Our Differences

8/13/2019 Our Differences

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Georgi Plekhanov

Our Differences(1885)

Originally published in early 1885.[1]This version from G. Plekhanov,Selected Philosophical works, ol.1, !os"o# n.d., pp.1$$%&''.
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(e))er )o P.(. (avrov*+n (ieu of Prefa"e

+n)rodu")ion1. -ha) re -e /eproa"hed -i)h$. Posing )he 0ues)ion&. .+. er2en3. 4.G. hernyshevsky5. !. . 6akunin7. P.4. Tka"hov

. /esul)s

Chapter I 9e# /eferen"es )o is)ory

1. /ussian 6lan:uism$. (. Tikhomirov&. The ;man"ip)ion of (abour Group3. (. Tikhomirov in )he 6a))le gains))he ;man"ipa)ion of (abour Group5. The is)ori"al /ole of api)alism7.The ei2ure of Po#er@

&. Probable onse:uen"es of a ?Popular@ /evolu)ion3. (. Tikhomirov -avers 6e)#een 6lan:uism and 6akuninism
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5. Probable onse:uen"es of )he >ei2ure of Po#er by )he >o"ialis)s

Chapter V True Tasks of )he >o"ialis)s in /ussia1. >o"ial%


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1. The bookOur Differences #as #ri))en by Plekhanov in )he summer of 1883 and published a) )he beginning of 1885 in )he )hird volume of )he Library of Modern Socialism . +) #as )he se"ond big)heore)i"al #ork of )he ;man"ipa)ion of (abour group, follo#ingSocialis and the PoliticalStruggle. The signifi"an"e of )his #ork #as ra)ed very high by ;ngels in his le))er of pril $&, 1885,)o era Aasuli"h. * f.!orrespondence of "ar# and $ngels with %ussian Political &igures, /uss.ed., 1'51, pp.&B8%11.

n in)eres)ing rea")ion )o )he publi"a)ion ofOur Differences #as a le))er of )he Pe)ersburg #orkers=group "alled 6lagoyev)si *af)er 6lagoyev , one of )he firs) >o"ial%


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/etter to P-/- /avrov(.n /ieu of Preface)


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)he ?;man"ipa)ors of (abour@ as su"h, i.e., for people #ho have no) ye) "omple)ed )he "y"le of )heir)ransforma)ions and are no# some)hing like 4arodnaya olya larvae or pupae.

>u"h, dear Pyo)r (avrovi"h, is )he almos) #ord%for%#ord "on)en) of all )ha) you said abou) my pamphle). Perhaps + have #earied you #i)h my abundan"e of :uo)a)ions from your o#n ar)i"le, bu), on)he one hand, + #as afraid + #ould again re"eive )he reproa"h )ha) my ?:uo)a)ions are no) eDa")@, and, besides, + did no) "onsider i) superfluous )o re"all your #ords in full )o )he reader, so as )o make i)easier for him )o pronoun"e )he final verdi") in our "ase. Eou kno# )ha) )he reading publi" is )he "hiefand supreme udge in all dispu)es #hi"h arise in )he free ?republi" of spee"h@. +) is, )herefore, no)surprising )ha) ea"h of )he par)ies mus) )ake all s)eps )o make )he )rue "hara")er of )he :ues)ion underdispu)e "lear )o )he publi".

f)er se))ing for)h your remarks on my pamphle) and your "onsidera)ions on )he )a")i"s adop)ed by )he;man"ipa)ion of (abour group )o#ards )he ?4arodnaya olya par)y@, + no# go on, dear Pyo)r(avrovi"h, )o eDplana)ions #i)hou) #hi"h i) is impossible )o unders)and "orre")ly )he mo)ives #hi"h promp)ed my "omrades and me )o a") pre"isely in )his #ay and no o)her.

")ually, + "ould say )ha) all )alk of su"h mo)ives is "omple)ely unne"essary, and )he reader may find i)of very li))le in)eres). o# soJ +s no) )he :ues)ion of )he immedia)e )asks, )he )a")i"s and )he s"ien)ifi"subs)an)ia)ion of all our revolu)ionaries= a")ivi)y )he mos) impor)an) and mos) vi)al :ues)ion in /ussianlife for usJ an i) be regarded as already se))led finally and #i)hou) appealJ +s no) every revolu)ionary#ri)er obliged )o promo)e i)s "larifi"a)ion by all means a) his disposal and #i)h all )he a))en)ion he is"apable ofJ Or "an )his "larifi"a)ion be "onsidered useful only if i) resul)s in )he "onvi")ion )ha)al)hough )he /ussian revolu)ionaries have no) )he pope=s infallibili)y, )hey have no) made a singlemis)ake in )heir pra")i"al #ork or a single error in )heir )heore)i"al argumen)s, )ha) ?all is #ell@ in bo)h)hese respe")sJ Or mus) )hose #ho do no) share )ha) pleasan) "onfiden"e be "ondemned )o silen"e, andmay )he puri)y of )heir in)en)ions be suspe")ed every )ime )hey )ake up )heir pen )o "all )herevolu)ionaries= a))en)ion )o )he #ay )he revolu)ionary "ause is being "ondu")ed, and ho#, as far as)hey "an udge, i) should be "ondu")edJ +f >pino2a said as early as in )he seven)een)h "en)ury )ha) in afree s)a)e everybody mus) be gran)ed )he righ) )o )hink as he pleases and say #ha) he )hinks, may )ha)righ) be pla"ed in doub) a) )he end of )he nine)een)h "en)ury by members of a so"ialis) par)y, if even of)he mos) ba"k#ard s)a)e in ;uropeJ +f )he /ussian so"ialis)s re"ognise in prin"iple )he righ) of freespee"h and in"lude )he demand for i) in )heir programmes, )hey "anno) res)ri") i)senjoyment )o )hegroup or ?par)y@ #hi"h "laims hegemony in a par)i"ular period of )he revolu)ionary movemen). + )hink)ha) no#, #hen our legal li)era)ure is perse"u)ed mos) ru)hlessly, #hen in our fa)herland ?all )ha) isliving and hones) is mo#n do#n@[$F] in )he field of )hough) as in all o)hers I + )hink )ha) a) su"h a)ime a revolu)ionary #ri)er should ra)her be asked )he reason for his silence )han for )he fact of the

publication of one or o)her of his #orks. +f you agree #i)h )his I and you "an hardly fail )o I you #illalso agree )ha) one "anno) "ondemn )o hypo"risy a revolu)ionary #ri)er #ho, as er2en splendidly pu)s i), mus) sa"rifi"e very, very mu"h )o ?)he human digni)y of free spee"h@. nd if )ha) also is )rue,"an he be "ensured if he says in plain )erms and #i)hou) any reserva)ion #ha) he )hinks of any of )he programmes of revolu)ionary a")ivi)yJ + am sure, dear Pyo)r (avrovi"h, )ha) you #ill ans#er )ha):ues)ion in )he nega)ive. 9or )ha) + have one guaran)ee, among o)hers, in your having signed )he

Announcement of the Publication of Vestnik Narodnoi Voli , page +++ of #hi"h )ells usC

?>o"ialism, like every o)her vi)al his)ori"al idea, gives rise )o numerous, )hough no) par)i"ularlysubs)an)ial, differen"es among i)s suppor)ers, and many :ues)ions in i), bo)h )heore)i"al and pra")i"al,remain dispu)able. O#ing )o )he grea)er in)ri"a"y, )he grea)er diffi"ul)ies and )he grea)er re"en"y of )hedevelopmen) of /ussian so"ialism, )here is perhaps a s)ill larger number of more or less "onsiderabledifferen"es in )he vie#s of /ussian so"ialis)s. 6u), #e repea), )his us) goes )o sho# )ha) )he /ussian
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so"ialis) par)y is a living one #hi"h s)imula)es energe)i" )hough) and firm "onvi")ions among i)ssuppor)ers, a par)y #hi"h has no) "on)en)ed i)self #i)h dogma)i" belief in formulae learned by ro)e.@

+ do no) unders)and ho# an edi)or #ho signed )ha) announ"emen) "an be dissa)isfied a) )he #ri)ings ofa group #hose differen"es #i)h 4arodnaya olya he "onsiders ?no) par)i"ularly subs)an)ial@ *estnikNarodnoi oli 4o.$, se")ion ++, page 75, line 1B from bo))om H + "anno) imagine )ha) )he ournal#hi"h published )ha) announ"emen) "an be hos)ile )o people #ho ?have no) "on)en)ed )hemselves #i)hdogma)i" belief in formulae learned by ro)e.@ 9or one "anno) en)er)ain )he )hough) )ha) )he lines + have:uo)ed #ere #ri))en merely )o eDplain )o )he reader #hy ?)he programme pu) for#ard byestnikNarodnoi oli embra"es vie#s #hi"h are )o a "er)ain eD)en) no) iden)i"al #i)h one ano)her@* Announcement of the Publication of Vestnik Narodnoi Voli , p. ++ . 4or "an one presume )ha) af)erse))ing i)self su"h a ?defini)e programme@estnik #ill see a vi)al signifi"an"e in )he ?more or less"onsiderable differen"es be)#een )he /ussian so"ialis)s@ only if )hey ?do no) go beyond )he limi)s@ of)ha) programme, #hi"h ?embra"es vie#s #hi"h are )o a "er)ain eD)en) no) iden)i"al #i)h one ano)her.@Tha) #ould mean being )oleran) only )o members of one=s o#n "hur"h, admi))ing #i)h >h"hedrin=s"hara")ers )ha) opposi)ion is harmless only if i) does no harm. >u"h liberalism, su"h )oleran"e, #ouldno) be of grea) "omfor) )o /ussian ?non"onformis)@ [&F] so"ialis)s, of #hom )here are apparen)ly nofe# no# sin"e you speak yourself in your ar)i"le of ?groupswhich "onsider a "on)roversy #i)h 4arodnaya olya more )imely@, e)". 9rom )hese #ords i) is obvious )ha) )here are a) leas) )#o su"hgroups and )ha) estnik , ?#hi"h in)ends )o be )he organ of unifi"a)ion of all )he /ussian so"ialis)%revolu)ionaries@, is s)ill far from having a))ained i)s aim. + )hink )ha) su"h a failure should have#idened, no) narro#ed )he limi)s of )he inheren) )oleran"e of i)s edi)orial board.

