 938 m TD (middle Hutton Sandstone), and with high resolution up to 1146m TD. Although coring was continuous, approximately 85 m of the upper Precipice allounit and its transition to the Evergreen was not cored due to operational issues. Overall the core detects facies belongs to a fluvial-alluvial depositional setting and passes upward to low-energy fluvial environment with tidal influence.

The core WW1 lies adjacent to the main trunk axis (interpreted from the GW4 core), as so it is thinner and detects potential baffle zone(s) within the blocky lower Precipice (Figure 2). These deposits are overbank deposits that divide the lower Precipice into storeys (Figure 20). They are called baffle zones because of their low permeability and porosity character which influence the potential impedence of CO2 migration. From the core it is possible to recognize the two allounits of the Precipice Sandstone and divide it in 4 main subunits, three in the lower allounit and one in the upper allounit. The basal part is 25 m thick and it is characterized by scours and coarse sand organized in thick cross-stratified macroforms of coarse sand without evident scour and pebble lag, interpreted as basal sand-sheet deposits (FA2). From the character of the bottomset in the macroforms (fine-grained wedged sediments) these are very similar to aeolian deposits, probably deposited in ephemeral stream conditions.Characteristic facies involved are 2a, 4, and 7. Overlying it (around 1207 m TDor total driller’s depth) a baffle zone of 2 meters is represented by mud-dominated layers intercalated with fine sand and frequent presence of roots.The facies involved are 6, 9, 8a. It represents the first important occurrence of low-porosity deposits with sealing potential, considered as overbank deposits(FA2) originated by an initial base-level rise.

The lower allounit succession continues with the blocky braided part for 32 m up to 1175 m driller’s depth. This part is characterized by macroforms similar to the basal part (Figure 21), made of thick cross-bedded coarse sand, but differing by the presence of frequent conglomerate layers (pebble lags) flooring erosional scours. The main facies found in this part are: 1, 2a, 3, 4. The deposits

47

are considered to belong to a channel belt setting (FA1) in a braided multichannel system (FA1b), similar to facies association found in Carnarvon Gorge National park wall (Figure 22) or to the basal part of Boolimba Bluff (Figure 23). At 1175 m driller’s depth the succession shows a lowering of energy due to the dominance of fine-grained sediments, which confer baffle barriers. This part is 15 m thick and develops coarsening upward cross-bedded medium sandstone associated with pebble lags flooring trough cross-bedded sandstone and pedogenised heterolithic sand and silt gently dipping (facies 1, 5, 4, 6, 8a). These deposits are interpreted to be part of a meandering fluvial system with facies association FA1m and FA2. Close to the end of the meandering facies association is the start of the upper allounit. This succession starts to present intense bioturbation with rhythmic occurrence in coal, heterolithic sand and silt, organic-rich mud pedogenised, wavy-laminated ripples (8b, 8a, 5, 21). These deposits (23 m thick) are consistent with a tidal plain setting (FA6) and they can be found in outcrop as Carnarvon Highway (Figure 22), but not in Boolimba Bluff (Figure 23). These tidal deposits are eroded by a large scour floored by mud-clast pebble lag at depth 1152 m driller’s depth and tight well-sorted massive medium sand occurs with some sporadic granules; both facies (1, 18b) are associated with FA5 shoal water delta, corresponding to facies found in Nathan Gorge outcrop (Figure 22).

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6.1.2 Woleebee Creek GW4

As a further link between the outcrop and the Glenhaven area lease terrain we logged the 2013 Woleebee Creek GW4 core drilled by the QGC-BG Group,drilled in 2013. Similar to WW1, it is clear that the deposits have a fluvial expression in the basal part, and then they transition into a mix of environments between fluvial, deltaic and tidal settings. GW4 is located 30 km SW of WW1.It is considered to be representative of the area, because it detects the thickest succession of Precipice Sandstone, but also is located close to WW1. There is still some uncertainty between the facies observable in outcrop and those in core, as the distance between them is more than 100 km, and the thickness of the Precipice Sandstone in core is much greater than that observed in outcrops.

