Out of the boardroom and into the classroom: Servant leadership in youth leadership development

7/29/2019 Out of the boardroom and into the classroom: Servant leadership in youth leadership development

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Out of the Boardroom

and into the Classroom:

Servant Leadership inYouth Leadership Development

Nathan Eva

20294492

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

Degree of Bachelor of Business (Honours)

MGX 4400

Department of Management

Faculty of Business and Economics

Monash University

October, 2009


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Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Sen Sendjaya, whose guidance and wisdom throughout my

thesis has been everything I could have hoped for and more. I would also like to thank Dr. Ross

Donohue and Dr. Brian Cooper who throughout the year have encouraged and guided me towards

this end product.

My gratitude goes to the secondary colleges involved, the teachers and leadership facilitators who

graciously gave up their time and the students, who this study is for.

Lastly, I would like to thank my family for their help and support throughout this year and the kind

staff in the Victorian Health System who have put my shoulder back in not once, but twice this year.


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STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

Except where reference is made in the text, this thesis contains no material published elsewhere or

extracted in whole or part from a thesis or report presented by me for another degree of diploma.

No other persons work as been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis.

The thesis has not been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma in this or any other

tertiary institution.

........................................................................

Nathan Mark Eva

23 October, 2009


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................. i

Statement of Authorship ........................................................................................................................ iiTable of Contents ................................................................................................................................... iii

List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................... v

List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... vi

Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. vii

Chapter One - Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................ 2

1.3 Defining Servant Leadership ......................................................................................................... 5

1.4 Significance of the Research ......................................................................................................... 5

1.5 Thesis Overview ............................................................................................................................ 6

Chapter Two Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 9

2.1 Leadership ..................................................................................................................................... 9

2.2 Youth Leadership Development.................................................................................................. 10

2.3 Servant Leadership ...................................................................................................................... 15

2.4 Servant Leadership in Youth Leadership Development .............................................................. 24

Chapter Three - Methodology .............................................................................................................. 27

3.1 Research Design .......................................................................................................................... 27

3.2 Sources of Evidence .................................................................................................................... 29

3.3 Instrumentation .......................................................................................................................... 32

3.4 Procedures .................................................................................................................................. 33

3.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 39

Chapter Four - Results ........................................................................................................................... 41

4.1 Document Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 41

4.2 Interviews .................................................................................................................................... 43

4.3 Survey .......................................................................................................................................... 48

Chapter Five - Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 51

5.1 Research Question 1 ................................................................................................................... 51



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5.4 Combining Servant Leadership with Youth Leadership Development ....................................... 67

Chapter Six - Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 74

6.1 Key Findings ................................................................................................................................ 74

6.2 Significance and Limitations of the Study ................................................................................... 76

6.3 Implications for Future Research ................................................................................................ 77

6.4 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 78

References ............................................................................................................................................ 79

Appendix 1 Servant Leadership Behavioural Scale ............................................................................ 90

Appendix 2 Ethics Approval ............................................................................................................... 91

Appendix 3 Participant Consent Form ............................................................................................... 92Appendix 4 Letter of Invitation .......................................................................................................... 93

Appendix 5 Interview Questions ........................................................................................................ 94


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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Themes in servant leadership ................................................................................................. 33

Table 2 Secondary college sample breakdown (N=100) ...................................................................... 41

Table 3 Frequency of servant leadership dimensions in leadership programs (N=199) ..................... 42

Table 4 List of interviewees ................................................................................................................. 44

Table 5 Interview responses to servant leadership dimensions .......................................................... 45

Table 6 Frequency and percentage frequency distributions of the interview data ........................... 46

Table 7 Servant leadership dimensions emerging in structured interviews ........................................ 48

Table 8 Survey results arising from the Servant Leadership Behavioural Scale .................................. 49


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Conceptual framework: Directionality of effect .................................................................... 13

Figure 2 The relationship between self sacrifice, followers emotions and motivation...................... 19

Figure 3 Application of the servant leadership framework in secondary college youth leadership

development programs ........................................................................................................................ 72


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ABSTRACT

In light of the research-practice gap in youth leadership development with research in many aspects

lagging behind the youth leadership development practice, this study seeks to examine youth

leadership development in Australia. The needs and challenges associated with youth leadership

development in secondary colleges are analysed on the basis of a multidimensional and holistic

framework to leadership called servant leadership. A mixed methods research design incorporating

multiple sources of data (five secondary college youth leadership development programs, ten semi-

structured interviews with secondary college teachers and youth leadership facilitators, thirty-three

structured interviews with university student leaders, and ninety-seven survey responses of recent

secondary college graduates) was used in this study. Key study findings include identification of

servant leadership dimensions which are prevalent (i.e., Transforming Influence and Covenantal

Relationship) and required (i.e., Responsible Morality and Voluntary Subordination) in leadership

development programs across Australia. Given the focus on the youth voice in this study, the

findings will significantly contribute to the youth leadership development programs which help

foster a new generation of global and ethical leaders.


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Chapter One:

Introduction


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CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents an overview of the thesis and introduces the rationale behind the research.

The purpose of the study and the methods utilised are outlined, followed by a discussion on the

justification of the study. The chapter concludes by addressing the practical and theoretical

significance of the current study.

1.1 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study is to examine the application of the servant leadership approach to

Australian secondary college youth leadership development programs. Specifically this study

analyses secondary colleges youth leadership development programs and the perceptions of

secondary college teachers and youth leadership facilitators on youth leadership development on

the basis of Sendjaya, Sarros and Santoras (2008) servant leadership framework.

Leadership studies involving corporate (Turner & Mavin, 2008), governmental (Albrecht, 2005),

educational (Goddard & Hart, 2007; Leeman, 2007) and not-for-profit leaders (Peterson & Van Fleet,

2008) are abound. Researchers have used a variety of leadership styles to characterise the

phenomena observed in these studies, including transformational (Bass, 1999; Hinkin & Schriesheim,

2008), distributed (Gronn, 2009; Mehra, Smith, Dixon, & Robertson, 2006), authentic (Avolio &

Gardner, 2005) and charismatic leadership (Robinson & Kerr, 2009). However, little empirical

evidence on leaders leadership development in secondary college exists in the literature. In

particular, the important role educational institutions played in their leadership development is

severely understudied (Dempster & Lizzio, 2007). Further, in comparison to the above mentioned

theories, research into servant leadership in Australia is relatively sparse.