Eou advise me no) ?)o disrup) )he organisa)ion@ of our revolu)ionary army. 6u) allo# me firs) of all )oin:uire #ha) ?so"ial army@ you are )alking abou). +f by )ha) me)aphor you mean )he organisa)ion of )he?4arodnaya olya par)y@, + never )hough) my pamphle) #ould have su"h des)ru")ive influen"e on i),and + am "onvin"ed )ha) )he firs) member of 4arodnaya olya )ha) you ask #ill pu) you a) ease on )ha)s"ore. 6u) if by ?disrup)ing )he organisa)ion of )he so"ial army@ you mean #inning )o our group people #ho for some reason or o)her are ou)side )he ?4arodnaya olya par)y@, )he ?organisa)ion of )heso"ial army@ only s)ands )o gain by )ha), for in i) )here #ill appear a ne# group, "omposed, so )ospeak, of ne# re"rui)s. 6esides, sin"e #hen has dis"ussion of )he pa)h follo#ed by )his or )ha) armyand )he eDpression of )he assuran"e )ha) )here is ano)her pa)h #hi"h #ill lead more surely and :ui"kly)o vi")ory been "onsidered as ?disrup)ion of )he organisa)ion of )ha) army@J + )hink su"h a "onfusion of"on"ep)s is possible only among )he barbarous hordes of )he sia)i" despo)i" s)a)es, bu) "er)ainly no)among )he armies of modern "ivilised s)a)es. 9or #ho is no) a#are )ha) "ri)i"ism of )he )a")i"s adop)ed by )his or )ha) army "an harm only )he mili)ary repu)a)ion of )ha) army=s generals, #ho are perhaps no)disin"lined )o ?lay )he finger of silen"e@ on indis"ree) mou)hs. 6u) #ha) has )ha) )o do #i)h )he

?organisa)ion of )he army@, and #ho, indeed, are i)s leadersJ Eou kno# )ha) su"h leaders "an be ei)herele")ed by )he rank and file or appoin)ed from above. (e) us agree for a minu)e )ha) )he ;De"u)iveommi))ee plays )he role of leader )o our revolu)ionary army. The :ues)ion isC are even )hose #ho did

no) )ake par) in i)s ele")ion obliged )o submi) )o i), or, if i) #as appoin)ed from above, #ho had )he po#er, and #ha) po#er, )o appoin) i)J

Eou in"lude )he ;man"ipa)ion of (abour group among )he ?groups of /ussian revolu)ionary so"ialism#hi"h "onsider a "on)roversy #i)h Narodnaya Volya more )imely for )hem )han )he s)ruggle agains))he /ussian Governmen) and )he o)her eDploi)ers of )he /ussian people.@ llo# me )o ask you #he)heryou )hink )ha) )he pe"uliari)ies of )he /ussian people and )he ?presen) his)ori"al momen)@ also in"lude)he "ir"ums)an"e )ha) )he s)ruggle ?agains) i)s eDploi)ers@ "an be #aged #i)hou) )he dissemina)ion of

)he ideas #hi"h eDpress )he meaning and )he )enden"y of )ha) s)ruggle. +s i) for me, a former ?rebel@[3F], )o prove )o you, a former edi)or of )he ournalper*od, )ha) )he gro#)h of )he revolu)ionary
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movemen) is in"on"eivable #i)hou) )he dissemina)ion of )he mos) progressive, )he soundes), in a #ord,)he mos) revolu)ionary ideas and "on"ep)s among )he appropria)e se")ion of so"ie)yJ re you one#hose a))en)ion mus) be dra#n )o )he "ir"ums)an"e )ha) so"ialism I ?as eDpressed@ in )he #orks of!arD and ;ngels I is )he mos) po#erful spiri)ual #eapon in )he s)ruggle agains) all possible eDploi)ersof )he peopleJ The dissemina)ion of #ha) )he #ri)ers us) named )augh) is pre"isely )he purpose of my"omrades, as is "learly s)a)ed in )he announ"emen) of )he publi"a)ion of )he Library of ModernSocialism . There "an be no doub) )ha) )he so"ialism of !arD=s s"hool differs in many respe")s from?/ussian so"ialism as eDpressed@ in our revolu)ionary movemen) as a #hole and in )he ?4arodnaya

olya par)y@ in par)i"ular, for ?/ussian so"ialism@ s)ill #ears a long 6akuninis) pig)ail do#n i)s ba"k.+) is also :ui)e na)ural and unders)andable )ha) /ussian !arDis)s are )herefore no) infre:uen)ly obliged)o adop) a nega)ive a))i)ude )o#ards "er)ain ?formulae learned by ro)e@, bu) i) by no means follo#sfrom )his )ha) )hey prefer )he s)ruggle agains) )he revolu)ionaries )o )he s)ruggle agains) )hegovernmen). +n estnik Narodnoi oli a "er)ain !r. Tarasov eDer)s himself )o refu)e one of )hefundamen)al proposi)ions of !arD=s his)ori"al )heory.[$] is ar)i"le is given )he firs) pla"e, )heforemos) "orner, so )o speak, in 4o.$ of estnik . [7F]


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+ do no) deny )ha) ?one par)@ of my pamphle) is "on)roversial, or )o be more eDa"), "ri)i"al. 6u) )he fa"))ha) a "on)roversy #i)h 4arodnaya olya #as no) )he eD"lusive aim even of )he par) in"rimina)ed isobvious if only from #ha) you, Pyo)r (avrovi"h, have overlooked, namely, )ha) my "ri)i"ism #as no)"onfined )o )he 4arodnaya olya period in )he /ussian revolu)ionary movemen). + also "ri)i"ised o)hers)ages in i). nd if, indeed, from )he fa") of my prin)ed and, moreover,motivated eDpression ofdisagreemen) #i)h one revolu)ionary programme or ano)her i) follo#s )ha) a "on)roversy agains) )ha) programme is )he main aim of my #ri)ing, )he a""usa)ion brough) agains) me should, in )he in)eres) of)ru)h, have been "onsiderably eD)ended. +) should have been said )ha) )he prin"ipal aim of my #ri)ing#as )o polemise #i)h )he anar"his)s, )he 6akuninis)s, )he 4arodniks of )he old )rend, )he members of 4arodnaya olya and, finally, )he ?!arDis)s@ #ho do no) unders)and )he signifi"an"e of )he poli)i"als)ruggle for )he eman"ipa)ion of )he prole)aria). !oreover, i) should also have been )aken in)o a""oun))ha) ?)he o)her par) of !r. Plekhanov=s pamphle) is devo)ed )o )he eDposi)ion and proof of )he philosophi"al and his)ori"al side of )he )ea"hing of !arD and ;ngels@. Then i) #ould have been "lear)ha) + #as guil)y of spreading )he revolu)ionary vie#s )ha) + share and of polemising #i)h )hose #hi"hseem )o me erroneous. 6u) )here is more )o i) )han )ha). "areful eDamina)ion of all )he "ir"ums)an"esof )he "ase #ould have revealed )ha) my "rime had been "ommi))ed ?#i)h pre%"onsidered in)en)@, sin"eas far ba"k as in )he Announcement of the Publication of the Library of Modern Socialism P. Delrodand + eDpressly s)a)ed )ha) )he purpose of )hose edi)ions boiled do#n )oC

1. The spreading of )he ideas of s"ien)ifi" so"ialism by )ransla)ing in)o /ussian )he mos)impor)an) #orks of )he s"hool of !arD and ;ngels and original #orks in)ended for readers #i)hvarious degrees of edu"a)ion.

$. The "ri)i"ism of )he )ea"hings prevalen) among our revolu)ionaries and )he elabora)ion of )hemos) impor)an) :ues)ions in /ussian so"ial life from )he s)andpoin) of s"ien)ifi" so"ialism and)he in)eres)s of )he #orking popula)ion of /ussia.

Tha) is )he )rue "hara")er of )he ?deed@ )ha) provoked your dissa)isfa")ion. To make even a singlereproa"h )o )he man #ho "ommi))ed i) one mus) firs) prove )ha) )here is no# no need for "ri)i"ism of)he programmes and )ea"hings prevalen) among us revolu)ionaries, or )ha) "ri)i"ism mus) be)ransformed, as 6elinsky on"e said I na)urally in ano)her "onne")ion I in)o ?a modes) servan) ofau)hori)y, a fla))ering repea)er of #orn%ou) "ommonpla"es@. 6u) + have already said )ha) )here is hardlya #ri)er #ho #ould under)ake )o suppor) su"h an unheard%of proposi)ion, and you, dear Pyo)r(avrovi"h, #ill "er)ainly on no a""oun) asser) )ha) i) is )ime for our revolu)ionary par)y )o ?"on)en)i)self #i)h dogma)i" belief in formulae learned by ro)e@. +f )ha) is so, )hen

o!u der Laerm"

o#ever, many people, al)hough )hey "anno) bring )hemselves )o deny "omple)ely )he signifi"an"e of"ri)i"ism in our revolu)ionary li)era)ure, apparen)ly )hink )ha) no) every person or individual group of persons has )he righ) )o "ri)i"ise )he )ea"hings and )a")i"s of an ?a")ive par)y@. >in"e my pamphle) #as published + have fre:uen)ly had )he o""asion )o hear remarks in )ha) vein. ?Par)y of a")ion@, ?)he)radi)ions of 4arodnaya olya@, ?heroi" s)ruggle@ I su"h have been )he phrases used )o disguise fearof )he sligh)es) referen"e )o ?formulae learned by ro)e@ of our revolu)ionary "a)e"hism. !y righ) )oeDpress disagreemen) #i)h )he ?4arodnaya olya par)y@, or ra)her #i)h i)s #ri)ings, has been"on)es)ed #i)h u))er disregard of #ho is righ) I )he publi"is)s of our ?par)y of a")ion@ or +. s + lis)ened)o )hese a))a"ks on my pamphle) + "ould no) help re"alling )he argumen) of )he ?6a"helor of>alaman"a@,


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? Mais# monsieur# mal$r% toutes les belles choses &ue vous vene! de me dire ,@ )his diale")i"ian said,?vous m'avouere! &ue votre %$lise an$licane# si respectable# n'e(istait pas avant dom Luther et avantdom )ccolampade* vous +tes tout nouveau(, donc vous n'+tes pas de la maison-. nd + #onder#he)her )he argumen)s furnished by )he grea) sa)iris) )o his bi))eres) enemies "an be used seriously by/ussian revolu)ionaries and #he)her )he "ari"a)ure of )he a)holi" ?ba"helor@ is )o be"ome )he perfe")image of /ussian revolu)ionary diale")i"ians. Eou #ill agree, dear Pyo)r (avrovi"h, )ha) )here isno)hing sadder )han su"h a prospe") and )ha) no anDie)y for )he in)egri)y of )he ? organisa)ion@ meansany)hing a) all in "omparison #i)h fear of )he possibili)y of su"h )errible in)elle")ual degenera)ionL

+) is in )he in)eres)s of 4arodnaya olya )o "oun)era") as resolu)ely as possible )he degenera)ion of ourrevolu)ionary li)era)ure in)o revolu)ionary s"holas)i"ism. nd ye), your ar)i"le, my dear Pyo)r(avrovi"h, is more likely )o main)ain )han )o #eaken )he 2eal of our revolu)ionary ?ba"helors@. The"onvi")ion eDpressed by you )ha) ?)o disrup) )he organisa)ion@ of )he revolu)ionary army ?is permissible only ei)her )o )he enemies of )ha) army=scause ... or )o a group #hi"h by i)s o#n a")ivi)y,i)s o#n s)reng)h and organisa)ion, is "apable of be"oming a so"ial army a) a par)i"ular his)ori"alminu)e@, your poin)ing ou) )ha), as regards our group, ?)his role is a ma))er of a remo)e and perhapssome#ha) doub)ful fu)ure@ I all )his "an give grounds for )he "on"lusion )ha), in your opinion,al)hough our group ?may have i)s o#n vie# a) i)s age@[8F], i) mus) "arefully "on"eal i) every )ime i)"on)radi")s )he opinion of )he edi)ors of one or o)her of )he ?4arodnaya olya par)y@ periodi"als. Of"ourse i) #ould be #rong )o dra# su"h a "on"lusion from #ha) you #ro)e, bu) one mus) no) forge) )ha) people do no) al#ays udge by )he rules of s)ri") logi".

The very prin"iple you eDpress in )he lines us) :uo)ed "an give rise )o many unfor)una)emisunders)andings. Those lines "an be a "omple)ely ?un)imely@avis for non"onformis) readers, #hom)hey "an lead on )o approDima)ely )he follo#ing )hough)s. It is permissible for a group "apable of be"oming ?a so"ial army a) a par)i"ular his)ori"al minu)e@ )o ?disrup) )he organisa)ion@ of ourrevolu)ionary army. ll )he more i) is ?permissible@ for )he la))er, as a )ried and )es)ed for"e, ?)odisrup) )he organisa)ion@ of ?non"onformis)@ groups #hose hegemony i) "onsiders a ma))er of aremo)e and ?perhaps some#ha) doub)ful@ fu)ure. 6u) #hi"h revolu)ionary group do )he edi)ors of

estnik Narodnoi oli "onsider )o be a ?so"ial army@J Probably )he ?4arodnaya olya par)y@. Tha)means I bu) )he "on"lusion is "lear, and i) is an eD)remely sad "on"lusion for groups #hi"h havehi)her)o )aken for gran)ed, as #e have, )ha) )he ou)looks of o)hers may be "ri)i"ised bu) )ha) )heorganisa)ions of o)hers mus) no) be ?disrup)ed@ and )ha) i) is be))er )o advan"e ?alongside of )hem,

supportin$ and supplementin$ one another .@[3]

Our group=s fu)ure seems doub)ful )o you. + am prepared )o doub) of i) myself as far as our groupi)self, no) )he ou)looks #hi"h i) represen)s, is "on"erned.[5]

The fa") of )he ma))er is as follo#s.