The core shows a gradual change of lithology from coarse sandstone to mudstone with a gentle fining-upward trend (~75 m) overlaid by a slight coarsening-upward at the end of the core (~17 m) (Figure 24). From the bottom 4 m thick packages of coarse to medium sandstone are cross-bedded and lay in an erosional truncation floored by small pebbles or plane-parallel granules(facies 1, 2a, 3), present in the macroform part with Carnarvon Gorge National Park (Figure 24). Frequent thick planar cross- bedded sandstone shows downstream accretion of bars (facies 2a). This blocky sequence (35 m thick) is characterized by presence of mud clasts and ripped up coal chips and some plant debris. These features can confirm deposition in a fluvial setting, probablya braided plain (FA1b), dominated by downstream migration (Rust and Gibling, 1990), which passes gradually towards fining-upward packages and roots, with carbonaceous mud at the top, indicating a more low energy fluvial environment(facies 1, 5, 8b, 6), possibly a meandering setting with channel belt and flood basin setting (FA1m and FA2) (Ielpi and Ghinassi, 2015).

The gradual increase of mud drapes and slumps, integrated with symmetricalripples and bioturbated by horizontal and vertical burrows, marks some tidal influence in the fining-upward packages (facies 21, 8a, 14, FA6) (Rasmussen, 2000). The tidal flat can have the same characteristics and lateral extent of the tidal flat recognized in the outcrop of Carnarvon Highway (Figure 24). This part of the core is also characterized by a coarsening-upward trend bounded by bioturbated mud drapes (facies 18a, 19, 20, 16, FA5), which can be interpreted as bars of shallow-water delta interfingered by shoreface deposits (Martini and Sandrelli, 2015). This setting and facies are potentially similar with facies recognized in Nathan Gorge outcrop (Figure 24). The absence of trough cross-stratification confirms the non-proximity of a purely fluvial environment.

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6.2 Wireline logs and image logs

From the wireline logs is clear that the GW4 is lying on the main trunk axis of the fluvial system and WW1 is lateral to this, because from the correlation the

54

lower allounit of the Precipice Sandstone in GW4 appears to be thicker than WW1 and without thick mudstone (potential baffle) zones, probably because they have been eroded by the main channel belt.

The Image log of WW1 has been processed to detect the palaeocurrentsdirection along the core. Palaeocurrents groups have been taken into account considering the allostratigraphic units and their subdivision (Figure 20).

The following observations were made:

- The first baffle zone trends in a northerly direction (probably it is the first occurrence of tidal influences recorded);

- the rose diagram for the meandering interval has a radial pattern which suggests a high sinuosity of the channel;

- the rose diagram for the tidal plain shows some radial pattern probably indicating the tidal sinuous channels or some distal part of an adjacent ebb delta (?);

- the rose diagram for distributary channel has a radial pattern narrower compared to the meandering part, indicating avulsion but not high sinuosity, although it is recorded some opposite direction indicating flood tide; and

- the direction for the mouth-bar complex sequence in the Evergreen Formation is toward the North.

7 Precipice Sandstone Characterisation

7.1 Depositional model

In the vicinity of Isla Gorge the unconformity exposed could represent the erosional base of the Precipice Sandstone, due to the intense scouring behaviour (Figure 13) although literature presents some disagreements (Fielding et al., 1996). The hypothesis is supported by the location and the elevation in the geological map (Figure 2).

Concordantly with previous studies regarding the lower Precipice Sandstone (Exon, 1996; Fielding et al., 1996; Martin, 1976), pebble lags flooring large scours and thick cross-bedding are ascribed as a continental depositional environment, integrated with the high-porosity, well-sorting and maturity of the sediments (Miall, 1977). In particular the sandstone properties propose that the sediment source was located far from the sedimentary basin and had a longtransport path. It is possible that sediments have an aeolian origin and then have been reworked by the braided system. The high-discharge in a low-gradient slope basin such as the Surat Basin could provide sufficient sediment for a braided stream deposition.

55

High-discharge systems have dominant transverse bars (Miall, 1977) within asand-bed river system. Rare longitudinal bars have coarsening-upward sets with arched top and channelized base (Allen, 1968). Similarly, the lateral accretion recognized in Isla Gorge 2 (Figure 13) is interpreted to be coherentwith side bar with developing of lateral chute channel (with similar width to the main channel, Miall, 1977). Therefore frequent transverse bars and rare longitudinal and side bars with chute channels indicate that the sand-bed river system has low sinuosity and multi-channel behavior (Rust, 1981). Furthermorethe combination of all these elements could be related to a potential ephemeral behavior of the braided system (Smith, 1971).