With these two research gaps in mind, this study will undertake a two-fold approach. On the one

hand, it will extend the body of knowledge in youth leadership development literature by


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understanding the phenomenon from the youth leadership development programs and the

perceptions of secondary college teachers, youth leadership facilitators, university student leaders

and recent secondary college graduates. On the other hand, it looks at Australia as the research

setting, thereby adding to the body of knowledge of servant leadership within the culture.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The phrase the youth of today are the leaders of tomorrow is common in society, yet youth

leadership development has been largely neglected in academic research (Osberg Conner & Strobel,

2007; Ricketts & Rudd, 2002). Although there is a plethora of organisational leadership research,

leadership scholars have noted that society is experiencing a moral leadership crisis (Elmuti, Minnis,

& Abebe, 2005; George, 2008b; Rhodes, Brundrett, & Nevill, 2008; Schwab, 2007). This comes 30

years after Greenleaf (1977) first argued that the lack of moral leadership in society demands the

establishment of a new style of leadership, namely servant leadership. There has been evidence

which suggests that the leadership crisis is rooted in schools, thus highlighting the need to

investigate the role that educational facilities play in leadership development (Astin & Astin, 2000;

Elmuti et al., 2005; Richards, 1999; Ricketts & Rudd, 2002).

1.2.1 WHY YOUTH LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

Leadership development is one of the most important outcomes in a students educational

experience and has become big business for leadership facilitators and secondary colleges alike

(Eich, 2008). To add to the numerous secondary college youth leadership development programs,

private youth leadership development agencies have proliferating in the past decade (Osberg

Conner & Strobel, 2007). Even with the numerous students enrolled in these programs, youth

leadership development research trails behind the practice (Osberg Conner & Strobel, 2007; Ricketts

& Rudd, 2002). Youth leadership development programs have increased whilst research in this area

has arguably decreased. Before the 1980s, many studies of leadership amongst children had been


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conducted, with the 1930s to 1950s looking at personality characteristics and the 1960s to the

early 1980s addressing behaviours and styles (Goethals, Sorenson, & Burns, 2004). The shortcoming

of the pre 1980s research was that it focused on why certain children were leaders based upon

popularity and physical dominance, not on leadership development. Since the 1980s there have

been very few studies on youth leadership (Goethals et al., 2004).

Kirshner (2007) observed that although youth leadership facilitators document what they administer

and achieve, these documents take on a promotional tone, focusing on the achievements of the

programs, not on the material being taught. Further, there are no established guidelines for youth

leadership development within the education system as there are with traditional curricula such as

English, mathematics and science (Department of Education, 2008; Ministerial Council on Education,

2009). This leaves a substantial gap of knowledge about how secondary colleges are developing

societys next leaders.

There are no definitive answers as to why there is limited research in youth leadership development

although, there is a strong support for research in this area. Dempster and Lizzio (2007) stated there

are two main reasons why research is needed into youth leadership development. First, there is

currently a lack of talented business leaders who are able and willing to undertake leadership roles

within organisations. Second, there is a scarcity of community leaders resulting in a decrease of civic

participation amongst communities. As current research methods into leadership development are

yet to resolve these problems, Dempster and Lizzio (2007) argued that looking at youth leadership

development offers a new entry point for leadership research that may result in new insights into

the subject.

1.2.2 WHY SERVANT LEADERSHIP

Numerous scholars have agreed that servant leadership is the most effective style of leadership

(Dennis & Winston, 2003; Greenleaf, 1977; Page & Wong, 2000; Sendjaya et al., 2008). Servant


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leaders have been attributed to high levels of employee motivation (De Cremer, 2006), a strong

moral base (Graham, 1991), a vision and values based organisation (Hamilton, 2008) and superior

profitable returns (Collins, 2005) (see Chapter Two for an elaborate discussion on these areas). More

importantly, servant leadership has emerged as a leadership style that can transcend the boundaries

between financial gains and the increased ethical expectations on modern day managers (Crane,

2004; Elkington, 1998; Page & Wong, 2000).

Questionable ethical standards of leadership have surfaced during this time of economic uncertainty

(George, 2008b; Plettinx, 2009) with multinational corporations and national banks being bailed out

by governments (Cooksey, 2008; Enrich & Eckblad, 2009; Guerrera & Guha, 2009) and consumers

losing faith in the corporate sector (George, 2008a; Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson, 2008; Zogby,

2009). Leaders have tended to act in an unethical manner due to focusing on short term benefits

and not taking into account the broader implications of their actions (George, 2008a). In order to

rectify this problem, Eich (2008), argued that the standards of leadership must be improved within

society. To this end, the current study proposes the servant leadership approach by which leader-

follower interactions are thoughtfully reasoned, morally legitimised and justified ethically in both the

ends they seek and the means they employ (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Servant leaders are focused on

the broader long term sustainable goals of the organisation and have the ability to use moral

reasoning to address ethically questionable decisions that are presented to them (Sendjaya et al.,

2008).

Although there are several servant leadership frameworks identified in the literature, only the

Sendjaya et al. (2008) framework incorporates the essential elements of servant leadership such as

service, humility, vision and empowerment, and moral behaviour and reasoning. Therefore Sendjaya

et al.s (2008) servant leadership framework will be used in this study and will be further discussed in

Chapter Two and Chapter Three.


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1.3 DEFINING SERVANT LEADERSHIP

Servant leadership offers a holistic and altruistic approach to leadership with a central focus on the

needs and aspirations of those served by the leader (Sendjaya et al., 2008). The servant leadership

dimensions derived by Sendjaya et al. (2008) will be used in addressing the research questions in this

study. These dimensions are:

Voluntary Subordination The leaders willingness to serve others in any given situation,when there is a legitimate for the service;

Authentic Self The leaders consistent display of integrity, accountability, humility,

vulnerability and security;

Covenantal Relationship The leaders attempt to foster genuine, profound and lastingrelationships with others;

Responsible Morality The leaders leadership interactions are thoughtfully reasoned,morally legitimised and ethically justified in both the ends sought and the means employed;

Transcendental Spirituality The leaders attempt to fuse a sense of calling, meaning anddirection in their own and others lives; and

Transforming Influence The leaders desire to produce contagious effects in others inmultiple dimensions and turn them into servant leaders themselves.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH

Youth leadership development research using existing leadership theories is limited, so is empirical

research using servant leadership in relation to non-business settings, non-executive leadership and

in Australia. In this light, the current study has the following significance:

1. It reveals the extent to which Australian secondary college youth leadership developmentprograms foster the cultivation of servant leaders. The research findings will be fed back to


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secondary colleges to assist in building youth leadership development programs that

develop leaders holistically and foster a new generation of servant leaders.

2. It identifies key characteristics of the next generation of leaders on the bases of surveyfindings.

3. It extends previous research on youth leadership development by examining the linkagesbetween servant leadership and youth leadership development.

4. It contributes to the overall body of research on Generation Y.

1.5 THESIS OVERVIEW

The thesis consists of the following chapters:

Chapter Two provides a review of both the empirical and theoretical literature. Leadershipand leadership development are outlined as an introduction to the central aspects of this

study. Youth leadership is then assessed in relation to development, process and retention.

The literature review then turns to servant leadership, where the ideas on servant

leadership posed by Sendjaya et al. (2008) are explored using both supporting and

contrasting literature. Finally, the notion of servant leadership is then related back to youth

leadership development.

