Ottoman Empire

Bragging Rights Most long-lived of post-Mongol Muslim Empires

Extended to Eastern Europe, Syria, Egypt, and across North Africa.

Similar to new centralized monarchies of France & Spain

Lasted from around 1300 to 1922

Origins Established c.1300

Grew from a tiny state in northwestern Anatolia due to 3 factors◦ Shrewdness of founder, Osman & his descendents◦ Control of strategic link between Europe & Asia through the Dardanelles

strait◦ Awesome army

◦ Skills of Turkish cavalrymen◦ New possibilities from gunpowder

Expansion At first, focused on Christian enemies in Greece & the Balkans

◦ 1389 – captured Serbian kingdom at Battle of Kosovo◦ 1402 – Southeastern Europe & SE Anatolia◦ 1453 – Siege on Constantinople (ended 1100 years of Byzantine rule…)

Selim I “The Grim” – Egypt & Syria in 1516 & 1517

Suleiman the Magnificent presided over greatest assault on Christian Europe◦ 1521 – Belgrade◦ 1522 – expelled Knights of the Hospital of St John from Rhodes◦ 1529 – siege on Vienna (saved by winter)◦ Imperial system worked to perfection

Also sought control of Mediterranean ◦ War with Venice 1453-1502 (would last about 2 centuries in the long run) reducing

Venetian military power◦ Combated Portuguese threats at Ade, but didn’t stifle Portuguese domination

Classical Society & Administration

Societal division: Osmanli & Raya◦ Ruling class: loyal to sultan, practice Islam,& knowledgeable of Ottoman customs,

behavior & language◦ Imperial/Palace◦ Military◦ Administrative/Treasury◦ Religious (Ulama)

◦ Social mobility based on those characteristics◦ Rayas produced wealth for the sultan by farming or engaging in trade & paying

taxes◦ At local level, divisions within subject class determined by religion◦ Millets – self-contained, autonomous community with own laws & customs responsible to the sultan

for taxes & security◦ Made rules for marriage, divorce, health, education, justice◦ Purpose – keep different peoples separated to minimize conflict in a highly heterogeneous state

◦ Guilds – reuglated economic activities, setting quality & pricing standards

Military State Best organized state in Europe and the Islamic World by 1520s

Military: Cavalry archers + Janissaries◦ Christian prisoners of war serving as military slaves◦ Very elite, deadly force◦ Held significant political influence◦ Fought on foot with guns◦ Trained year-round

Selection changed in early 15th century – devshirme: regular levy of male children on Christian villages in the Balkans◦ Sent to sultan’s palace for education in Islam, military training, 7 liberal arts◦ Produced Janissary soldiers, senior military commanders, & heads of government departments

Cavalrymen supported by land grants & administered rural areas in Anatolia & the Balkans◦ Maintained order, collected taxes, etc.◦ Stayed at home when not on campaign

Navy manned by Greek, Turkish, Algerian, & Tunisian sailors

Successful in wars against the Safavids◦ Balanced land & naval capabilities◦ Safavids slower to adopt firearms

Military class spoke Osmanli, a blend of Turkish, Arabic, and Persian that was distinct from nomads & villagers’ languages◦ Also exempt from taxes◦ Saw sultan as providing justice for ‘flock of sheep’ & military as protectors

Running an Empire Raya paid taxes to support sultan & military

Sultan’s government was pretty isolated from most subjects

As Islam spread in the Balkans, Shari’a law conditioned urban institutions & social life

Local customs prevailed in rural areas

Non-Muslims looked to religious leaders for guidance in family matters

Crisis of Military State 1585-1650

Size & cost of janissary corps increased as technology evolved (cannons, firearms, etc.) role of Turkish cavalry diminished

◦ Reduced number of landholding cavalrymen to pay janissaries◦ Inflation from New World silver bankrupted remaining landholders◦ Displaced, angry, armed cavalrymen became restive element in rural Anatolia

Revolts devastated Anatolia 1590-1610◦ Former cavalrymen◦ Peasants overburdened by taxes◦ Impoverished students of religion

Janissaries increased influence◦ Married◦ Engaged in commerce◦ Made membership in corps hereditary

Greatly changed structure of Ottoman administration

Economic Change & Weakness

Before: sultan led armiesNow: mostly resided in palace & affairs of gov’t were overseen by administrators

◦ Suleiman the Magnificent marked peak of Ottoman grandeur◦ Increasing lack of ability & power in sultans declined the empire◦ Grand Viziers, second to the sultan, stood in for sultan in official functions◦ But, separation of political loyalty (to sultan) and central authority (grand vizier) led to decline in government’s

ability to impose its will

Janissaries powerful in urban politics

Tax farming rose in place of land grants for military service◦ Tax farmers paid specific taxes in advance in return for collecting a greater amount from actual taxpayers◦ Rural administration suffered & lost control to tax farmers

Simultaneously, military power ebbed◦ Janissaries concerned elsewhere, now ill-trained ◦ Second Siege on Vienna failed 1683

Lacked wealth & inclination to match European economic advances◦ Trade agreements first granted as favors by powerful sultans eventually led to domination of Ottoman seaborne

trade◦ Didn’t have a sizable port to reach colonial settlement or direct control of Ottoman territory though◦ Tulip Period – European fashions in favor, named for high-priced Dutch tulip bulbs from 1718-1730

Reform Efforts Attempts at reform in 17th century

Responses to crises & military defeats◦ War with Austrian Habsburgs began in 1593 & threatened Ottoman control in SE Europe◦ Subsequent Treaty of Zsitvatorok (1606) restored rule of Hungary & Romania, but showed Ottoman weakness to

Europeans◦ Rise of Iran to be a major threat◦ War with Venice◦ Provincial revolts

Basically efforts to restore inherited system of government of the past◦ Restore tax farm system as basis of administration & army◦ Limits to taxes◦ Suppress revolts◦ Forced peasants back to land◦ Cultivation increased◦ Fixed coinage problems◦ Corrupt officials executed◦ Insubordination driven out◦ Industry & trade encouraged

Sufficient to end immediate difficulties, but successful only temporarily◦ Monopoly of self-interested ruling class persisted◦ Europe also more powerful than it was in the past

Military Defeats 1683-1792

Reforms made empire appear strong, so attempted to siege Vienna again.. Didn’t work.

Coalition emerged among European countries to destroy Ottoman empire in 18th century (Habsburgs, Venice, Russia)

◦ Ottomans were supported by France, Sweden, & (neutral) Britain

Fought wars with Europeans from Second Siege of Vienna to Treaty of Jassy

◦ Lost Hungary, Banat of Temesvar region, Transylvania, and Bukovina (boundary @ Danube River)

◦ Lost all possessions on northern coast of Black sea by 1812◦ Compelled to allow Russians & Austrians to intervene legally on behalf of

sultan’s Christian subjects, increasing European influence on internal Ottoman affairs

Imperial Decline: 18-19th Centuries

Continuations of earlier conditions + weakness of central government = loss of control of most provinces to local ruling notables

◦ Resembled European feudalism

Notables gained power & maintained control◦ Sultan unable to suppress them◦ Local population preferred their rule to that of incompetent, corrupt Ottoman officials◦ Utilized local nationalism in Balkan Christian communities◦ Formed mercenary armies◦ Collected taxes & sent only nominal payments to treasury, increasing its problems

Central gov’t able to maintain position by playing local rebels against each other & taking cash payments when needed

◦ Didn’t suffer from provincial revolts as much as would be imagined

Revolts did disrupt food supplies & caused large-scale famines to starve major cities on regular basis urban populace became restless, anarchic mass responding to unemployment, famine, and plague