Sand-sheets deposits are described here as flat-lying beds with by planar cross-stratification or upper regime plane parallel stratification, topped and bottomed with flat erosional scours (Fielding, 2006). According to Nicholson (1993), sheet-like sandy bodies are lateral persistent, which are also found in Carnarvon Gorge National Park (Figure 7). The absolute laterally continuity might be not preserved by erosional behavior of the surrounding channels.

Passing towards the upper allounit, the erosional surface found in Forest Hill and Isla Gorge 1 (Figure 12) has been considered as the base of this upper allounit and so a transgressive lag with porous framework, which has enhancedthe oxidation and the prominent aspect; it is called ravinement surface ��Catuneanu et al., 2009, facies 10 in Table 1). The surface has a sharp horizontal aspect due to the reworking action of the waves. Above the shoreface is characterised by tabular set and ripples with a double side of accretion. Both ripples and plane parallel stratification testify to the wave tractional process present in the beach face and the upper shoreface. The occurrence of hummocky cross-stratification and combined-flow ripplesindicates that the shoreface records a deepening, falling on the lower shoreface or the offshore transition depending on the quantity of mud ��sand (Dumas & Arnott, 2006). Possibly the hummocky stratification also records the recurrence of storms, which could have a minor intensity due to the size of the hummocky cross stratification (Messina et al., 2007). In Forest Hill the sporadic presence of trough cross stratification in plane parallel stratified very fine sand are 3D dunes in the lower shoreface, sometimes the environment gets deeper to the offshore transition indicated by the presence of bioturbated beds (Figure 10).

Where the river mouth meets the coastline delta deposits have been found in Flagstaff, Cracow, Nathan Gorge (Cabbagetree Creek) and CarnarvonHighway (Figure 18). These deltas differ in the depth of water column at the river mouth. The steep foresets express a steep jump from the coastline; therefore the process of deposition is likely to be towards mass transport and hypo- or hyperpycnal flow, with the deposition of debris flow or turbidity currents successions within foresets. One manifestation of hyperpycnal flow is the back

56

set beds that locally back fill the foresets in Flagstaff (Figure 11A). These features are made in the presence of a hydraulic jump where the flow releasesits potential energy and scour the underneath deposits at the flex point between foresets and toesets (Nemec, 1990). This process occurs in steep deltas with large-water column.

In Cabbagetree Creek and Carnarvon Highway, coarsening upward sequences and low angle pinching-out units (Figure 9, Figure 14) represented also in outcrop modelling are ascribed to be vertical compensational stacking of mouthbars in shallow water deltas (Colella et al., 1987; Nemec 1990). The compensational stacking occurs when the base level or the low gradient of slope results in a shallow water column and little accommodation space. Given that the mouth bar deposits appear to be dominated by fluvial deposits, it is consistent that the shallow water delta is fluvial dominated (Galloway, 1975; Olariu & Bhattacharya, 2014). Moreover the recurrent feature described above,such as the mud draping the large scour (facies 18a in Table 1), has been found at the top of several sedimentary successions and is the expression of the abandonment phase of the mouthbar after the avulsion for compensationalstacking (Martini & Sandrelli, 2015). The top locally shaped by wavy dunes can highlight a further influence of waves. These deposits locally show the presence of tidal influence with the superimposition of wavy and lenticular bedding in organic-mud layers, showing the depositional features during ebb and flood tides (Mellere et al., 2002). Palaeohydraulic calculations on combined-flow ripples (after Allen, 1984; Clifton & Dingler, 1984) indicate that the wave period is ~7 s and therefore the fetch distance has to be greater than 100 km. Thesedata indicate a water body the size of a large lake or sea.

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7.2 Regional synthesis

As Figure 26 shows the deposition at the time of the lower allounit of Precipice Sandstone, which reflects a braided multi-channel belt flowing south and fed by lateral tributaries. Laterally to the main channel belt poorly drained plains host sand sheet and sporadic dunes in an arid monsoonal environment (as shown in Figure 25). During the deposition of the upper allounit (time 2 in Figure 26)the gradual opening of a sea from east to west created a record of different palaeocurrents within the cored interval of WW1 with tidal influenced deposits contained in point bar and fluvial channels. Closer to the sea opening, during time 2, the deposited geobodies include transitional settings as deltaic bodies adjacent to the wave-dominated coastline (Figure 18). The opening of the sea records the initial transgression that continued during deposition of the Evergreen Formation.