+) is no se"re) )o anybody )ha) our revolu)ionary movemen) is no# going )hrough a "ri)i"al period. 4arodnaya olya=s )erroris) )a")i"s se) our par)y :ui)e a number of highly impor)an) and vi)al problems. 6u) unfor)una)ely )hese problems are s)ill unsolved. The s)o"k of 6akuninis) andProudhonis) )heories )ha) #ere in use among us proved insuffi"ien) even for )he "orre") posin$ of )hose:ues)ions. The s)i"k )ha) #as previously ben) over in one dire")ion has no# been ben) ba"k in )heo)her. The former "omple)ely un us)ified re e")ion of ?poli)i"s@ has no# given pla"e )o a no more us)ified "onfiden"e in )he omnipo)en"e of "onspira)orial ?poli)i"al s"heming@. The Pe)ersburg 4arodnaya olya programme #as 6akuninism )urned upside%do#n #i)h i)s >lavophile "on)ras)ing of/ussia )o )he -es), i)s idealisa)ion of )he primi)ive forms of na)ional life and i)s fai)h in )he so"ial#onder%#orking of our in)elligen)sia=s revolu)ionary organisa)ions. The )heore)i"al prin"iples from
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#hi"h )he programme depar)s have remained un"hanged, )he pra")i"al "on"lusions alone beingdiame)ri"ally opposed )o )he former ones. /enoun"ing poli)i"al abs)en)ion, 6akuninism has des"ribedan ar" of 18B degrees and has been revived as a /ussian varie)y of 6lan:uism basing i)s revolu)ionaryhopes on /ussia=s e"onomi" ba"k#ardness.

This 6lan:uism is no# a))emp)ing )o "rea)e i)s o#n par)i"ular )heory and has re"en)ly been fairly fullyeDpressed in !r. Tikhomirov=s ar)i"le hat Can e )(pect from the /evolution" [1BF] +n )ha) ar)i"lehe makes use of )he #hole arsenal of )he /ussian 6lan:uis)s )o defend his o#n programme. One"anno) deny !r. Tikhomirov=s abili)y )o use )he #eaponC he skilfully marshals )he fa")s in his favour,"arefully avoids any "on)radi")ory phenomena and appeals, no) #i)hou) su""ess, )o )he reader=sfeelings #hen he has no hope of influen"ing his logi". is #eapon has been renova)ed, "leaned andsharpened. 6u) if you eDamine i) more a))en)ively you #ill see )ha) i) is no)hing bu) )he old%fashioneds#ord of 6akuninism and Tka"hovism[11F] embellished #i)h a ne# )rade%mark, )ha) of . . [1$F],an eDper) in rea")ionary )heories in Pe)ersburg. 6elo# + shall give a fe# eD)ra")s from P.4. Tka"hov=s0pen Letter to 1rederic2 )n$els , and you #ill see for yourself, dear Pyo)r (avrovi"h, )ha) your"omrade is only repea)ing #ha) #as said )en years ago by )he edi)or ofNa0at and #ha) dre# a sharpans#er from ;ngels in a pamphle) no) unkno#n )o you,So iales aus %ussland. ave )en years of )hemovemen) )augh) our #ri)ers no)hing be))erJ "ep)i"ism is "oming in)o i)s o#n. 4arodnaya

olya is losing i)s former fas"ina)ion. The period of more )han )hree years )ha) has elapsed sin"e )heeven) of !ar"h 1 [1&F] has been "hara")erised by a fall of revolu)ionary energy in /ussia. This sadfa") "anno) be dispu)ed. 6u) i) seems )o me )ha) a grea) many people offer )oo superfi"ial aneDplana)ion of i). They say )ha) our movemen) has #eakened under )he impa") of perse"u)ion by )hegovernmen). + have )oo mu"h fai)h in )he ?)imeliness@ of )he /ussian revolu)ion )o be sa)isfied #i)hsu"h a ha"kneyed eDplana)ion. + )hink )ha) )he /ussian revolu)ion has an enormous, invin"ible po)en)ial energy, and )ha) rea")ion is raising i)s head only be"ause #e are unable )o )ransform )ha)energy from po)en)ial in)o kine)i". /ussia=s so"ial )asks )oday "anno) find a sa)isfa")ory solu)ion in )he)radi)ional "onspira)orial programme of 6lan:uism. (i))le by li))le )ha) ha"kneyed programme #ill be"ome )he Pro"rus)ean bed of )he /ussian revolu)ion. One by one all )he me)hods of a")ion, all )heelemen)s of )he movemen) #hi"h have been i)s s)reng)h and )he "ondi)ions of i)s influen"e, #ill be

sa"rifi"ed )o i)s spe")ral and fan)as)i" aims. The )erroris) s)ruggle, agi)a)ion among )he people and inso"ie)y and )he rousing and developmen) of popular ini)ia)ive are all only of se"ondary impor)an"e for)he 6lan:uis). is a))en)ion is "en)red firs) and foremos) on "onspira"y aimed a) sei2ing po#er. edoes no) bo)her abou) )he developmen) of )he so"ial for"es or )he es)ablishmen) of ins)i)u)ions"al"ula)ed )o make a re)urn )o )he old regime impossible. ll he endeavours )o do is )o "ombine )healready eDis)ing for"es of so"ie)y. e has no regard for his)ory, does no) )ry )o unders)and i)s la#s or )odire") his revolu)ionary a")ivi)y in a""ordan"e #i)h )hemH he simply subs)i)u)es his o#n "onspira)orialskill for his)ory.[7] nd as )he gro#)h of )he revolu)ionary for"es in /ussia is far from being"omple)e, as )hose for"es are s)ill in )he pro"essdes erdens , )his violen) arres)ing of )heirdevelopmen) is bound )o have very harmful "onse:uen"es and )o make rea")ion more se"ure ins)ead of promo)ing )he "ause of progress. +n )his "ase, one of )#o )hings may happen. ;i)her )he fu)ure of )he

/ussian revolu)ion #ill be pla"ed a) s)ake in a plo) #hi"h has less "han"es of su""ess )han any o)her I)he ? social3revolutionary @ plo) I or a ne# for"e #ill emerge ou) of )he #omb of opposi)ional and
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revolu)ionary /ussia, a for"e #hi"h #ill push )he ?4arodnaya olya par)y@ in)o )he ba"kground and)ake )he "ause of our movemen) in i)s o#n hands.

+) #ould be very disadvan)ageous for )he so"ialis)s if )he leadership in )he s)ruggle #ere )o pass in)o)he hands of our liberals. This #ould a) on"e deprive )hem of )heir former influen"e and pos)pone formany years )he forma)ion of a so"ialis) par)y among )he progressive s)ra)a of )he people. Tha) is #hy#e refer our revolu)ionary you)h )o !arDism, )ha) algebra of )he revolu)ion, as + "alled i) in my pamphle), )ha) ?programme@ #hi"h )ea"hes i)s suppor)ers )o make use of every s)ep in so"ialdevelopmen) for )he revolu)ionary edu"a)ion of )he #orking "lass. nd + am sure )ha) sooner or la)erour you)h and our #orkers= groups #ill adop) )his, )he only revolu)ionary programme. In this sense ,)he ?fu)ure@ of our group is by no means ?doub)ful@, and + do no) unders)and #here you ge) yours"ep)i"ism from in )his "ase I you, a #ri)er #ho, as re"en)ly as in )he same 4o.$ ofestnik , "alled!arD ?)he grea) )ea"her #ho ushered so"ialism in)o i)s s"ien)ifi" phase, proved i)s his)ori"al legi)ima"yand a) )he same )ime ini)ia)ed )he organisa)ional uni)y of )he #orkers= revolu)ionary par)y@.[15F] 9orone "anno) profess )he )heore)i"al prin"iples of )he ?grea) )ea"her@ and dedu"e 6akuninism or6lan:uism from )hem in pra")i"e.

+ repea) )ha) )he mos) "onsis)en) !arDis)s may disagree in )he appraisal of )he presen) /ussiansi)ua)ion. Tha) is #hy #e in no "ase #ish )o "over our programme #i)h )he au)hori)y of a grea) name.[ ] nd moreover, #e are ready )o admi) in advan"e )ha) our programme "on)ains many?shor)"omings and unpra")i"al )hings@, like any firs) a))emp) a) applying a par)i"ular s"ien)ifi" )heory)o )he analysis of very "ompli"a)ed and en)angled so"ial rela)ions. 6u) )he fa") is )ha) so far nei)her my"omrades nor + have a finally elabora)ed programme, "omple)e from )he firs) paragraph )o )he las).[17F] -e only sho# our "omrades )he direction in #hi"h )he ans#er )o )he revolu)ionary problemsin)eres)ing )hem is )o be sough)H #e only defend )he reliable and unmis)aken "ri)erion #i)h )he help of#hi"h )hey #ill finally be able )o s)rip off )hemselves )he rags of )he revolu)ionary me)aphysi"s #hi"hhas so far held undivided s#ay over our mindsH #e only prove )ha) ?our revolu)ionary movemen), farfrom losing any)hing, #ill gain a lo) if )he /ussian 4arodniks and )he /ussian 4arodnaya olya a) las) be"ome /ussian !arDis)s and a ne#, higher s)andpoin) re"on"iles all )he groups eDis)ing among us@.[8] Our programme has s)ill )o be "omple)ed and "omple)ed )here, on )he spo), by )hose same groupsof #orkers and revolu)ionary you)h #ho #ill figh) for i)s fulfilmen). orre")ions, addi)ions andimprovemen)s )o )his programme are :ui)e na)ural, inevi)able and indispensable. -e are no) afraid of"ri)i"ism, #e #ai) for i) impa)ien)ly and #ill na)urally no) s)op our ears )o i) like 9amusov.[1 F] +n presen)ing )his firs) a))emp) a) a programme for )he /ussian !arDis)s )o )he "omrades #orking in/ussia, #e are far from #ishing )o "ompe)e #i)h 4arodnaya olyaH on )he "on)rary, )here is no)hing#e desire more )han full and final agreemen) #i)h )ha) par)y. -e )hink )ha) )he 4arodnaya olya par)ymust be"ome a !arDis) par)y if i) a) all #ishes )o remain fai)hful )o i)s revolu)ionary )radi)ions and )o

ge) )he /ussian movemen) ou) of i)s presen) s)agna)ion.-hen + speak of )he revolu)ionary )radi)ions of 4arodnaya olya + have in mind no) only )he )erroris)s)ruggle, no) only )he poli)i"al murders and a))emp)ed murdersH + mean )he broadening of )he "hannelof )he /ussian movemen) #hi"h #as )he ne"essary "onse:uen"e of )ha) s)ruggle and #hi"h sho#ed usho# narro#, abs)ra"), and one%sided #ere )he )heories #e professed a) )ha) )ime.


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same )ime avoid )he reefs of fa)al one%sidednessH ho#, #hile u)ilising )he progressive aspe")s of )hema)uring liberal revolu)ion, )hey "an never)heless remain perfe")ly loyal )o )he "ause of )he #orking"lass and of so"ialism. 6eing "omple)ely free from any narro# se")arianism, #e #ish 4arodnaya

olya, no) failure, bu) fur)her su""ess, and if #e s)re)"h ou)only one hand )o i) for re"on"ilia)ion, )hereason is )ha) #i)h )he o)her #e sho# i) )he )heory of modern s"ien)ifi" so"ialism #i)h )he #ords, ? Inthis thou shalt con&uer-.