Chapter Three outlines the methodological research design of this study, both in itsdescription and justification. The mixed methods design of this study allows the researcher

to use document analysis, surveys, structured and semi-structured interviews to apply

servant leadership to youth leadership development.

Chapter Four presents the results from both the qualitative and quantitative methodsundertaken. There are three sections: document analysis, interviews and surveys. The data

is presented in a series of tables outlining the responses.


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Chapter Five reveals an understanding of the results in relation to the research questionsderived from the literature. The discussion takes form around what dimensions of servant

leadership are prevalent in secondary college youth leadership development programs.

Chapter Sixprovides a summary of the thesis and explores the limitations of the study whilstsuggesting avenues for future research.


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Literature Review


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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents the findings of the literature review underpinning the two research areas,

youth leadership development and servant leadership. Specifically, it was the aim of the review to

analyse the findings, rationale, methodology, limitations and gaps of past research. The literature

review begins by broadly defining leadership and leadership development before discussing youth

leadership development. The research gaps identified in the literature lead to the formulation of the

research questions for the study. Servant leadership will then be defined and justified by

demonstrating the advantages it has over opposing leadership styles.

2.1 LEADERSHIP

2.1.1 LEADERSHIP

Definitions of leadership are often created by researchers based upon their own individual

perspectives, incorporating the phenomena of leadership of most interest to them (Nirenberg, 2003;

Yukl, 1989). This was proven by Stogdills (1974) study which critically analysed 4,725 published

articles on leadership. He concluded that the endless accumulation of empirical data has not

produced an integrated understanding of leadership (Stogdill, 1974, p. vii). Researchers concur that

there is no universal definition of leadership and what makes the best leaders (Lussier & Achua,

2009). Scholars have progressed from defining leadership to studying leadership approaches such as

distributive leadership, servant leadership, authentic leadership and e-leadership (Avolio,

Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009).

2.1.2 LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

There has been a substantial interest in leadership development in the last decade, especially

amongst academics and leadership facilitators (Day, 2000; Dixon, 2009). This is fuelled by


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organisations who see leadership as the greatest competitive advantage and have invested heavily

accordingly (Dixon, 2009; Gilmore, 2009). The literature on leadership development reveals a

number of patterns as follows.

First, there is a distinct difference between leadership development and managerial development.

Managerial development is centred on developing the individual for a formal management role,

whereas leadership development develops the individuals capacity to lead without bestowed

formal authority (Day, 2000). Managerial development programs focus on acquiring skills and

knowledge to enhance performance in a management role; this training is position and organisation

specific (Day, 2000; Keys & Wolfe, 1988). On the other hand, leadership development training seeks

to equip individuals with the skills to lead groups of people to work together in a meaningful way

and expand the individuals ability to adapt to a changing business environment (Dixon, 1993;

Gilmore, 2009).

Second, leadership development is a continuous learning process that can happen anywhere, not

just within a classroom in a specially designed program. Individuals should be encouraged to work

on their leadership development outside of the traditional classroom setting (Fulmer, 1997). The

most state of the art leadership development programs are those which create a hybrid system of

learning, combining classroom training with leadership initiatives tied to organisational goals (Day,

2000; Dotlich & Noel, 1998).

2.2 YOUTH LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

Youth leadership development is masked in numerous manifestations including youth leadership,

youth voice, youth civic engagement, youth empowerment and youth participation (O'Donoghue,

Kirshner, & McLaughlin, 2006). With no consensus on what youth leadership development is (Osberg

Conner & Strobel, 2007), for the purpose of this thesis youth leadership development is defined as

any program in which young people undergo an enhancement of their leadership competencies and


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characteristics. This section briefly outlines the existing literature on youth leadership development

including the process of and the need for youth leadership development and the retention of

knowledge from obtained from such programs. This study therefore addresses the call for focused

research into youth leadership development (Dempster & Lizzio, 2007).

2.2.1 FOSTERING LEADERSHIP IN SECONDARY COLLEGE

Researchers have concluded that leadership development has roots in childhood, secondary college

and university studies (Cress, Astin, Zimmerman-Oster, & Burkhardt, 2001; Eich, 2008; Elmuti et al.,

2005; McCauley & Velsor, 2004; Roberts, 1997). Research has revealed that involvement in

interpersonal leadership activities relates positively to the development of educational attainment,

leadership development and an increase in personal values (Astin, 1993; Kezar & Moriarty, 2000).

However, when assessing the benefits of youth leadership development programs, one must take

into account that students who are involved in these programs are usually highly motivated and

have high educational standards (Cress et al., 2001). Further, studies have shown that a transfer of

knowledge occurs from students who have completed a leadership development program to others

in their community (Daugherty & Williams, 1997). Although not every student is able to engage in a

leadership program, they still can reap some of the benefits through interaction with their peers

who do.

Cress et al. (2001) believed that many educational institutions claim that they have a focus on

creating the next generation of leaders. However, most offer students a generic, untailored

leadership program. Examples of such programs are extremely broad including tutoring, peer

support, alternative holiday options and volunteer service (Cress et al., 2001). There is further

evidence to suggest that youth leadership development is merely a marketing ploy, with many

secondary colleges taking the easier option of student voice or representation (Frost, 2008). This lack


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of real, meaningful opportunities has resulted in a lack of confidence in the quality and standard of

youth leadership development programs (Elmuti et al., 2005).

On the other hand, when meaningful programs and opportunities are created for youth, positive

leadership qualities flourish. This is shown empirically by Cassell, Huffaker, Tversky and Ferriman

(2006) who revealed that students aged 9 to 16 are more likely to engage in cooperative and

empowered leadership styles (e.g. anticipating the needs and goals of the group ahead of using

powerful, coercive language). By fostering these natural positive leadership skills in youths

leadership development, this may offset negative leadership styles acquired in executive leadership.

In contrast to the ever expanding youth leadership development programs and opportunities,

students surveyed by MacBeath (1998) felt there were less quality leadership opportunities for them

relative to those given to their teachers. In fact, many leadership development opportunities are

granted to school principals (Coupland, Currie, & Boyett, 2008; Johnson, 2009; Moos, Krejsler, &

Kofod, 2008). Although the students cry for more leadership opportunities has been heard, what

has been delivered is generic, untailored youth leadership development programs which researchers

believe are not adequate (Cress et al., 2001; Frost, 2008). In order to establish proper youth

leadership development programs, we must understand what leadership opportunities mean from

students perspectives, and use this evidence to explore youth leadership development (Dempster &

Lizzio, 2007).

2.2.2 THE PROCESS OF YOUTH LEADERHIP DEVELOPMENT

The existing literature surrounding youth leadership development (Davis, 1997; Eich, 2008; Foster,

2000; Osberg Conner & Strobel, 2007; Ricketts & Rudd, 2002) tends to focus on the processes and

outcomes of youth leadership development and neglect the content. An example of this process

based approach is Osberg Conner & Strobels (2007) model (see Figure 1). Osberg Conner & Strobel

(2007) studied the effects of a conceptual framework in relation to directionality. They argued that


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Programstructures &

supports

Youth asempowered

leaders

Problems orissues inschool &

community

as youth develop into leaders their experiences affect how the program progresses but they did not

address what students were learning.