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7.3 Speculation on modern analogue

The most common analogue used for the Precipice Sandstone is the sandy braided river system of the Brahmaputra River (Martin, 1976), and this works well for the lower part of the formation as it has a series of mid-channel barswith dimensions of 2-3 km long. However, this interpretation doesn’t consider the change in palaeocurrent direction, the repetitive presence of vertical burrowing, peculiar non-fluvial sedimentary structures and the gradual decrease of rooting toward the stratigraphical top. One concept to explain this could be a base level rise backing up a system of the size of the Brahmaputra and transitioning from braided to meandering fluvial deposition, but the “coastal”

58

depositional features require alternative analogues and the authors have looked further afield.

Understanding the analogue depositional system requires consideration of the geometries in outcrop, that are often difficult to decipher only from facies associations found in cores. The lower allounit outcropping in Isla Gorge has been interpreted as a sheet-braided river. An alternative to the Brahmaputra analogue is the Lower Platte River in Nebraska (United States), characterised by a more temperate climate, more suitable for the Lower Jurassic. Platte River is characterised mainly by transverse bar deposition ranging around 200 m length and over 1 m of height (Smith, 1971). The possibility of interfingeringwith some aeolian erg field is high and this association is also common in some ephemeral streams like the Diamantina River or Cooper River in western Queensland, but the issue is the size of the remaining sand sheets. In the Precipice Sandstone, the unit is widespread, over 500 km2, but potentially resolves into individual channel belts of 2-3 km (see Appendix 3).

However to have a continuous thickness of such a large amount of sediment, a catchment of at least 200.000 km2 is required over 5 millions of years. Early studies suggested a time transgressive sheet at the base of the Precipice younging from east to west. Within this diachronous basal sheet deposition, the entrenchment of thick and stacked sandstone dominated storeys suggests a confinement on the movement upstream and downstream across the basin, confirmed also by the southerly palaeocurrents in the braided facies, until base-level rise initiates perturbations in the system.

The upper allounit is characterized by different depositional environments. Mouthbar complexes are suggested to be deposited in a large unconfined underwater space, with a repetitive influence by waves (seasonal). A modern analogue suitable for this setting is one of the active branches of Mississippi shallow water delta or the Apalachicola Delta in Florida (Donoghue, 1992) with lobes 1-3 km across. The shallow sea where these river-transported sediments are delivered has dimensions (280 km x 41 km) and low gradient similar to the Spencer Gulf in South Australia (Gostin et al., 1984).

7.4 Application for Glenhaven area

The outcomes of this project increase our knowledge about the depositional architectures of the Precipice Sandstone that can be applied at the well-bore in Glenhaven area and on the regional scale, with particular application in flow modelling, facies prediction modelling and seismic interpretation. Considered the most important application of this project, the flow modelling can be informed through utilising the geobodies information and their internal sedimentary features to build the preliminary flow units. Although the different

59

internal bedding of every facies may not control the CO2 flow pathways, it can influence the migration, through variable porosity pathways as a function of grain size and fabric. Therefore it is important to verify the internal bedding and depositional elements association to forecast preferential migration pathways.

From this project the heterogeneity of the Precipice Sandstone, particularly inthe upper part as it transitions to the Evergreen Formation, is highlighted. Thelower coarse grained allounit is interpreted as a braided fluvial system, similar to previous studies. The upper allounit sees a change to a variety of lower energy fluvial environments with elements of coastal and deltaic settings that result in an increase in finer grained units that can create baffles to flow. This latter interpretation is new, and provides a different conceptual model for the distribution of facies across the basin. The facies scheme developed in this project captures the detailed fabrics that allow their recognition in core. This schema should be modified or updated as further work continues.

The lateral extent of the outcrop geometries gives insights into lateral termination of the bedforms which may be detectable in seismic survey.Although there is a scale difference, preliminary checks on seismic lines showed that, with seismic inversion, lower permeability bounding zones are visible and so traceable across the area.

The shift in palaeocurrents (Figure 20) recorded at the boundary between the lower allounit and upper allounit in outcrop or in the baffle zone of WW1 within the lower allounit could cause a deflection in the migration of the CO2 plume. In the Glenhaven area the regional dip is 5-6º toward the west-south-west; inWW1 the lower basal braided plain (FA1b) shows a palaeoflow direction toward the east-south-east, almost the opposite of the regional dip, conferring the possibility of a “transpirant” trap for flow. Such a trap is caused by the opposing dip directions of strata and internal bedding, which can collect the CO2,potentially slowing migration rates. Likewise the shift from southward to northward prograding bedforms in the overbank zones (FA2) recorded in the core (Figure 20) can baffle and deviate flow. This conceptual model should be tested in dynamic flow simulations by taking into account the internal bedding and fabric of the Precipice Sandstone as observed in outcrop and core.