Mnfor)una)ely >pen"er is :ui)e righ) #hen he no)es )ha) every organisa)ion is "onserva)ive in dire") propor)ion )o i)s perfe")ion. The s)ern pra")i"e of s)ruggle agains) absolu)ism evolved )he s)rong and po#erful organisa)ion of 4arodnaya olya. This absolu)ely ne"essary and highly useful organisa)ionis no eD"ep)ion )o )he general ruleH i) is an obs)a"le )o )heore)i"al su""esses for )he 4arodnaya olya par)y, as i) no# s)rives )o raise in)o dogmas and )o perpe)ua)e )he programme and )he )ea"hings #hi"h"ould have bu) a )emporary and )ransi)ory signifi"an"e. ) )he end of my pamphle)Socialis and thePolitical Struggle, + eDpressed )he hope )ha)estnik Narodnoi oli #ould be able )o adop) a "ri)i"ala))i)ude )o#ards )he )heore)i"al errors in )he programme and )he mis)akes in )he pra")i"al #ork of 4arodnaya olya. ?-e #ish )o hope,@ + said, ?)ha) )he ne# publi"a)ion #ill )ake a sober vie# of ourrevolu)ionary par)y=s )asks, on #hose fulfilmen) )he par)y=s fu)ure depends.@ + eDpe")ed )he Geneva

estnik )o go fur)her )han )he Pe)ersburg 4arodnaya olya. 6u) if you, dear Pyo)r (avrovi"h, read!r. Tikhomirov=s ar)i"le a))en)ively, you #ill see yourself )ha) )he vie#s i) eDpresses are a huge s)ep ba"k#ards even "ompared #i)h 4arodnaya olya. nd )his is :ui)e na)ural. The )heore)i"al premisesof 4arodnaya olya=s old programme are so pre"arious and "on)radi")ory )ha) )o go on relying on)hem means )o go do#n#ards. +) is )o be eDpe")ed )ha) o)her, progressive elemen)s of )he ?4arodnaya

olya par)y@ #ill a) las) raise )heir voi"es and )ha) )he revolu)ionary movemen) #i)hin )ha) par)y #ill pro"eed as i) has al#ays done every#here, i.e., from below .

6u) un)il )ha) happens #e shall no) "ease )o rouse publi" opinion among our revolu)ionaries, no ma))erho# many a))a"ks, reproa"hes and a""usa)ions our li)erary a")ivi)y provokes, no ma))er ho# mu"h #eare pained by )he fa") )ha) even you, dear Pyo)r (avrovi"h, sho# dissa)isfa")ion a) )ha) a")ivi)y, you#hose approval and sympa)hy #e s)ill so re"en)ly seemed able )o rely upon. -e engage i n"on)roversy #i)h )he 4arodnaya olya suppor)ers in )he in)eres)s of )heir o#n "ause, and #e hope )ha))hey #ill agree #i)h us sooner or la)er. 6u) if our sin"eri)y is suspe")ed, if )hey see us as enemies, andno) as friends, #e shall "onsole ourselves #i)h )he "ons"iousness )ha) our "ause is a us) one. 6eing"onvin"ed !arDis)s, #e #ill remain )rue )o )he mo))o of our )ea"her and go our #ay, le))ing people say#ha) )hey )hink fi).[18F]

Geneva,

Nuly $$, 1883

-i)h friendly gree)ings,

Eours respe")fully,45 PL)67AN0V

Top of )he page

+4T/O


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(abour group ?;mani"ipa)ors of (abour@ is a faul) agains) e)ymology. + shall eDplain )his by means ofan eDample. Eour "ollabora)ors )alk a lo ) abou) ?governmen) of )he people@H #i)h a li))le "onsis)en"y)hey should agree )ha) )he very name of )heir ?par)y@ I 4arodnaya olya I is bu) )he mo))o, )heeDpression of )he s)riving for a poli)i"al sys)em )he idea of #hi"h is linked #i)h )he )erm ?governmen)of )he people@. 6u) does )ha) mean )ha) )hey "an "laim )he )i)le of $overnors of the people J

$. + s)ill hope )o have a spe"ial )alk #i)h !r. Tarasov #hen he has finished his ar)i"le. 6u) le) me no#no)e )ha) he does no) a) all unders)and ei)her !arD or his ?epi$oni @ and in his inviolable simpli"i)y i) is)he pe))y%bourgeois George !olinari, and no) )he grea) so"ialis) arl !arD, he polemises #i)h. !r.Tarasov=s ?me)hod@ grea)ly embarrasses me in eDa")ly )he same #ay. The honourable au)hor probably borro#ed i) from )he same bourgeois s"ien"e #hose ?bankrup)"y@ he so irrefu)ably proved in )he firs)issue of estnik . [5F] Nus) as bourgeois #ri)ers #ere in )he habi), #hen )hey #ished )o prove )heir?na)ural la#s@, of inven)ing ?savages@ #ho na)urally never dreamed of any)hing as mu"h as ?savingand a""umula)ing "api)al@, so !r. Tarasov no# :ui)e "ons"iously ignores )he modern findings ofe)hnology and inven)s ?savages@ #ho are obvious 6lan:uis)s and desire only )o ?sei2e po#er@ over)heir neighbours. This originallyinductive me)hod )hrea)ens )o redu"e )o "omple)e ?bankrup)"y@ !r.Tarasov=s o"ial%)a)u)e of )he so%"alled 4e"hayevis)s sayseDpressly )ha) ?)he general prin"iple of )he organisa)ion is no) )o "onvin"e, i.e.,not to produce forces#but to unite those already e(istin$ .@[13F]

. [ Note to the 89:; edition ] 0ui)e re"en)ly, us) a fe# days ago, )his same s)a)emen) of mine #asunders)ood by )he >o"ial%


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&F. Nonconformists I a Pro)es)an) se") in ;ngland #hi"h did no) "onform )o )he dominan) hur"h of;ngland and #as )herefore sub e") )o perse"u)ion,

3F. +n )he seven)ies, Plekhanov belonged )o one of )he groups of revolu)ionary 4arodism, )he6akuninis) ?rebels@.

=a2uninists I follo#ers of )he anar"his) 4arodnik !. . 6akunin. They regarded )he peasan)s as bornrebels and professed )he adven)urous )a")i"s of immedia)e revol)s, for #hi"h )hey #ere dubbed ?)herebels@.

6akunin #as )he leader of a se"re) anar"his) organisa)ion inside )he 9irs) +n)erna)ional *1873I18 $ .e #aged a fier"e s)ruggle agains) !arD and #as eDpelled from )he +n)erna)ional a) )he agueongress in 18 $.

5F. The referen"e is )o )he ar)i"le =an2ruptcy of =our$eois Science by Tarasov *4. /usanov inestnik Narodnoi oli, 4o.1, pp.5'%' .

7F. Plekhanov is referring )o Tarasov=s ar)i"le Political and )conomic 1actors in the Life of Peoples ,)he beginning of #hi"h #as published in estnik Narodnoi oli, 4o.$, >e")ion 1, 1883, pp.1%&7. +n)his ar)i"le Tarasov bases himself on


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is so easy, )he revolu)ion has no) already been "arried ou), )he people eman"ipa)ed and /ussia)ransformed in)o a model so"ialis) "oun)ry.@

1$F. . . I .P. oron)sov.

1&F. On !ar"h 1, 1881, by de"ision of 4arodnaya olya, leDander ++ #as assassina)ed in Pe)ersburg by +.+. Grinevi)sky. The organisers of )his a") of )error, .+. Ahelyabov, 4.+. ibal"hi"h, >.(.Perovskaya, T.!. !ikhailov and 4.+. /ysakov, #ere eDe"u)ed. !any members of 4arodnaya olya#ere imprisoned and eDiled. period of fier"e rea")ion se) in.

13F. 4e"hayev=s organisa)ion 4arodnaya /asprava *The People=s engean"e *187' #as based on)he prin"iples of Nesui)ism, in)imida)ion, and )errorism professed by 4e"hayev and his inspirer6akunin. To :uo)e 6akunin, 4e"hayev=s )ask #as ?no) )o )ea"h )he people, bu) )o revol)@. !arD and;ngels resolu)ely opposed )he ideas and a")ivi)y of )he 4e"hayev organisa)ion and des"ribed )heir plans for reorganising so"ie)y as ?barra"ks "ommunism@.

15F. 0uo)a)ion from P. (avrov=s revie#0utside /ussia . * estnik Narodnoi oli, 4o.$, >e")ion $,1883, p.&.

17F. The referen"e here is )o )he firs) programme of )he ;man"ipa)ion of (abour group, pu) ou) in1883. +) #as a""ompanied by no)es poin)ing ou) )ha) i) #as no) final bu) admi))ed of "orre")ions andaddi)ions, provided )hey did no) "on)radi") )he basi" ideas of s"ien)ifi" so"ialism. *>ee Pro$ramme ofthe Social3>emocratic )mancipation of Labour 4roup .

1 F. 1amusov I a "hara")er in Griboyedov=s "omedyit or2s oe , a domineering obs"uran)is) andhypo"ri)e.

18F. Paraphrase of


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.ntroduction

1- ,hat ,e 2re %eproached ,ith-ha) + said above abou) a))a"ks, reproa"hes and a""usa)ions #as no) an emp)y phrase. +) is s)ill :ui)e ashor) )ime sin"e )he ;man"ipa)ion of (abour group "ame in)o eDis)en"e, and ye) ho# many ob e")ions#e have had )o lis)en )o, )he only "ause for #hi"h #as an obs)ina)e refusal )o eDamine )he subs)an"e ofour programmeH ho# many misunders)andings have been "aused only by )he desire )o as"ribe )o us)hough)s and in)en)ions #hi"h never en)ered our headsL 6y more or less veiled hin)s, avoiding ?dire") blo#s@, no) men)ioning our names bu) using our eDpressions and )#is)ing and dis)or)ing our )hough)s,some have dire")ly and o)hers indire")ly represen)ed us as dried%up book#orms and dogma)is)s ready)o sa"rifi"e )he people=s happiness and #elfare )o )he orderliness and harmony of )he )heories #hi"h)hey have ha)"hed in )heir s)udies. nd )he )heories )hemselves have been branded as a kind ofimpor)ed "ommodi)y #hi"h i) is us) as dangerous for /ussia )o spread )here as )o impor) ;nglishopium )o hina. The )ime "ame long ago )o pu) an end )o )his "onfusion of "on"ep)ions, )o "lear up)hese more or less sin"ere misunders)andingsL

+ begin #i)h #ha) is mos) impor)an).

+n )he firs) "hap)er of my pamphle) + said a fe# #ords deriding revolu)ionaries #ho are afraid of?bourgeois@ e"onomi" progress and #ho inevi)ably arrive a) )he ?ama2ing "on"lusion )ha) /ussia=se"onomi" ba"k#ardness #as a mos) reliable ally of )he revolu)ion and )ha) s)agna)ion #as )o be bla2oned as )he firs) and only paragraph of our minimum programme@. + said )ha) )he /ussian

anar"his)s, 4arodniks and 6lan:uis)s "ould be"ome ?revolu)ionary in subs)an"e and no) in namealone@ only if )hey ?revolu)ionised )heir o#n heads and learned )o unders)and )he "ourse of his)ori"aldevelopmen) and led i) ins)ead of asking old mo)her his)ory )o mark )ime #hile )hey laid ne#,s)raigh)er and be))er bea)en roads for her.@[1]

) )he end of )he )hird "hap)er + endeavoured )o "onvin"e my readers )ha) ?)o bind )oge)her in one )#oso fundamen)ally differen) ma))ers as )he over)hro# of absolu)ism and )he so"ialis) revolu)ion, )o #agerevolu)ionary s)ruggle in )he belief )ha) )hese )#o elemen)s of so"ial developmen) #illcoincide in )hehis)ory of our "oun)rymeans to put off the advent of both .@[$] + fur)her eDpressed )he )hough) )ha) ?)herural popula)ion of )oday, living in ba"k#ard so"ial "ondi)ions, is no) only less "apable of "ons"ious poli)i"alinitiative )han )he indus)rial #orkers, i) is also lessresponsive )o )he movemen) #hi"h our

revolu)ionary in)elligen)sia has begun ...@ ? nd besides,@ + "on)inued, ?)he peasan)ry is no# going)hrough a diffi"ul), "ri)i"al period. The previous Qan"es)ral= founda)ions of i)s e"onomy are "rumbling,)he ill%fa)ed village "ommuni)y i)self is being dis"redi)ed in i)s eyes, as is admi))ed even by su"hQan"es)ral= organs of 4arodism asNedel*aH and )he ne# forms of labour and life are only in )he pro"ess of forma)ion, and )his "rea)ive pro"ess is more in)ensive in )he indus)rial "en)res.@

9rom )hese and similar passages i) #as "on"luded )ha) my "omrades and +, "onvin"ed )ha) )heimmedia)e fu)ure in our "oun)ry belongs )o "api)alism, #ere ready )o drive /ussia=s #orking popula)ion in)o )he iron embra"es of "api)al and "onsidered as ?un)imely@ any s)ruggle #aged by )he people for )heir e"onomi" eman"ipa)ion.