Figure 1

Conceptual framework: Directionality of effect

Source: Osberg Conner and Strobel (2007)

At the conclusion of the study, it was believed that youth leadership development encompasses

three dimensions, communication and interpersonal skills, analytical and critical reflection and

positive community involvement (Osberg Conner & Strobel, 2007, p. 295). By generalising the

programs into these three facets, this study only offers the process and the outcomes of youth

leadership development, not that material the programs teach.

Another process based interpretation of youth leadership development is delivered by Azzam and

Riggio (2003) who found youth leadership development is delivered in one of two ways. The first

method is through an instructional approach, having structured lessons with a leadership facilitator.

This traditional classroom format has merit in secondary college as it can be used as part of a

curriculum. However, these leadership facilitators are not teachers. They often do not possess the

skills to execute lesson plans, assess students knowledge and develop a meaningful curriculum

(Kirshner, 2008). Second, an orientation approach can be used which introduces individuals to

different leaders so they can learn from their experiences. This is a form of mentoring which is very

popular amongst youth leadership development (Hewlett, Sherbin, & Sumberg, 2009). Although

each of these methods is explained thoroughly, there is very little description of the content

Will affect change inWill affect change in


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delivered through these approaches. This establishes the first major gap of youth leadership

development literature, there is no indication of what is being taught to young leaders.

2.2.3 DEVELOPING YOUNG LEADERS

The focus on youth leadership development needs to increase in the face of greater consensus that

the traditional leadership curriculum has failed to produce leaders for the business environment

(Elmuti et al., 2005). Given the absence of highly competent leaders filtering through into the

business system, developing leaders is becoming more critical and a strategic part of the business

plan (Leskiw & Singh, 2007).

Similarly, local communities are also acknowledging the need to develop the leadership

characteristics and competencies of young people with increased numbers of community based

leadership programs appearing (Azzam & Riggio, 2003). There is evidence to suggest that by

implementing leadership programs, communities enjoy lower crime rates and better schools (Azzam

& Riggio, 2003; Rossing, 1998). However, missing from these programs is student input about how

the program should run.

When designing youth leadership development programs, student voice should be the main focus.

There is strong support for student input in the design of youth leadership development programs,

for example, what is needed in leadership programs and who should be involved (Dempster & Lizzio,

2007). Dempster and Lizzio (2007) called for leadership to be defined by young people and have

youth leadership development programs based around these definitions.

2.2.4 RETENTION OF KNOWLEDGE

Cress et al. (2001) studied 875 college students and found that through youth leadership

development programs students reported growth in their organisational skills, goal setting, conflict

resolution skills, commitment to social causes and their willingness to take risks. Further, students


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who were exposed to these programs were more likely to hold an elected leadership position. This

research is confirmed by Daugherty and Williams (1997) who revealed that graduates of community

based leadership programs are still involved in their respective communities three years after the

programs conclude. Cress et al. (2001) found that involvement in youth leadership development

programs positively effects the following three areas: (1) Skills, e.g. the ability to make decisions; (2)

Values, e.g. an understanding of person ethics; and (3) Cognitive Understanding, e.g. understanding

of leadership theory.

At the end of their college experience, students who participated in youth leadership development

programs had a deeper understanding of civic responsibility, multicultural awareness and their own

leadership ability. Within the program, students who spent time participating in volunteer positions

showed a further increase in their leadership development (Cress et al., 2001). Therefore, in this

study analyses of students leadership characteristics using an existing measure were conducted in

order to see the impact of youth leadership development programs.

2.3 SERVANT LEADERSHIP

2.3.1 JUSTIFICATION FOR SERVANT LEADERSHIP

A scan of recent leadership literature reveals numerous studies on servant leadership (Andersen,

2009; Dennis & Bocarnea, 2005; Hamilton, 2008; Joseph & Winston, 2005; Liden et al., 2008; Robert

& Mihai, 2005; Sendjaya et al., 2008; Washington, 2007). Proponents of this leadership approach

concur that servant leadership is the most effective form of leadership (Dennis & Winston, 2003;

Page & Wong, 2000; Sendjaya et al., 2008).

Given the emphasis on empowerment (Daft, 1999; Patterson, 2003; Sendjaya et al., 2008; Spears,

1998), integrity (Page & Wong, 2000; Russell & Stone, 2002; Washington, Sutton, & Feild, 2006) and

ethics (Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002; Sendjaya et al., 2008), servant leadership is a key leadership


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paradigm for young leaders to follow. The following sections outline why servant leadership fits

youth leadership development better than other leadership approaches such as authentic leadership

and transformational leadership.

AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP

Authentic leadership perspectives revolve around many definitions including crucible events (Bennis,

2003; Bennis & Thomas, 2002), life experiences (George, Sims, McLean, & Mayer, 2007; Shamir,

Dayan-Horesh, & Adler, 2005; Shamir & Eilam, 2005) and self-awareness (Avolio & Gardner, 2005;

Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, & May, 2004; Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May, & Walumbwa,

2005; May, Chan, Hodges, & Avolio, 2003; Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, & Peterson,

2008).

The main difference between authentic and servant leadership is their origins. Servant leadership

scholars (Dennis & Bocarnea, 2005; Greenleaf, 1977; Page & Wong, 2000; Patterson, 2003; Russell,

2001; Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002) state that the root of servant leadership is in a value system (e.g.

ethics, altruism), whereas authentic leadership has its roots in life experiences (George et al., 2007;

Shamir et al., 2005; Shamir & Eilam, 2005) and self-awareness (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Walumbwa

et al., 2008).

With the nature of authentic leadership being true to ones self (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Harter,

2002), there is a possibility that the leader will not act in an ethical or moral manner and in some

cases could display authoritarian or negative leadership (Avolio et al., 2004). This is in contrast with

servant leadership which focuses on serving others (Sendjaya et al., 2008). There are scholars who

question if authenticity of leaders is a positive thing if the individual is inherently narcissistic or has

questionable ethical standards (Sparrowe, 2005).


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TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Transformational leadership has become a mainstream leadership style taught in business schools

ever since the publication of Burns influential book on transformational leadership (Bass, 1999;

Burns, 1978). Bass (1999, p. 9) defined transformational leadership as uplifting the morale,

motivation and morals of their followers by empowering the employees and giving them the

opportunity to develop through their involvement within the organisation.