8 Conclusions and Recommendations

This report details the field work conducted in this project and the geobodies that can be used as analogues for static and dynamic reservoir modelling as the Glenhaven project goes forward. From a general perspective, itencompasses three levels of useful information: conceptual knowledge of the controls on reservoir heterogeneity, multi-scale virtual reproduction of

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architectural elements or geobodies, and a tested and valid workflow for outcrop analogue studies of the overlying stratigraphy in the Surat Basin.

The project provides and brief overview of literature available for outcrop modelling, most of which use laser scanning techniques rather than photogrammetry. This project followed on from previous work in an attempt to develop an easy, low cost approach to photogrammetry using SirovisionTM, but later switched to AgisoftTM as the tracking of complex and curvilinear surfaces was easier, albeit without as accurate georeferencing. Details are contained in the Appendix 1 and detail the methods and the pitfalls of this method. In particular, the inaccessibility of the outcrops to detailed survey created issues that might be overcome by the use of drones and laser scanning techniques, but the latter is not always portable. Export from the photogrammetry projects as polygons and polylines for import to PetrelTM or other modelling software was achieved, as were point clouds of the outcrop surface. However the rendered surfaces and RGC images had to be decimated for import to these packages, thwarting the objective of a realistic image that could be queried from outcrop to sedimentary structure to bed. Future work could overcome this with a gigapixel camera and telephoto lenses and a move to less accurate georeferencing, visible in a 3D PDF format.

Despite technical difficulties, a series of virtual 3D outcrop scale grid models were produced that capture the sedimentological fabric and texture observed in the outcrops, and these are detailed in Appendix 2. A workflow for the import of bounding surfaces from the outcrop mapping, integrating with the development of lithotypes (detailed in the report and Appendix 1A) reflecting the fabric or sedimentary bedding that was subsequently populated with grainsize to develop realistic models of the different facies. This facies scheme could be used in every outcrop study of the Precipice Sandstone and would assist in assigning environments and their spatial dimensions in core through facies code combinations displayed in tables.

Modelling the outcrop “as is” is a good approach, but more importantly one needs to understand how different objects (channels, bar forms, mouth bars, etc.) stack in 3D space. No sedimentary object was complete within the outcrops, and their geometries were projected. A detailed subsurface model, reported in Appendix 3, was developed in an attempt to understand how far one could confidently correlate the different allounits between boreholes using only wireline logs. To do this, the correlation between the outcrop, the core logging and the wireline signatures was used. The lower basal and blocky allounits that represent the higher energy braided fluvial setting of the Precipice Sandstone was laterally continuous, although much of the variation occurred in the pinching and thickening of the basal unit. This unit is thought to reflect first deposition on an eroded topography. The finer grained units, reflecting the

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ripple bedded cave facies and more distal floodplains to the main channels, were more prominent in the upper section of the Precipice. These were mappable for at least 2 km in outcrop at Carnarvon Gorge, and traceable over greater distances in the wireline logs. A range of variograms were trialled to determine how connected the finer grained, potentially lower permeability units were. Regardless of the variogram used, a “baffle free” zone of potentially high porosity and permeability was evident in a sinuous zone some 2.5 km wide and extending for tens of kilometres along depositional strike. This geobody of higher quality reservoir could not have been mapped from outcrop.

In conclusion, using a mix of traditional and more advanced mappingtechniques, the project provides a detailed model of the internal architecture of the Precipice Sandstone that will influence its behaviour as a reservoir. It provides detailed facies descriptions and associations as well as their geometries that will be useful as analogues to control the assignment of reservoir properties within grid models at Glenhaven or elsewhere. It provides and alternative view for the origins of the upper part of the Precipice Sandstone, and highlights a shift in palaeocurrent direction that could influence CO2

migration pathways during injection, or at least alter flow rates. With the ever increasing amounts of borehole data entering the public domain and 3D seismic survey, new insights in subsurface modelling can be coupled with observations from outcrop to develop more realistic static geological models that feed dynamic ones. Perhaps exploring alternative models for the nature of the sealing unit, the Evergreen Formation and its overlying secondary reservoir the Hutton Sandstone, should be the next step.

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