+n his ar)i"le hat Can e )(pect from the /evolution" !r. Tikhomirov, des"ribing )he ?"urious role@of publi" figures #hose programmes ?have no link #i)h life@, gives a par)i"ularly de)ailed pi")ure of
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)he ?)ragi" si)ua)ion@ of so"ialis)s #ho )hink ?)ha) in order )o #ork ou) )he ma)erial "ondi)ionsne"essary )o make )he so"ialis) sys)em possible, /ussia mus) ne"essarily go )hrough )he phase of"api)alism@. !r. Tikhomirov imagines )he si)ua)ion as simply despera)eH in i)

Not a step but leads to horror-

Our so"ialis)s have )o ?fuss abou) "rea)ing a "lass in #hose name )hey #ish )o #ork, and for )ha) )heyhave )o desire )he speedy dismissal of )he millions of #orking people #ho eDis) in reali)y bu), having)he misfor)une no) )o be prole)arians, have no role in )he s"ien)ifi" s"heme of so"ial progress.@ 6u) )hefall from gra"e of )hese pedan)s of so"ialism "anno) be "onfined )o )he sphere of ?fuss@ and ?desires@.

er A sa$t# muss auch = sa$en- ? ad he been "onsis)en) and pla"ed )he in)eres)s of )he revolu)ionabove his o#n moral puri)y, )he so"ialis) should )hen have en)ered in)o a dire") allian"e #i)h )heknigh)s of primitive accumulation #hose hear)s and hands do no) )remble a) developing variousQsurplus%values= and uni)ing )he #orkers in )he all%saving si)ua)ion of )he beggarly prole)arian.@ Therevolu)ionary is )hus )ransformed in)o a suppor)er of )he eDploi)a)ion of labour, and !r. Tikhomirov isvery ?)imely@ #hen he asksC ?-here, )hen, is )he differen"e be)#een )he so"ialis) and )he bourgeoisJ@

+ don=) kno# us) #ha) ?so"ialis)s@ )he honourable #ri)er has in vie# in )his "ase. s #e see, he has noliking for ?dire") blo#s@, and #i)hou) men)ioning his adversaries he merely informs )he readers )ha)?some o)her people@ )hink )his or )ha). The reader is "omple)ely una#are #ho )hoseother people areand #he)her i) is )rue )ha) )heythin2 #ha) !r. Tikhomirov says )hey do. 4ei)her do + kno# #he)her hisreaders share his horror of )he posi)ion of )he so"ialis)s #hom he "ri)i"ises. 6u) )he sub e") he )ou"hesupon is so in)eres)ing, )he a""usa)ions #hi"h he brings agains)certain so"ialis)s so mu"h resemblea""usa)ions made more )han on"e agains) us, his #hole programme and ?#ha) he eDpe")s from )herevolu)ion@ are )o su"h an eD)en) de)ermined by )he nega)ive solu)ion of )he :ues)ion of "api)alism )ha)i) is his ar)i"le #hi"h mus) provide )heoccasion for as "omple)e and "omprehensive an elu"ida)ion of)his :ues)ion as possible.

nd so, ?mus)@ or ?mus) no)@ /ussia go )hrough )he ?s"hool@ of "api)alismJ

The ans#er )o )his :ues)ion is of )he highes) impor)an"e for )he "orre") posing of our so"ialis) par)y=s)asks. +) is )herefore no) surprising )ha) i) has for a long )ime "laimed )he a))en)ion of /ussianrevolu)ionaries. Mn)il re"en) )imes )he grea) ma ori)y of )hese #ere in"lined )o ans#er )he :ues)ion"a)egori"ally in )he nega)ive. + also had my share of )he general infa)ua)ion, and in )he edi)orial of 4o.&of 7e l*a i ol*a + a))emp)ed )o prove )ha) @his)ory is by no means a mono)onous me"hani"al pro"ess@H )ha) "api)alism is a ne"essary prede"essor of so"ialism only ?in )he -es), #here )he village"ommuni)y broke up as early as in )he s)ruggle agains) medieval feudalism@H )ha) in our "oun)ry, #here

)he "ommuni)y ?"ons)i)u)es )he mos) "hara")eris)i" fea)ure of )he peasan)ry=s rela)ions )o )he land@, )he)riumph of so"ialism may be a"hieved in an en)irely differen) #ayH "olle")ive o#nership of )he landmay serve as )he s)ar)ing%poin) for )he organisa)ion of all aspe")s of )he people=s e"onomi" life onso"ialis) prin"iples. ?Tha) is #hy,@ + "on"luded, ?our main )ask is )o "rea)e a mili)an) popular%revolu)ionary organisa)ion )o "arry ou) a popular%revolu)ionary upheaval in )he neares) possiblefu)ure.@[1F]

Thus, as early as Nanuary 18 ', + suppor)ed )he very same proposi)ion )ha) !r. Tikhomirov defends,)rue,

Mit ein bisschen anderen orten [$F],
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no#, in 1883, #hen he says )ha) ?beyond )he mys)erious line #here )he #aves of his)ory=s flood see)heand foam@, or, )o pu) i) more simply, af)er )he fall of )he presen) so"ial and poli)i"al sys)em, ?#e shallfind@ no) )he reign of "api)alism, as ?"er)ain people@ main)ain, bu) ?)he founda)ion of )he so"ialis)organisa)ion of /ussia@. The ne"essi)y for "rea)ing a ?mili)an) popular%revolu)ionary organisa)ion@ isrelega)ed )o )he ba"kground by !r. Tikhomirov and gives pla"e )o a "onspira)orial organisa)ion of ourin)elligen)sia #hi"h is )o sei2e po#er and )hus give )he signal for )he popular revolu)ion. +n )his respe")his vie#s differ as mu"h from )hose + formerly held as )he programme of 4arodnaya olya from )ha)of Aemlya i olya. 6u) !r. Tikhomirov=s mis)akes abou) )he e"onomi" side of )he :ues)ion are almos)?iden)i"al@ #i)h )hose + made in )he ar)i"le men)ioned. onse:uen)ly, in ans#ering !r. Tikhomirov +shall have )o make fre:uen) "orre")ions )o argumen)s #hi"h on"e appeared )o me perfe")ly "onvin"ingand final.

Pre"isely be"ause !r. Tikhomirov=s s)andpoin) is no) dis)inguished by freshness or novel)y + "anno)"onfine myself )o "ri)i"ising his argumen)s, bu) mus) eDamine as fully as possible all )ha) had already been said )o suppor) a nega)ive ans#er )o )he :ues)ion #hi"h no# o""upies us. /ussian li)era)ure in )he pre"eding de"ades gives us far more #eal)hy "ri)i"al ma)erial )han )he ar)i"lehat Can e )(pect from the /evolution"

- Posing of the 9uestion

")ually, !r. Tikhomirov #as unable even )o presen) )he :ues)ion properly.

+ns)ead of saying all )ha) he "ould )o defend )he possibili)y of laying ?)he founda)ion of )he so"ialis)organisa)ion@ on )he ruins of )he "on)emporary so"ial and poli)i"al sys)em in /ussia, !r. Tikhomirovdevo)es almos) a #hole "hap)er of his ar)i"le )o "ri)i"ising )he ?"onsola)ion@ #hi"h people #ho believe

in )he ?his)ori"al inevi)abili)y of /ussian "api)alism@ s)ill have. +n general he someho# )oo :ui"kly anduneDpe")edly no) so mu"h passes as leaps from )he ob e")ive s)andpoin) he held a) )he beginning of )hefirs) "hap)er, in #hi"h he sough) )o prove )ha) ?)he logi" of his)ory, )he his)ori"al "ourse of even)s, andso on@, are ?an elemen)al for"e #hi"h nobody "an diver) from )he pa)h i) has "hosen for )he veryreason )ha) )he pa)h i)self is no) an arbi)rary "hoi"e bu) eDpresses )he resul)an) for"e of )he "ombina)ionof )hose for"es ou)side #hi"h so"ie)y "on)ains no)hing real, "apable of produ"ing any a")ion#ha)ever@. -e askC is )ha) ?elemen)al for"e@ s)opped by "onsidera)ions of )heinconsolability of )he/ussian so"ialis)sJ Obviously no). >o before dis"ussing #ha) #ould happen )o )he /ussian so"ialis)s if"api)alism #ere )o )riumph, !r. Tikhomirov should have )ried )o form a ?"orre") idea of )ha) for"e andi)s dire")ion@, an idea #hi"h ?every publi" figure mus) have, for no poli)i"al programme #hi"h doesno) "onform )o i) "an have any signifi"an"e #ha)ever@, as )he same !r. Tikhomirov seeks )o "onvin"e

us. 6u) he prefers )he reverse me)hod. e endeavours firs) of all )o in)imida)e his readers, and )hen, in)he ?follo#ing "hap)ers@, ou)lines ?roughly@ )he ?aims and means of our revolu)ion@, #hi"h allo# us)o believe in )he possibili)y of diver)ing )he "up of "api)alism from /ussia=s lips. -i)hou) saying for)he )ime being ho# far he su""eeds in his a))emp) )o in)imida)e his so"ialis) readers, + shall merely no)e)ha) su"h a me)hod of argumen) should no) be used in solving serious so"ial :ues)ions.

9or reasons #hi"h i) #ould be ou) of pla"e )o "onsider here, )he /ussian in)elle")ual had )o )ake anin)ense in)eres) in ?)he role of )he individual in his)ory@. !u"h has been #ri))en on )his ?"ursed@:ues)ion, and i) has been s)ill more dis"ussed in various groupsH and ye) /ussian publi" figures are s)illof)en in"apable even of dis)inguishing )he sphere of )henecessary from )ha) of )hedesirable and are prepared a) )imes )o argue #i)h his)ory in eDa")ly )he same #ay as hles)akov[&F] #i)h )he #ai)er in)he inn. ?6u) + mus) ea) some)hingL + "an #as)e a#ay al)oge)her like )his,@ said )he immor)al +van

leDandrovi"h. -ha) kind of a so"ialis) #ill + be af)er )ha)J >hall + no) have )o ?en)er in)o a dire")
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allian"e #i)h )he knigh)s of primi)ive a""umula)ionL@ some reader may eD"laim, in)imida)ed by !r.Tikhomirov. 6u) i) is )o be hoped )ha) !r. Tikhomirov=s argumen) on )he invin"ible for"e of )he ?logi"of his)ory@ #ill do mu"h )o#ards "orre")ing )his big ?blunder of imma)ure )hough)@.