Transformational leadership, like servant leadership encourages both leaders and followers to raise

each other up to new levels of morality and motivation. However, servant leaders are more natural

inclined to serve marginalised people than transformational leaders (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Graham

(1991) argues that servant leadership adds a moral dimension to the transformational leadership

framework, which is vital given that the fundamental flaw of transformational leadership is the lack

of an overarching moral compass. Within the transformational leadership framework there is no

indication that leaders should serve followers with the good of the followers in mind. Instead,

Graham (1991) sees transformational leaders defining what is imperative and morally right for the

company and forcing the growth of the individual. It is due to these factors that Graham (1991) sees

a limit to the transformational leaders capacity to act in an inspirational manner while adhering to a

moral compass to the extent of the servant leader.

In summary, this section briefly outlines how the servant leadership framework extends laudable

leadership theories of transformational and authentic leadership. Given the ethical, moral and

service dimensions present in servant leadership, this thesis will use the servant leadership

framework in relation to youth leadership development.


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2.3.2 DIMENSIONS OF SERVANT LEADERSHIP

In this section the six dimensions of servant leadership as used in this thesis will be described,

namely Voluntary Subordination, Authentic Self, Covenantal Relationship, Responsible Morality,

Transcendental Spirituality and Transforming Influence (Sendjaya et al., 2008).

VOLUNTARY SUBORDINATION

Voluntary Subordination is defined as the leaders willingness to serve others in any given situation,

when there is a legitimate for the service. The core element of servant leadership is service, both in

the acts of a leader (acts of service) and their motives behind the service (being a servant) (Sendjaya

et al., 2008). Service is discussed in the literature in many forms including stewardship (Nix, 1997),

self-sacrifice (De Cremer, 2006; Yorges, Weiss, & Strickland, 1999) and desire to serve others

(Baggett, 1997; Block, 1993; Fairholm, 1997; Greenleaf, 1977; Russell & Stone, 2002).

When an individual undertakes a leadership position their motivation should be to serve others

regardless of their background, race, religion or any mitigating factors (Baggett, 1997; Block, 1993;

Fairholm, 1997; Greenleaf, 1977; Russell & Stone, 2002). This motivation is not just merely doing

acts of service for their employees, a leader must dismiss the superior status of being a leader and

embrace servanthood (Sendjaya et al., 2008). A self-interested leader can still engage in acts of

service for their employees in order to gain short term benefits of servant leadership. This is shown

through De Cremers (2006) self-sacrifice model (see Figure 2). De Cremer (2006) found that when a

leader displaying self-sacrificing behaviours, employees experience positive emotions towards the

leader, producing strong motivations to work for the leader.


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Leader Behavior:

High self-sacrifice

interacting with lowautocratic behavior

Followersexperience positive

emotions

Motivation tomaintain or develop

a positiveinteraction

Display ofmotivation to work

with the leader

Figure 2

The relationship between self sacrifice, followers emotions and m otivation

Source: De Cremer (2006)

Yeo (2006) believed serving employees helps create meaningful relationships and strong

connections which shows the employees that the leader is willing to look beyond their job to help

others (Yeo, 2006). This is a win-win situation for both parties as the employees growth and needs

are nurtured by the leader, and the leader is rewarded with strong motivation and willingness to

work from their employees (Sendjaya et al., 2008; Yeo, 2006).

AUTHENTIC SELF

Authentic leadership has been deeply explored by Avolio and his colleagues (Avolio & Gardner,

2005; Avolio et al., 2004; Avolio et al., 2009; Gardner et al., 2005; Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, & Harms,

2008; May et al., 2003; Walumbwa et al., 2008; Walumbwa, Lawler, & Avolio, 2007; Zhu, May, &

Avolio, 2004) with Walumbwa et al. (2008) calling for the integration of servant leadership and

authentic leadership to see what effect this may have on organisational behaviour. Sendjaya et al.

(2008) have integrated themes of authentic leadership into servant leadership arguing that servant

leaders lead because it is a reflection of who they are. Authentic Self is the leaders consistent

display of integrity, accountability, humility, vulnerability and security (Sendjaya et al., 2008).

By showing integrity in the workplace, which is adhering to professional standards and high moral

principles, leaders can foster a culture of trust within their organisation (Bennis & Nanus, 1997; De

Pree, 1997; Russell & Stone, 2002; Washington et al., 2006). Combining the moral principles

displayed through the leaders integrity, servant leaders can lead the organisation to vastly improve


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their ethical conduct and create a higher overall moral code (Giampetro-Meyer, Brown, Browne, &

Kubasek, 1998; Russell & Stone, 2002).

Linking integrity with humility can oppress the spread of egotism within an organisation (Rowsell &

Berry, 1993). The humility aspect of servant leadership protects the leader from acting in a self-

centred, self-interested way and reduces the egotistical nature of the leader (Buchen, 2002). By not

giving into an egotistical state, the leader can focus on the current business strategy rather than

their prior successes. Collinss (2005) study of 1,435 Fortune 500 companies since 1965 established

the strongest argument of the benefits of humility within the organisation. Collins (2005) found only

11 organisations from that list stood out as companies that moved from good to great achieving

stock returns of 4.1 times the general market. During this period of transition, Collins partly

attributed the success to the leader of the organisation whom he believed displayed two distinct

characteristics, professional will and personal humility. The profit margins gained from having a

leader displaying humility at the helm are made clear through this research.

COVENANTAL RELATIONSHIP

Covenantal Relationship is the leaders attempt to foster genuine, profound and lasting relationships

with others (Sendjaya et al., 2008). This dimension draws inference from transformational

leadership, which creates an empowered relationship between leader and follower (Bass, 1999),

servant leadership where the use of teamwork and acceptance makes followers feel significant in

the organisation (Dennis & Bocarnea, 2005) and distributed leadership where the followers and

leaders have an equal and collaborative relationship (Gronn, 2009). In order for these relationships

to evolve, the leader must be willing to serve the followers and foster their leadership development

(Ciulla, 1998).

Previous servant leadership literature refers to leader-follower interactions in terms of

empowerment with qualities such as making followers feel significant and appreciating followers

contributions seen as the core elements of a servant leaders relations with others (Dennis &


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Bocarnea, 2005; Russell & Stone, 2002). In the Covenantal Relationship form of servant leader-

follower relations, empowerment is manifested through servant leaders by shaping the nature of

their relationships and accepting people for who they are, not how they make the leader feel. By

implementing this form of servant leadership, employees learning, autonomy and growth will be

fostered (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Servant leaders believe in an equitable and collaborative approach

but by shaping their relationships with others, they can position themselves to use empowerment to

transform others away from a passive environment (Smith, Montagno, & Kuzmenko, 2004).

RESPONSIBLE MORALITY

In order to encompass the dimension of Responsible Morality, a leaders leadership interactions

must be thoughtfully reasoned, morally legitimised and justified ethically in both the ends sought

and the means employed (Sendjaya et al., 2008).

