Other chemical defense

Bees: StingersIsoamyl Acetate

Ants: Formic acid

Actually, at least 11 hypotheses have been proposed.

T. Caro has observed more than 200 occasions in response to cheetahs: stotting gazelles have never been seen to be caught.

gazelles stott to proclaim to the cheetah that it has been detected and no longer has surprise in its favor.

Cheetahs often do give up after stotting.

Adaptive anti predator behaviors

Alarm calls

 leopard  bark

 eagle  cough

 snake  chutter

Altruistic defense behaviors in vervet monkeys

The rewards of social livingFlock vigilance, dilution effects and selfish herds

Vigilance

Flock vigilance: 2 eyes are better than oneDilution effects: you cant eat us allSelfish herds: surround yourself with food

Vigilance behavior can be conditional on risk

House sparrows chirp (attracting) more when risk is lowIs this a selfish behavior?

Dilution effects in may flies

Cicadas use dilution effect

Dilution effect: While living in a group may attract more predators the net individual risk is reduced

Whirligig beetles

Selfish herds; surround yourself with food

Adelie penguins

Selfish herding behavior in bluegills