The ;man"ipa)ion of (abour group=s s)andpoin), for i)s par), leads, i) seems )o me, )o )he removal ofsu"h abuses of )he ?sub e")ive me)hod in so"iology@. 9or us )he desirable arises from )he ne"essaryand in no "ase repla"es i) in our argumen)s. 9or us )he freedom of )he individual "onsis)s in )hekno#ledge of )he la#s of na)ure I in"luding, in"iden)ally, )he la#s of his)ory I and in )he abili)y )o

submit )o )hose la#s, )ha) is, in"iden)ally, )ocombine them in the most favourable manner5 -e are"onvin"ed )ha) #hen ?a so"ie)y has go) upon )he righ) )ra"k for )he dis"overy of )he na)ural la#s of i)smovemen) ... i) "an nei)her "lear by bold leaps, nor remove by legal ena")men)s )he obs)a"lesoffered ... =ut it can shorten and lessen the birth3pan$s5 @[&] [3F] +) is pre"isely )his ?shor)ening andlessening )he bir)h%pangs@ )ha), in our opinion, "ons)i)u)es one of )he mos) impor)an) )asks of so"ialis)s#ho are "onvin"ed of )he ?his)ori"al inevi)abili)y of "api)alism in /ussia@. Their "onsola)ion mus) liein )he possibility of lessening )hose bir)h%pangs. Theconsistency #hi"h !r. Tikhomirov )ries )oimpose upon )hem is, as #e shall see la)er, )ha) of )he me)aphysi"ian #ho has no) )he sligh)es) no)ionof )he diale")i"s of so"ial developmen).

6u) le) us no) #ander a#ay from our sub e").

:- 2-2- er en

s early as )he beginning of )he fif)ies .+. er2en, in proving )he inevi)abili)y of )he so"ialis)revolu)ion in )he -es), se) rising /ussian demo"ra"y )he

)ver3alarmin$ and new &uestion

#hi"h sin"e )hen

So many restless heads has wearied 555So many sufferin$s has brou$ht

and #hi"h provided )he o""asion, in"iden)ally, for our @"on)roversy #i)h )he 4arodnaya olya par)y@)oo.

?!us) /ussia pass )hrough all )he phases of ;uropean developmen), or #ill her life pro"eed a""ording)o o)her la#sJ@[3] he asks in his Letters to Linton . [5F]

?+ absolu)ely deny )he ne"essi)y for )hese repe)i)ions,@ )he famous #ri)er has)ens )o ans#er. ?-e mayhave )o pass )hrough )he diffi"ul) and painful )rials of )he his)ori"al developmen) of our prede"essors, bu) in )he same #ay as )he embryo passes )hrough all )he lo#er degrees of 2oologi"al eDis)en"e before bir)h. The finished labour and )he resul) ob)ained be"ome )he general possession of all #ho unders)and I su"h is )he mu)ual guaran)ee of progress, )he bir)hrigh) of mankind ... ;very s"hool%"hild mus)himself find )he solu)ion of ;u"lid=s )heorems, bu) #ha) a differen"e )here is be)#een )he #ork of;u"lid, #ho dis"overed )hem, and )he #ork of )he pupil of )odayL@ ... ?/ussia has been )hrough herembryo%genesis in )he ;uropean "lass. The nobili)y and )he governmen) in our "oun)ry represen) )he;uropean s)a)e in )he >lav s)a)e. -e have been )hrough all )he phases of poli)i"al edu"a)ion, from
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German "ons)i)u)ionalism and ;nglish bureau"ra)i" monar"hy )o )he #orship of )he year 1 '& ... The/ussian people need no) begin )ha) hard #ork again. -hy should )hey shed )heir blood )o a"hieve)hose semi%solu)ions )ha) #e have already rea"hed and #hose only impor)an"e #as )ha) )hrough )hem#e arrived a) o)her :ues)ions, a) ne# s)rivingsJ -e #en) )hrough )ha) #ork for )he people I #e have paid for i) #i)h )he gallo#s, "asema)es and banishmen), #i)h )he ruin and )he in)olerable life #hi"h #eare livingL@

The "onne")ing link, )he bridge by #hi"h )he /ussian people "an rea"h so"ialism, er2en sa#, of"ourse, in )he village "ommuni)y and )he pe"uliari)ies of #ay of life )ha) go #i)h i).

?>)ri")ly speaking, )he /ussian people began )o be a"kno#ledged,@ he says, ?only af)er )he 18&B/evolu)ion. People sa# #i)h as)onishmen) )ha) )he /ussians, )hough indifferen), in"apable of )a"klingany poli)i"al :ues)ions, #ere nearer )o )he ne# so"ial sys)em by )heir #ay of life )han all )he ;uropean peoples ...@

?To re)ain )he village "ommuni)y and give freedom )o )he individual, )o eD)end )he self%governmen) of)he village andvolost )o )he )o#ns and )he #hole s)a)e, main)aining na)ional uni)y I su"h is )he:ues)ion of /ussia=s fu)ure, i.e., )he :ues)ion of )he very an)inomy #hose solu)ion o""upies and#orries minds in )he -es).@[5]

+) is )rue )ha) doub)s o""asionally arose in his mind abou) )he /ussian people=s eD"ep)ional nearness?)o )he ne# so"ial sys)em@. +n )he same Letter he asks (in)onC ?Perhaps you #ill reply )ha) in )his )he/ussian people resembles some sian peoplesH perhaps you #ill dra# a))en)ion )o )he rural"ommuni)ies of )he indus, #hi"h have a fair resemblan"e )o oursJ@ 6u), #i)hou) re e")ing )he/ussian people=s unfla))ering resemblan"e )o ?some sian peoples@, he never)heless sa# #ha) seemed)o him very subs)an)ial differen"es be)#een )hem. ?+) is no) )he "ommuni)y o#nership sys)em #hi"hkeeps )he sian peoples in s)agna)ion, bu) )heir eD"ep)ional "lan spiri), )heir inabili)y )o emerge from pa)riar"halism, )o free )hemselves from )he )ribeH #e are no) in su"h a posi)ion. The >lav peoples ... areendo#ed #i)h grea) impressionabili)y, )hey easily assimila)e )he languages, morals, "us)oms, ar) and)e"hni:ue of o)her peoples. They "an a""lima)ise )hemselves e:ually #ell on )he shores of )he r")i"and on )he 6la"k >ea "oas).@ This ?grea) impressionabili)y@, enabling )he >lavs )o ?emerge from pa)riar"halism, )o free )hemselves from )he )ribe@, solved )he #hole :ues)ion, er2en )hinks. isau)hori)y #as so grea), and )he shor)ened road )o so"ialism #hi"h he sugges)ed #as so )emp)ing )ha))he /ussian in)elligen)sia in )he early siD)ies #as li))le in"lined )o be s"ep)i"al of his sugges)ed solu)ionof )he ?so"ial an)inomy@, and apparen)ly gave no )hough) a) all )o )he :ues)ion of us) #ha) pla"es )ha)his)ori"al shor) "u) lay )hrough and #ho #ould lead )he /ussian people I ?indifferen), in"apable of)a"kling any poli)i"al :ues)ions@ I along i). The impor)an) )hing for )he in)elligen)sia #as firs) of all )o

find some philosophi"al san")ion for )heir radi"al s)rivings, and )hey #ere sa)isfied for a s)ar) #i)h )heabs)ra") "onsidera)ion )ha) no philosophy in )he #orld "ould for"e )hem )o be re"on"iled )o bourgeois?semi%solu)ions@.

6u) )ha) abs)ra") "onsidera)ion #as na)urally no) suffi"ien) )o ou)line a pra")i"al mode of a")ion or )oelabora)e any a) all sui)able me)hods of figh)ing )heir environmen). The da)a for )he solu)ion of )hisne# problem had )o be sough) ou)side )he philosophy of his)ory, even if i) #ere more rigorous ands"ien)ifi" )han er2en=s philosophy. 6e)#een i)s abs)ra") formulae and )he "on"re)e re:uiremen)s ofso"ial life )here #as a gap #hi"h "ould be filled only by a #hole series of ne# and in"reasingly par)i"ular formulae, re:uiring in )urn kno#ledge of a #hole series of in"reasingly "ompli"a)ed phenomena. 6y )he #ay, philosophy in )his "ase indire")ly rendered /ussian )hough) )he servi"e ofa":uain)ing i) #i)h )he diale")i"al me)hod and )ea"hing i) )he )ru)h I so of)en forgo))en la)er on I )ha) inso"ial life ?every)hing flo#s@, ?every)hing "hanges@, and )ha) )he phenomena of )ha) life "an be
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unders)ood only in mo)ion, in )he pro"ess of arising, developing and disappearing.

;- N-G- !hern*shevsk*

The Criticism of Philosophical Prejudices A$ainst Communal Land


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"olle")ive land )enure in general, and "onse:uen)ly he arrived only a) algebrai" formulae, generale"onomi" )heorems.[ ]

6y )he #ay, )his is by no means surprising of him. The "ri)i" of !ill "ould have in mind only )he pre%/eform village "ommuni)y, #hen i) had no) ye) emerged from na)ural e"onomy and #as redu"ed )o a"ommon denomina)or by )he levelling influen"e of feudalism. 4a)urally, )his influen"e did no) remove)he ?e"onomi" "on)radi")ions@ inheren) in )he village "ommuni)y, bu) i) kep) )hem la)en) and )husredu"ed )heir pra")i"al signifi"an"e )o a negligible minimum. Tha) is #hy hernyshevsky "ould besa)isfied #i)h )he "onsidera)ion )ha) in our "oun)ry ?)he masses of )he people s)ill "onsider )he land as)he proper)y of )he "ommuni)y@, )ha) ?every /ussian has his na)ive land and also a righ) )o a plo) of i).

nd if he himself gives up his righ) )o )ha) plo) or loses i), his "hildren #ill s)ill be en)i)led, asmembers of )he village "ommuni)y, )o demand a plo) in )heir o#n righ)@. Mnders)anding perfe")ly #ell)ha) )he eman"ipa)ion of )he peasan)s #ould pla"e )hem in "omple)ely differen) e"onomi" "ondi)ions,)ha) ?/ussia, #hi"h has )hus far )aken li))le par) in )he e"onomi" movemen), is being :ui"kly dra#nin)o i), and our mode of life, #hi"h has as ye) hardly been influen"ed by )he e"onomi" la#s #hi"hdisplay )heir s)reng)h only #hen e"onomi" and "ommer"ial a")ivi)y gro#s, is beginning )o submi) )o)heir s)reng)h very :ui"kly@, )ha) ?soon #e )oo, perhaps, shall be dra#n in)o )he sphere #here )he la#of "ompe)i)ion is in full opera)ion@, he #as only "on"erned #i)h preserving )he form of land )enure#hi"h #ould help )he peasan) )o begin )he ne# e"onomi" life under more favourable "ondi)ions.?-ha)ever )ransforma)ions )he fu)ure may hold for /ussia,@ he #ro)e in pril 185 , ?#e shall no) presume )o )ou"h )he sa"red and salu)ary "us)om be:uea)hed )o us by our pas) life, )he pover)y of#hi"h is abundan)ly "ompensa)ed by )his single pre"ious lega"yH no, #e shall no) presume )o en"roa"hupon )he "ommunal use of )he land, )ha) blessing on #hose a":uisi)ion )he prosperi)y of )heagri"ul)ural "lasses in -es)ern ;urope no# depends. !ay )heir eDample be a lesson for us.@

ere #e are no) under)aking an analysis of all hernyshevsky=s vie#s on "ommunal land )enureC #eare only )rying )o bring ou) )heir mos) )ypi"al fea)ures. 4o) en)ering in)o de)ails #hi"h are ou) of pla"ehere #e shall "onfine ourselves )o saying )ha) )he advan)ages #hi"h he eDpe")ed from "ommunal land)enure may be redu"ed )o )#o poin)s, one of #hi"h belongs )o )he domain of la#, )he o)her )o )ha) ofagri"ul)ural )e"hnology.