Responsible Morality encompasses the moral and ethical actions resonating from the leader. The

individuals leadership transactions are thoughtfully reasoned, morally legitimised and ethically

justified in both the ends that they seek and the means the employ (Sendjaya et al., 2008). In the

wake of a global economic crisis and an ethical meltdown by leaders of a host of Fortune 500

companies, the call for moral and ethical leadership has never been louder (Gardner et al., 2005, p.

344; George, 2008a; Plettinx, 2009). Society has lost faith in their corporate leaders, questioning the

moral grounds of their decisions (George, 2008b; Zogby, 2009).

The lack of ethics among the business leaders reflects negatively on business schools (Richards,

1999). All too often scholars note that the root of ethical business problems lie deep within our

business schools (Elmuti et al., 2005). In order to develop moral and ethical leaders, business schools

must be at the forefront providing effective and thorough ethical training to all students (Adler,

2002; Crane & Matten, 2004; Elmuti et al., 2005).


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Previous servant leadership literature has not dealt with morality and ethics to the standard the

corporate sector requires. Self-regulation and self-awareness were two factors raised by Avolio and

Gardner (2005) that have been largely missing. In light of this criticism, Sendjaya et al. (2008) have

incorporated morality and ethics in the dimension of Responsible Morality.

TRANSCENDENTAL SPIRITUALITY

Spirituality in leadership deals with many missing elements that are unable to be addressed in

existing leadership literature (Avolio et al., 2009). These elements include a sense of higher calling,

care and compassion for followers and workplace spirituality (Dent, Higgins, & Wharff, 2005; Fry,

2003). In servant leadership, Transcendental Spirituality is the leaders attempt to fuse a sense of

calling, meaning and direction in their own and others lives (Sendjaya et al., 2008).

The dimension of Transcendental Spirituality is conceptually related to spirituality in leadership

(Sendjaya et al., 2008). Both theoretical frameworks have a strong linkage with religious views, with

numerous example of Jesus Christ being used throughout servant and spiritual leadership literature.

The Sendjaya et al. (2008) servant leadership framework enhances spiritual leaderships elements of

wholeness, sense of mission, interconnectedness and spiritual belief by combining it with service,

giving the individual reasons for becoming a servant leader. A servant leader is propelled by a higher

calling provided through either religion or a sense of mission and their life calling. This purpose

creates a different dimension for an individual to lead an organisation than those provided by

transformational or authentic leadership (Sendjaya et al., 2008).

In an organisational setting, Transcendental Spirituality is seen through the culmination of

employees and organisational goals. A servant leaders sense of mission allows them to see past the

day-to-day structure of business as usual. They are able to see a connection from past events,

present decisions and future outcomes to set goals for a better future for the organisation (Stone,

Russell, & Patterson, 2004). The servant leader can see past the tangible qualities of employees as a

means to an ends and see employees as the end themselves. Through this realisation the servant


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leader becomes committed to enhancing the professional, personal and spiritual growth of the

employees, empowering them to take on the mission.

TRANSFORMING INFLUENCE

Transforming Influence is the leaders desire to produce contagious effects in others in multiple

dimensions and turn them into servant leaders themselves (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Transforming

Influence reflects Burns (1978) transformational leadership as it focuses on empowering and

uplifting the employees. When servant leadership is being applied to an individual they are likely to

undergo a Transforming Influence. This influence alters the individual in multiple dimensions such as

emotionally, spiritually and socially (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Transforming Influence is comprised of

vision, empowerment, mentoring, modelling and trust (Sendjaya et al., 2008).

In servant leadership literature, vision is referred to in many lights including foresight (Page & Wong,

2000), pioneering (Russell & Stone, 2002) and conceptualisation (Greenleaf, 1977). Regardless of the

label, vision is instrumental in any form of high-quality leadership (Dennis & Bocarnea, 2005). Vision

in servant leadership is the ability to envision the future, conceptualise the required actions, and

implement the changes (Greenleaf, 1977). The vision of the servant leader becomes the building

block of the organisations future (Fairholm, 1997). Laub (1999) believed that vision is intrinsically

linked with empowerment, and that through a shared vision employees are served. A clear,

compelling vision combined with trust and the other dimensions of servant leadership, allow servant

leaders to not only empower an employee, but transform their lives, making them servant leaders

themselves (Sendjaya et al., 2008). In order for an individual to undergo a transformation they first

need to trust the servant leader.

Trust has been identified as a key element of leader-follower relations (Bennis & Nanus, 1997; De

Pree, 1997; Fairholm, 1997; Russell & Stone, 2002), the absence of which creates a culture of fear

and hampers productivity in organisations (Davis, Schoorman, Mayer, & Hoon, 2000; Washington et

al., 2006). Trust in most leadership situations can be gained from behaviours such as communicating


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effectively and supporting employees, however this is not where trust originates from in servant

leadership (Joseph & Winston, 2005). Trust is bestowed upon a servant leader because they lead by

example, show high levels of integrity and fully accept employees for who they are (Joseph &

Winston, 2005).

2.4 SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN Y OUTH LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

The literature revealed that there is no fully developed theory concerning servant leadership and

youth leadership development. However, it is clear that there exists many similarities between

servant leadership at an executive level and servant leadership at a secondary college level. For

example, in relation to Voluntary Subordination, for an executive leader this can mean performing

tasks with their employees (Yeo, 2006), whereas a student leader will be serving their community in

an altruistic manner (Cress et al., 2001). In terms of Covenantal Relationship, the executive leader

will be shaping the nature of their relationship with others by empowerment and shared vision as

well as accepting them for who they are, where as a student leaders focus would be solely on

accepting others for who they are, not how they make them feel (Sendjaya et al., 2008). Through

these similarities, it can be seen that servant leadership is applicable in youth leadership

development. Therefore, the servant leadership framework will be used in addressing youth

leadership development.

From the literature three research questions emerged:

1. What are students currently learning to become servant leaders?2. How should students be taught servant leadership?3. What dimensions of servant leadership are prevalent in recent secondary college graduates?

These research questions coincide with Azzam & Riggios (2003) call for three areas of leadership

development to be researched: (a) Completing a standardised evaluation of multiple leadership

programs to establish a best practice method in order to maximise their effectiveness; (b)


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Completing a standardised evaluation of multiple leadership programs to establish a best practice

style of teaching the material; and (c) An evaluation of alumni of leadership programs to see how the

leadership programs have affected their lives. These areas are addressed in the current study.

Component a and b will be answered through the document analysis of youth leadership

development programs and interviews with key informants in research question one and two.

Component c will be answered through structured interviews with university student leaders who

have recently graduated secondary college.

Dial (2006) notes that quantitative studies researching variable relationships have become the sole

focus of leadership program studies and there is regrettably a lack of scholars addressing the issues

of the development of leadership ability. Without a sound base of knowledge about what is being

taught in youth leadership development programs, quantitative studies can only reveal a surface

understanding of students leadership ability, for a deeper understanding of the phenomena a

qualitative study is needed to add richness and context for the quantitative studies (Dial, 2006). As

stated by Cress et al. (2001) each leadership development program impacts students differently.