/e I5 ?The /ussian village "ommuni)y sys)em,@ he says :uo)ing aD)hausen, ?is infini)ely impor)an)for /ussia, espe"ially a) presen), as far as )he s)a)e is "on"erned. ll -es) ;uropean s)a)es aresuffering from )he same disease, #hose "ure is so far anunsolved problem [8]H )hey are suffering from pauperism, prole)arianism. /ussia does no) kno# )his so"ial evilH she is ensured agains) i) by hervillage "ommuni)y sys)em. ;very /ussian has his na)ive land and also a righ) )o a plo) of i). nd if hehimself gives up his righ) )o )ha) plo) or loses i), his "hildren #ill s)ill be en)i)led, as members of )he

village "ommuni)y, )o demand a plo) in )heir o#n righ).@ ['] /e II5 f)er des"ribing, again a""ording )o aD)hausen, )he life of )he Mral ossa"ks, ?#hose #hole)erri)ory forms a single "ommuni)y from )he e"onomi", mili)ary and "ivil poin)s of vie#@,

hernyshevsky no)esC ?+f )he people of )he Mrals live under )heir presen) sys)em )o see ma"hinesin)rodu"ed in)o "orn%gro#ing, )hey #ill be very glad of having re)ained a sys)em #hi"h allo#s )he useof ma"hines )ha) re:uire big%s"ale farming , embra"ing hundreds ofdessiatines .@ e no)es a) )he same)ime, ho#ever, )ha) his argumen) is in)ended only as an eDample of ?ho# )he Mral ossa"ks #ill )hinka) some fu)ure )ime #hi"h #ill "ome #e kno# no) #hen *al)hough )he su""ess of me"hani"s and)e"hnology sho#s beyond any doub) )ha) su"h a )ime #ill indeed "ome I and #e are no) "on"erned#i)h )oo dis)an) a fu)ureC our grea) grand"hildren #ill probably manage )o live on by )heir o#nin)elligen"e #i)hou) our #orrying abou) )hem I i) #ill be enough for us )o #orry abou) ourselves andour "hildren.@[8F]
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/eaders #ho are a":uain)ed #i)h hernyshevsky=s #orks na)urally kno# )ha) su"h reserva)ions didno) preven) him from )hinking and ?#orrying@ very mu"h abou) )he fu)ure. One of era Pavlovna=sdreams sho#s "learly ho# he imagined )he so"ial rela)ions of ?)he very dis)an) fu)ure@['F] , us) as hisheroine=s pra")i"al a")ivi)y gives us some idea of )he me)hods by #hi"h + )he adven) of )ha) happy )ime"ould be has)ened. +) #ould )herefore be s)range if )he au)hor of,hat .s 'o


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eman"ipa)ion of )he -es) ;uropean #orking "lass, and he apparen)ly sa# )hem in a re)urn )o"ommunal land )enure. -e already kno# )ha) he held )ha) ?on )he a":uisi)ion of )his blessing )he prosperi)y of )he agri"ul)ural "lasses in -es)ern ;urope no# depends@. 6u) no ma))er #ha) a))i)udeanybody adop)ed )o#ards )he his)ori"al signifi"an"e of )he /ussian village "ommuni)y, i) is obvious )oalmos) all so"ialis)s )ha) i)s role is ended for ever in )he -es) and )ha) )he -es)ern peoples= road )oso"ialism lay and s)ill lies from community throu$h private ownership , and no)vice versa , from priva)eo#nership )hrough "ommuni)y o#nership. +) seems )o me )ha) if hernyshevsky had been "learer )ohimself on )he sub e") of )his ?diffi"ul) and long road@ along #hi"h )he -es) is progressing )o#ards ?a be))er sys)em of e"onomi" rela)ions@H if, moreover, he had defined more pre"isely )he e"onomi""ondi)ions of )he ?be))er sys)em@, he #ould have seen, firs), )ha) )he ?-es)@ )ends )o make )he meansof produ")ion )he proper)y of )he s)a)e, no) of a village "ommuni)y, and se"ond, he #ould haveunders)ood )ha) )he ?ul"er of prole)arianism@ produ"es i)s remedy ou) of i)self. Then he #ould have be))er appre"ia)ed )he his)ori"al role of )he prole)aria), and )his, in )urn, #ould have enabled him )o)ake a broader vie# of )he so"ial and poli)i"al signifi"an"e of )he /ussian village "ommuni)y. (e) useDplain )his.

-e kno# )ha) any form of so"ial rela)ions "an be "onsidered from eD)remely varying poin)s of vie#.9or eDample, from )he poin) of vie# of )he benefi)s i) brings )o )he genera)ion "on"ernedH or, no)"onfining ourselves )o )hese benefi)s, #e "an eDamine i)s "apa"i)y )o pass on in)o ano)her, higher form,more favourable )o ?)he e"onomi" prosperi)y and )he in)elle")ual and moral developmen) of )he peopleH finally, #e "an dis)inguish in )ha) very "apa"i)y )o pass on in)o higher forms )#o sides I )he passive and )he a")ive side,the absence of obstacles to the transition , and )he presen"e of a vi)al innerfor"e #hi"h is no) onlycapable of effe")ing )his )ransi)ion bu), indeed, gives rise )o i) as )o a ne"essary"onse:uen"e of i)s o#n eDis)en"e. +n )he former "ase, )he so"ial form in :ues)ion is "onsidered from)he poin) of vie# of )heresistance offered )o progress in)rodu"ed from ou)side, in )he la))er, from )he poin) of vie# ofuseful historical wor2 . 9or )he philosophy of his)ory, us) as for )he pra")i"alrevolu)ionary, )he only forms #hi"h have any impor)an"e are )hose #hi"h are "apable of a grea)er orlesser :uan)i)y of su"h useful #ork. ;very s)age in )he his)ori"al developmen) of humani)y isin)eres)ing pre"isely insofar as )he so"ie)ies #hi"h have rea"hed i) develop ou) of )hemselves, by )heirinheren) self%a")ivi)y, a for"e "apable of des)roying )he old forms of so"ial rela)ions and ere")ing on)heir ruins a ne# and be))er so"ial edifi"e. Generally speaking, )he very number of )he obs)a"les )o )he)ransi)ion )o a higher s)age of developmen) is "losely linked #i)h )he magni)ude of )his vi)al for"e, be"ause )he la))er is no)hing bu) )he resul) of )he disin)egra)ion of )he old forms of so"ial life. The morein)ense )he pro"ess of disin)egra)ion, )he grea)er #ill be )he number of for"es #hi"h i) se)s free and )helesser #ill be )he enduran"e of )he obsole)e so"ial rela)ions. +n o)her #ords, bo)h )he his)orian and )he pra")i"al revolu)ionary are in)eres)ed in )he dynami"s, no) )he s)a)i"s, )he revolu)ionary, no) )he"onserva)ive aspe"), )he "on)radi")ions, no) )he harmony of so"ial rela)ions, be"ause i) is )he spiri) of

)hese "on)radi")ions #hi"hStets das =?se will und stets das 4ute schafft5 [11F]

>o i) has been up )o no#. +) goes #i)hou) saying )ha) i) mus) no) al#ays be so and )ha) )he #holemeaning of )he so"ialis) revolu)ion "onsis)s in removing )he ?"ruel iron@ la# a""ording )o #hi"h )he"on)radi")ions in so"ial rela)ionships #ere given bu) a )emporary solu)ion #hi"h in )urn be"ame )hesour"e of ne# "onfusion and ne# "on)radi")ions. 6u) )he a""omplishmen) of )his grea)es) of allupheavals, of )his revolu)ion #hi"h is a) las) )o make people ?)he mas)ers of )heir so"ial rela)ions@[1$F], is un)hinkable #i)hou) )he ?presen"e@ of )he ne"essary and suffi"ien) his)ori"al for"e born of )he"on)radi")ions in )he presen) bourgeois sys)em. +n )he advan"ed "oun)ries of )he "ivilised #orld )oday

)his for"e, far from being merely presen), is gro#ing every hour and every minu)e. onse:uen)ly, in)hose "oun)ries his)ory is )he ally of )he so"ialis)s and is bringing )hem #i)h ever%in"reasing speed
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nearer )o )he aim )hey pursue. Thus #e see on"e more I le) u s hope for )helast )ime I )ha) )he ?s#ee)@"ould only "ome ou) of )he ?bi))er@, )ha) for )he a""omplishmen) of a $ood ?deed@ his)ory #as obliged,if #e may say so, )o sho# evil ?#ill@. The e"onomy of bourgeois so"ie)ies, #hi"h is u))erly ?abnormaland un us)@ as regards dis)ribu)ion, )urns ou) )o be far more ?normal@ as regards )he developmen) of)he produ")ive for"es and s)ill more ?normal@ as regards )he produ")ion of people #ho are #illing andable, in )he #ords of )he poe), ?)o es)ablish )he kingdom of heaven upon ear)h@.[1&F] 4o) only has )he bourgeoisie ?forged )he #eapons )ha) bring dea)h )o i)self@, i.e., no) only has i) brough) )he produ")ivefor"es in )he advan"ed "oun)ries )o a s)age of developmen) a) #hi"h )hey "an no longer be re"on"iled#i)h )he "api)alis) form of produ")ion, ?i) has also "alled in)o eDis)en"e )he men #ho are )o #ield )hose#eapons I )he modern #orking "lass I )he proletarians .@[1$]

9rom )his i) follo#s )ha) in order )o assess )o )he full )he poli)i"al signifi"an"e of a given so"ial form,one mus) )ake in)o "onsidera)ion no) only )he e"onomi" benefi)s #hi"h i) may bring )o one or severalgenera)ions, no) only i)s passive abili)y )o be perfe")ed under )he influen"e of some favourable ou)sidefor"e, bu) primarily i)s inheren) "apa"i)y )o develop independen)ly in )he desirable dire")ion. -i)hou)su"h a "omprehensive appraisal, )he analysis of so"ial rela)ions #ill al#ays be in"omple)e and)herefore erroneousH a given so"ial form may appear )o be :ui)e ra)ional from one of )he poin)s ofvie#, bu) :ui)e unsa)isfa")ory from ano)her. This #ill be )he "ase every )ime #e have )o deal #i)h anunderdeveloped popula)ion #hi"h has no) ye) be"ome )he ?mas)er of i)s so"ial rela)ions@. Only )heob e")ive revolu)ionariness of )hese rela)ions )hemselves "an bring ba"k#ard people ou) on )o )he roadof progress. nd if )he par)i"ular form of so"ial life does no) display )his revolu)ionariness, if, )houghi) is more or less ? us)@ from )he s)andpoin) of la# and dis)ribu)ion of produ")s, i) is never)helessmarked by grea) "onserva)ism, )he absen"e of any inner s)riving )o perfe") i)self in )he desirabledire")ion, )he so"ial reformer #ill have ei)her )o give up his plans or )o resor) )o some o)her, ou)side,for"e able )o "ompensa)e for )he la"k of inner self%a")ivi)y in )he so"ie)y in :ues)ion and )o reform i), ifno) agains) )he #ill of i)s members, a) any ra)e #i)hou) )heir a")ive and "ons"ious par)i"ipa)ion.

s for hernyshevsky, he seems )o have los) sigh) of )he revolu)ionary signifi"an"e of )he -es);uropean ? illness @ I pauperism. +) is by no means surprising )ha) aD)hausen, for eDample, of #hom

hernyshevsky so of)en had o""asion )o speak in his ar)i"les on "ommunal land )enure, sa# only )henega)ive side of ?pauperism%prole)arianism@. is political vie#s #ere su"h )ha) he #as absolu)elyunable )o "lass )he revolu)ionary signifi"an"e of )he prole)aria) in )he his)ory of -es) ;uropeanso"ie)ies among )he posi)ive and favourable aspe")s of )his ?ul"er@. +) is )herefore unders)andable )ha)he gave an en)husias)i" des"rip)ion of )he ins)i)u)ions #hi"h "an ?aver) prole)arianism@. 6u) vie#s#hi"h are :ui)e "omprehensible and "onsis)en) in )he #orks of one au)hor of)en fa"e )he reader #i)hdiffi"ul)ies #hen he "omes a"ross )hem in ano)her au)hor=s ar)i"les. -e admi) )ha) #e do no)unders)and #ha) meaning #e mus) see in )hese #ords of hernyshevsky abou) aD)hausenC ? s a

pra")i"al man, he very "orre")ly foresa# in 183 )he proDimi)y of a fearful ou)break on )he par) of )he-es) ;uropean prole)arians, and #e "anno) bu) agree #i)h him )ha) )he prin"iple of "ommunal land)enure, #hi"h safeguards us agains) )he fearful ul"er of prole)arianism among )he rural popula)ion, is a benefi"ial one.@[1&] [13F] ere i) is no longer a :ues)ion of )he e"onomi" hardships of )he prole)aria),#hi"h, in"iden)ally, in no #ay eD"eed )hose of )he /ussian peasan)ryH nor is i) a :ues)ion of )he/ussian peasan)=s so"ial habi)s, agains) #hi"h )he -es) ;uropean indus)rial #orker "an a) any ra)e"oun)er his habi) of "olle")ive labour and all kinds of asso"ia)ions. 4o, here i) is a :ues)ion of a?fearful ou)break on )he par) of )he ... prole)arians@, and even in )his respe") hernyshevsky "onsiders)he prin"iple of "ommunal land )enure, ?#hi"h safeguards us agains) )he fearful ul"er of prole)arianism@, a ?benefi"ial@ one. One "anno) imagine )ha) )he fa)her of /ussian so"ialism adop)ed)he same )errified a))i)ude )o )he poli)i"al movemen)s of )he #orking "lass as 6aron von aD)hausen.

One "anno) imagine )ha) he #as )errified by )he very fa") of )he prole)aria)=s revol). One "an only presume )ha) he #as perpleDed by )he defea) of )he #orking "lass in 1838, )ha) his sympa)hy #i)h )he
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poli)i"al movemen)s of )he #orking "lass #as poisoned by )he )hough) )ha) poli)i"al revolu)ions #ere#i)hou) resul) and )ha) )he bourgeois regime #as barren. >u"h an eDplana)ion seems a) leas) probable ifno) "er)ain #hen #e read some pages of his ar)i"le


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1838 and #hose "on"ern #as primarily )o preven) )he people from a"hieving )hese ?abs)ra") righ)[email protected])en, so )o speak, all along )he line, s)unned by )he blo#s of rea")ion, disappoin)ed in i)s radi"al and?demo"ra)i"@ allies in )he bourgeois par)ies, i) had indeed fallen in)o some)hing like a )emporaryle)hargy and sho#ed li))le in)eres) in so"ial :ues)ion s. 6u) so far as i) #as in)eres)ed in )hem i) did no)"ease )o see )he a":uisi)ion of poli)i"al righ)s and )heir ra)ional u)ilisa)ion as a po#erful means of i)seman"ipa)ion. ;ven many of )he so"ialis) se")s #hi"h had formerly been "omple)ely indifferen) )o poli)i"s began )o sho# a grea) in)eres) in i) pre"isely, in )he early fif)ies. +n 9ran"e, for ins)an"e, )he9ourieris)s oined /i))inghausen and prea"hed #i)h grea) energy )he prin"iple of dire") popularlegisla)ion. s for Germany, nei)her )he ?demo"ra)@ Nohann Na"obi and his follo#ers nor )he

ommunis)s of !arD and ;ngels= s"hool #ould have said )ha) for )hem ?i) is almos) indifferen) ho#)he la#s "ould be "hanged@ in )he sense of de"reasing )he po#er and )he #eal)h of )he upper es)a)esand ensuring )he prosperi)y of )he lo#er "lasses. They had a #ell%defined political programme,@irre"on"ilably hos)ile@ by no means )o )he ?aris)o"ra"y alone@.

The -es) ;uropean peasan)ry #as indeed of)en indifferen) )o all ?abs)ra") righ)s@ and #as prepared perhaps o""asionally )o prefer )he >iberian sys)em )o )he ;nglish. 6u) )he poin) is )ha) )rue, i.e., no) bourgeois, bu) socialist demo"ra)s, appeal no) )o )he peasan)s, bu) )o )he prole)aria). The -es);uropean peasan), being a proper)y%o#ner, is "lassed by )hem among )he ?in)ermedia)e s)ra)a@ of )he popula)ion, s)ra)a #hi"h, ?if by "han"e )hey are revolu)ionary, )hey are so only in vie# of )heirimpending )ransfer in)o )he prole)aria), )hey )hus defend no) )heir presen), bu) )heir fu)ure in)eres)s,they desert their own standpoint to place themselves at that of the proletariat .@[17] This dis)in")ion isa very subs)an)ial one. The -es) ;uropean ?demo"ra)s@ did no) emerge from )he barren field of poli)i"al me)aphysi"s un)il )hey learned )o analyse )he "on"ep) ?people@ and )o dis)inguish )herevolu)ionary se")ion of i) from )he "onserva)ive.

To make his s)udy of "ommunal land )enure "omple)e, hernyshevsky should have "onsidered )hema))er from )his las) I so"ial% political I poin) of vie#. e should have sho#n )ha) "ommunal land)enure "an no) only preserve us from )he ?ul"er of prole)arianism@, )ha) i) no) only offers manyadvan)ages for )he developmen) of agri"ul)ural )e"hnology *i.e., for ma"hine "ul)iva)ion of large )ra")sof land , bu) )ha) i) "an also "rea)e in /ussia us) as a")ive, re"ep)ive and impressionable, us) asenerge)i" and revolu)ionary a popula)ion as )he -es) ;uropean prole)arians. 6u) he #as preven)edfrom doing so by his "onsidering )he ?people@ in ?nearly all "oun)ries@ of -es)ern ;urope as an?ignoran)@ and in )he ma ori)y of "ases ?illi)era)e@ mass, indifferen) )o ?abs)ra")@ poli)i"al righ)s. isla"k of dep)h in unders)anding )he poli)i"al role of )he -es) ;uropean prole)aria) made i) impossiblefor him )o sugges) a "omparison #i)h )he poli)i"al fu)ure of )he /ussian peasan)s in )he village"ommuni)y. The passivi)y and poli)i"al indifferen"e of )he /ussian peasan) "ould no) embarrass one#ho eDpe")ed no grea) independen) poli)i"al a")ion from )he #orking "lass in )he -es). This

"ir"ums)an"e provides one reason #hy hernyshevsky limi)ed his s)udy of "ommunal land )enure )o"onsidera)ions in )he sphere of la#, )he dis)ribu)ion of )he produ")s and agronomi"s, and did no) se) )he:ues)ion of )he poli)i"al influen"e of )he village "ommuni)y on )he s)a)e and of )he s)a)e on )he village"ommuni)y.

This :ues)ion remained unelu"ida)ed. s a resul), )he :ues)ion of )he me)hod of )ransi)ion from"ommunal landtenure )o "ommunalcultivation and I #ha) is )he "hief )hing I )o )he final )riumph ofso"ialism, #as no) elu"ida)ed ei)her. o# #ill )he rural "ommuni)y of )oday pass over in)o a"ommunis) "ommune or be dissolved in a "ommunis) s)a)eJ o# "an )he revolu)ionary in)elligen)sia promo)e )hisJ hat Is one by )his in)elligen)siaJ !us) )hey suppor) "ommunal land )enure and"ondu") "ommunis) propaganda, es)ablish produ")ion asso"ia)ions similar )o era Pavlovna=s se#ing

shops in )he hope )ha) in )ime bo)h )hese shops and )he rural "ommuni)ies #ill unders)and )headvan)ages of )he so"ialis) sys)em and se) abou) in)rodu"ing i)J (e) us suppose so, bu) )his #ill )ake a
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long )ime, and #ha) guaran)ee is )here )ha) i) #ill al#ays go s)raigh) and smoo)hly, )ha) )here #ill beno unforeseen obs)a"les or uneDpe")ed )urnsJ nd #ha) if )he governmen) )akes measures agains)so"ialis) propaganda, prohibi)s )he asso"ia)ions, pla"es )heir members under poli"e surveillan"e oreDiles )hemJ !us) #e s)ruggle agains) )he governmen) and #in freedom of spee"h, assembly andasso"ia)ionJ 6u) )hen #e shall have )o admi) )ha) >iberia is no) superior )o ;ngland, )ha) )he ?abs)ra")righ)s@ #hi"h )he ?liberals make a fuss abou)@ are a ne"essary "ondi)ion for )he people=s developmen)Hin a #ord, )ha) #e mus) s)ar) )he poli)i"al s)ruggle. 6u) "an #e "oun) on a favourable ou)"ome of )ha)s)ruggle, "an #e #in poli)i"al freedom of any dura)ionJ 9or, ?argue as you like, only )hose s)rivingsare po#erful, only )hose ins)i)u)ions las)ing, #hi"h are suppor)ed by )he popular masses@, and in/ussia, if no) in o)her "oun)ries, )hose masses a))a"h no impor)an"e )o ?)he righ) of free spee"h@ andunders)and absolu)ely no)hing abou) ?)he righ) of parliamen)ary deba)e@. +f i) is ?for )ha) very reason@)ha) liberalism ?is "ondemned )o impo)en"e@, #here #ill )he so"ialis)s ge) )heir s)reng)h from #hen)hey begin )he s)ruggle for ?)he righ)s #hi"h are )he ob e")s of )he desires and effor)s of )he liberals@J

o# "an )his diffi"ul)y be over"omeJ 6y adding "on"re)e demands for e"onomi" reforms )o ?)heabs)ra") righ)s@ of poli)i"al freedom "on)ained in )heir programmeJ 6u) )he people mus) be a":uain)ed#i)h )ha) programme, i.e., #e mus) "ondu") propaganda, and in doing so #e again "ome up agains)governmen) perse"u)ion, #hi"h again drives us on )o )he pa)h of poli)i"al s)ruggle, #hi"h is hopelessas a resul) of )he people=s indifferen"e, e)"., e)".

On )he o)her hand, i) is very probable )ha) ?if )he people of )he Mrals live under )heir presen) sys)em )osee ma"hines in)rodu"ed in)o "orn%gro#ing, )hey #ill be very glad of having re)ained a sys)em #hi"hallo#s )he use of ma"hines )ha) re:uire big%s"ale farming embra"ing hundreds ofdessiatines .@ +) isalso highly probable )ha) )hose peasan) asso"ia)ions also ?#ill be glad@ #hi"h ?survive under )heir presen) sys)em@ un)il )he in)rodu")ion of agri"ul)ural ma"hines. -ell, #ha) #ill )hose agri"ul)uris)s beglad abou)who do not survive ?under )heir presen) sys)em@J -ha) #ill )he rural prole)arians be gladabou) #ho have had )o hire )hemselves as labourers )o members of )he village "ommuni)yJ The la))er#ill "on)rive )o "arry )he eDploi)a)ion of labour po#er )o )he same degree of in)ensi)y as in priva)efarms. Thus )he /ussian ?people@ #ill divide in)o )#o "lassesC eDploi)ers I )hecommunities , andeDploi)ed I )heindividuals . -ha) #ill be )he fa)e a#ai)ing )his ne# "as)e of pariahsJ The -es);uropean prole)arians, #hose ranks are "ons)an)ly s#elling )hanks )o )he "on"en)ra)ion of "api)al, "anfla))er )hemselves #i)h )he hope )ha), slaves )oday, )hey #ill be independen) and happy #orkers)omorro#. +s )he same "onsola)ion available for )he /ussian prole)arians, #hose numeri"al in"rease#ill be re)arded by )he eDis)en"e of "ommunal land )enureJ !us) )hey no) eDpe") hopeless slavery, as)ern s)ruggle

ithout triumph# without reconciliation"

-hose side #ill our so"ialis) in)elligen)sia have )o )ake in )ha) s)ruggleJ +f )hey suppor) )he prole)aria),#ill )hey no) have )o burn every)hing )hey had adored and re e") )he "ommuni)y as a s)ronghold of pe))y%bourgeois eDploi)a)ionJ

+f su"h :ues)ions did no) o""ur )o hernyshevsky, #ho #ro)e abou) "ommunal land )enure beforeserfdom #as abolished and "ould hope )ha) )he developmen) of )he rural prole)aria) #ould be madeimpossible by some legisla)ive measures or o)hers, all or nearly all )hose :ues)ions should inevi)ablyhave o""urred )o our revolu)ionaries of )he seven)ies, #ho kne# )he na)ure of )he no)orious /eform of9ebruary 1'.


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