Cress et al. (2001) believe that using qualitative studies will identify the components that make

leadership programs successful as well as identify why students choose certain leadership programs

and their motivations to do so.

The sample used to evaluate and comment on youth leadership development programs in previous

studies have only taken into account adult opinions and their views on youth leadership

development programs, not the students (Dempster & Lizzio, 2007). In order to be a more reflective

study, youth opinion should be at the forefront of the sample and their ideas and needs of a

leadership program should be addressed. Therefore this study will have a strong focus on youth

opinion in relation to youth leadership development programs.


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Methodology


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CHAPTER THREE - METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the research methodology employed in this study. The chapter is broken up

into the rationale for adopting a mixed methods approach, the four methods of data collection used

in the study and the instruments utilised to analyse the data. Finally, the sample selection, data

collection and data analysis concludes the chapter.

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

Research has been defined as the process of investigation for knowledge which can be carried out

on any subject in any given situation (Graziano & Raulin, 1993). The research design is the blueprint

for the study creating a logical sequence that connects the empirical data to a studys initial

research questions and, ultimately, to its conclusions (Yin, 2009, p. 26). Consideration must be

taken in selecting the right research design in order to answer the studys research questions

(Tharenou, Donohue, & Cooper, 2007). As was discussed in Chapter Two, the study of leadership has

been explored both quantitatively and qualitatively. Given that leadership is a complex and broad

phenomenon it is necessary to address it using quantitative and qualitative methods.

Quantitative research assesses truth from observed behaviours and quantifies these observations

(Friedman, 1999; Holland & Skinner, 1961; Pernice, 1996). Quantitative research is employed to test

theories or hypotheses by examining the relationships between different variables. As quantitative

research is centralised around numerical data, the variables are typically measured on instruments

so the results can be analysed using statistical procedures (Creswell, 2009). Quantitative research

has two distinct advantages over qualitative research. First, as quantitative research is traditionally

taken from a random sample, the results are generalisable to the greater population. Second, if

sound measures are employed, the results are statistically reliable, that is, they can reliably establish

if one variable is better than the alternative. However, only the variables that are known prior to the


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research can be tested for in the measure (Nykiel, 2006). Therefore, quantitative research is

employed to test and evaluate a phenomenon, not to discover it. In behavioural science research

such as leadership, reservations have been made in regards to using solely quantitative methods,

therefore qualitative research was also addressed and included in this study (Dial, 2006; Yukl, 1989).

Qualitative research is philosophically underpinned by humanistic, phenomenological and

existential paradigms (Pernice, 1996, p. 339). It is the process of understanding the unique

humanistic perspective of a given phenomena and interpreting this understanding to create a

holistic picture within the naturalistic setting (Creswell, 2009; Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). Zikmund

(1997) argues that qualitative research is used to: provide a detailed study of how, what, when and

where; identify the relationship amongst individuals or entities; and assist in the development of

future research questions surrounding the phenomena. Qualitative research has been criticised as it

is subjective in nature, as the researcher needs to interpret the data presented to them, their

personal bias from previous understandings will play a part in their interpretation (Creswell, 2007).

However, as argued by May (2001) this is true of all social science research as personal experiences

determine how we interpret a phenomena.

Traditionally, a gulf has existed between quantitative and qualitative research (Brannen, 1995).

However, as both paradigms of research have been heavily utilised in leadership studies there is a

strong argument for the use of a mixed methods approach. A mixed methods design combines both

qualitative and quantitative methods into a single study (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). As

explained by Creswell and Plano Clark (2007, p. 5),

Mixed methods research is a research design with philosophical assumptions as well

as methods of inquiry. As a methodology, it involves philosophical assumptions that

guide the direction of the collection and the analysis of data and the mixture of

qualitative and quantitative data. As a method, it focuses on collecting, analysing,

and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or series of

studies.


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Combining qualitative and quantitative methods allows a researcher to collect a richer and stronger

array of evidence than can be accomplished by any single method alone (Yin, 2009, p. 63).

3.2 SOURCES OF EVIDENCE

There were four sources of evidence utilised in this study, document analysis, semi-structured

interviews, structured interviews and surveys. By employing these four sources of evidence within

the study the research achieved triangulation. Triangulation has origins in multiple operationism,

which suggests that by utilising more than one data collection method, the validity and reliability of

the study will be enhanced (Bryman, 1995). This concept was originally formulated on the basis that

research has higher validity with multiple imperfect methods than a solitary imperfect method, as

the strengths of one method help counteract the weaknesses of another (Campbell & Overman,

1988). The sources used in this study are described below.

3.2.1 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS

Document analysis can be used in most qualitative research and can incorporate private and public

documents such as written reports, programs, personal notes, proposals and curriculums (Tharenou

et al., 2007; Yin, 2009). It can provide unobtrusive, stable and broad information, giving the

researcher insight into the subjects culture without being submerged in the subjects environment

(Yin, 2009). Further, document analysis needs very little transcription and unlocks a wealth of

qualitative and quantitative information on the subject (Lee, 1999; Tharenou et al., 2007). However,

there has been substantial criticism over the use of document analysis in research. First, the

availability of private documents needed for the research are not always readily available (Tharenou

et al., 2007). The reverse can also occur, in that the internet provides a saturation of available

documents therefore discovering relevant documents becomes time-consuming and tedious (Yin,

2009). Finally, problems in the authenticity and reliability of the documents may result in a false

representation of the subject in question (Cooper & Schindler, 2003; Forster, 1994). Due to these


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limitations, there is much criticism of over-relying on document analysis as the primary source of

evidence in research (Yin, 2009). In order to counteract these limitations, document analysis must be

used in conjunction with other sources of evidence (Alves, 1984).

3.2.2. INTERVIEWS

Interviews are used to understand an individuals perspective of the measured phenomena (Yin,

2009). There were two types of interviews conducted in the research, semi-structured and

structured.

STRUCTURED

Structured interviews were undertaken in the form of questionnaires. This is consistent with Lees

(1999) interpretation that they are essentially similar, as one is administered verbally and the other

is self-administered. A questionnaire is comprised of a self-administered set of standardised

questions, in which each participant is asked the same set of questions in the absence of the

researcher (Mitchell & Jolley, 2004; Seidman, 2006). Questionnaires are readily used as they allow

the researcher to measure preferences, attitudes and values in an unobtrusive environment which is

inexpensive and easy to use (Moorman & Podsakoff, 1992). However, questionnaires have been

criticised due to respondents answering in a socially desirable way, the questionnaires lack of

flexibility and the questionnaires inability to understand the context in which the answer is given

(Tharenou et al., 2007). As the questionnaires are self-administered they usually have a low

response rate (Mitchell & Jolley, 2004). Further, without the researcher present, questions may be

misinterpreted or false responses given (Foddy, 1993). In order to counteract the limitations of

questionnaires, they must be used in conjunction with other sources of evidence (Yin, 2009).

SEMI-STRUCTURED

Semi-structured interviews lie at the midpoint of the structured/unstructured continuum allowing

the researcher more flexibility than the structured interview, but more direction than the


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unstructured interview (Lee, 1999; Tharenou et al., 2007). Using a semi-structured design allows the

researcher to pursue a particular line of questioning or uncover further information based upon the

participants responses (Lee, 1999). Within this study it is necessary to understand the participants

feelings and perceptions on each question and have the flexibility to further explore the answers,

therefore it was essential to use semi-structured interviews (Bryman & Bell, 2007; Lee, 1999).

There are considerations that must be taken into account when interpreting the data obtained in

semi-structured interviews. First, the interview participants may be subject to poor recall of

information, poor articulation of their responses and biased towards a particular side of the

phenomena (Yin, 2009). Second, the time constraints imposed by using semi-structured interviews,

i.e. transcribing and face-to-face meetings with participants, may influence the sample size used

within the study (Sutcliffe, 1991; Zyzanski, McWhinney, Blake, Crabtree, & Miller, 1992). As with

document analysis, to minimise these limitations interviews must be used in conjunction with other

sources of evidence (Yin, 2009).

3.2.3 SURVEYS

Through the use of a survey, a study aims to measure the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of a

sample population (Mitchell & Jolley, 2004). A survey can be used under certain circumstances

including testing a theoretical framework, hypothesis or research questions, sampling large

populations, understanding the effect of independent variables on dependant variables, and

examining the relationship between two or more variables (Tharenou et al., 2007).

It is advantageous to use survey research as it is conducted in a naturalistic setting, is unobtrusive

and involves little bias from the researcher (Mitchell, 1985). Further, data from large samples of the

population can be collected in a short period of time and be rather inexpensive (Mitchell & Jolley,

2004). However, the survey may be limited if it uses unreliable measures, poor sampling, data

collected at one single point of time and if it uses an inadequate sample size (Mitchell, 1985). This


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results in problems with construct, external and internal validity (Mitchell & Jolley, 2004). However,

when used in conjunction with qualitative sources of evidence it provides vital numeric evidence for

the research (Yin, 2009).

3.3 INSTRUMENTATION

To gain a holistic view of servant leadership and its application within youth leadership

development, both qualitative and quantitative measures must be undertaken. Sendjaya et al.s

(2008) model of servant leadership is used in both its quantitative form, through the SLBS, and its

qualitative form of servant leadership themes.

3.3.1 SERVANT LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURAL SCALE

Sendjaya et al.s (2008) SLBS is used in the current study as the measure to examine the servant

leadership behaviours of recent secondary college graduates (a copy of which can be located in

Appendix 1).

The SLBS was designed by Sendjaya et al. (2008) as a multidimensional scale which reflects the

underlying human dimensions of servant leadership. The measure incorporates moralistic and

spiritual dimensions that are absent in other servant leadership measures, whilst still having a strong

base in service. It has 35 items measured on a 5-point Likert scale. The original measure was created

for employees to rate their direct supervisor on the servant leadership behaviours they exhibit. The

survey was adapted in this study to become a self-reporting scale based upon an individuals typical

interaction with others. The internal consistency reliability from the original study ranged from 0.72

to 0.93, exceeding the recommended level of 0.70 (Nunnally, 1967; Sendjaya et al., 2008).


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3.3.2 SERVANT LEADERSHIP THEMES

The themes that underpin the dimensions of Sendjaya et al.s (2008) servant leadership framework

is used as a template to code the data obtained from youth leadership development programs and

interviews. The 22 themes were confirmed in the original study using a comprehensive review of the

literature and interviews (see Table 1).

Table 1

Themes in servant leadership

Dimension Theme

Voluntary Subordination Being a servant

Acts of service

Authentic Self Humility

Integrity

Accountability

Security

Vulnerability

Covenantal Relationship Acceptance

Availability

Equality

Collaboration

Responsible Morality Moral actions

Moral reasoning

Transcendental Spirituality Religiousness

Interconnectedness

Sense of mission

Wholeness

Transforming Influence Vision

Modelling

Mentoring

Trust

Empowerment

Source: Sendjaya et al. (2008)

3.4 PROCEDURES

The procedure for this study can be divided into four steps: sampling, data collection, data analysis

and ethical considerations.


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3.4.1 SAMPLING

There were two distinct methods of sampling used within this study, namely probability sampling

and non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling is conducted when each member of the population has an equal chance of

being selected to be part of the study. Using a probability method of sampling gives the results

greater external validity than non-probability sampling (Tharenou et al., 2007). There are three main

types of probability sampling: simple random sampling, where each member of the population is

selected by chance; systematic sampling, where the researcher selects every nth case in the

sampling frame; and stratified sampling, where the population is separated into subgroups (e.g.

gender or organisational type) and are then selected randomly from each subgroup (Tharenou et al.,

2007).

For the purposes of the document analysis, stratified sampling was chosen. The population in

question, Australian secondary colleges, were divided using two factors, location (state) and

secondary college type (government or non-government). Secondary colleges were selected at

random using the ratios of secondary colleges per state provided by the Australian Bureau of

Statistics (2006).

Non-probability sampling is conducted when a researcher is unaware of the probability of any

particular case being selected as part of the study. Non-probability sampling allows the researcher

the ability to select respondents on their ability to give unique insight into the phenomena (Crabtree

& Miller, 1999). There are four main methods of non-probability sampling: convenience sampling,

where participants are selected on their availability; quota sampling, where sampling continues until

a pre-judged quota is achieved; judgement (purposeful) sampling, where participants are selected

due to their desired characteristics; and snowball sampling, where the initial participants identify

other people who fit within the scope of the study (Tharenou et al., 2007).


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For the purposes of interviews and surveys, judgement (purposeful) sampling was chosen. Using

judgement (purposeful) sampling is preferred to ensure the population sampled is able to provide

meaningful data relating to the phenomena (Cooper & Schindler, 2003; Mays & Pope, 1995). The

characteristics desired for the survey population are recent secondary college graduates aged 18-21

who are enrolled in university and reside at a residential university college. The population was

chosen as they have recent experiences in secondary college youth leadership development

programs. The questionnaire population is taken from the same sample as the survey, but select

individuals who currently hold a leadership position within their university or college were chosen.

These university student leaders were chosen as they had more experience with leadership

development than the other participants. Finally, the interviews require participants to be familiar

with youth leadership development programs so a selection of youth leadership practitioners and

secondary college teachers was undertaken. These individuals were selected as they are considered

to have sufficient, in-depth knowledge of the process of youth leadership development, the benefits

associated, and relationships with students who are part of youth leadership development

programs.

3.4.2 DATA COLLECTION

There are two major a

Documents

Out of the boardroom and into the classroom: Servant leadership in youth leadership development