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Loren Cordain, Ph.D.
Professor
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO USA
Origins and Evolution of
The Western Diet:
Health Implications
for the 21st Century
Homo sapiens
H. neanderthalensis
H. antecessor
H. heidelbergensis
H. erectus
H. ergaster
Au.
rudolfensis
Au.
bahrelghazali
Au.
anamensis
Australopithecus
habilis
Au. garhi
Au.
africanus
Au. afarensis
P. robustus
Paranthropus
boisei
Ardipithecus
ramidus
Orrorin
tugenensis
Sahelanthropus
tchadensis
Kenyanthropus
platyops
P. aethiopicus
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Millio
ns o
f Y
ea
rs
The Hominin Fossil Record:
Plio-Pleistocene Diets
As many as 22 hominin species may have existed since the evolutionary split between hominins and pongids (5-7 MYA)
No universal diet existed, but rather varied by ecologic niche, season, geographic locale, availability of edible foods
Wood B. Palaeoanthropology: hominid revelations for Chad. Nature 2002:418:133-35
Pleistocene
Pliocene
H. floresiensis
Au. sediba
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:
The Known – An Omnivorous Diet
Minimally Processed,
Wild Plants and Animals
!Kung Woman displays fruits
of her gathering: tamma melons,
grewia berries, tortoise, roots
The Diet of Our Closest Living Relatives
Pan troglodytes, Pan paniscus
Primarily frugivorous
Diet varies by habitat & season
~3-5 % animal foods (small vertebrates & insects)
During the dry season meat intake may reach ~ 65 g/day in adults
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:
An Omnivorous Diet – The Evidence
1. Schoeninger MJ, Moore J, Sept JM. Am J Primatol 1999;49:297-314
2. Teleki G. The omnivorous diet. . . In: Omnivorous Primates,Columbia Univ Press, NY, 1981
3. Stanford CB. The hunting ecology of wild chimpanzees: implications for the evolutionary
ecology of Pliocene hominids. Am Anthropol 1996;98:96-113.
Wild Chimps Eating Bushbuck
-12 -10 -8 -6 2 -4 -2 0
Chasmoporthetes
(Pliocene hyena)
Hyaena brunea
Crocuta-spotted hyena
Meganteron - sabertooth
Australopithecus africanus
P. Pardus - leopard
Paranthropus robustus
Homo
Theropithecus - Baboon
Papio sp. - Baboon
Procavia sp. - Hyrax
Suids
Grazers
Browsers
13C %o
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:
An Omnivorous Diet – The Evidence Stable Isotopes
more C3 more C4
(Grasses, Sedges)
Lee-Thorp J et al. J Human
Evol 2000;39:565-76
A. africanus
“ It now seems inescapable that
all hominid species inhabiting the
S. African landscape from the late
Pliocene to the early Pleistocene
exploited foods of C4 grass origin
and were very likely all
omnivorous ”
Sponheimer M et al. Science 1999;283:368-70
Homo sapiens
H. neanderthalensis
H. antecessor
H. heidelbergensis
H. erectus
H. ergaster
Au.
rudolfensis
Au.
bahrelghazali
Au.
anamensis
Australopithecus
habilis
Au. garhi
Au.
africanus
Au. afarensis
P. robustus
Paranthropus
boisei
Ardipithecus
ramidus
Orrorin
tugenensis
Sahelanthropus
tchadensis
Kenyanthropus
platyops
P. aethiopicus
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Millio
ns o
f Y
ea
rs
Pleistocene
Pliocene
H. floresiensis
Au. sediba
Beginning at least 2.5 MYA, a number of lines of evidence indicate increasing reliance upon animal foods by some species of hominins
Mo
re A
nim
al
Fo
od
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:
The Uncertain – How Much Plant Food?
How Much Animal Food?
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:
Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence
Semaw S. et al. 2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 1997;385:333-6
Oldowan Lithic Technology
First Appears 2.5-2.6 MYA
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:
Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence Earliest Meat & Marrow Extraction (2.5 MYA)
SEM
Hammerstone
Percussion Pits
Scanning electron microscopy
of a stone cut mark on the medial
surface of an Alcelaphine bovid
(wildebeest/Hartebeest) mandible
made during tongue removal
Hammerstone pits on Bovid
right tibial midshaft made during
marrow extraction
De Heinzelin J et al. Science 1999; 284:625-29
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
Observed (65 kg Human) Expected (Similar Sized
Primate)
Org
an
We
igh
t (g
m)
Heart Heart
Kidney
Liver
Gut
Brain
Kidney
Liver
Gut
Brain
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:
Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence The Expensive Tissue Hypothesis
Aiello LC et al. Curr Anthropol 1995;36:199-222.
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:
Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence The Expensive Tissue Hypothesis
Chimpanzee
Modern Human
Australopithecine
Aiello LC et al. Curr Anthropol 1995;36:199-222.
INTERPRETATION:
Relaxation of selective pressure formerly requiring a large gut cause by:
Increase in dietary quality
Increase in energy density
Decrease in fibrous, high roughage plant foods
Increase in animal foods
Lake Turkana, Kenya
H. ergaster
1.65 MYA
Dmanisi, Georgia
H. ergaster/erectus
1.8 MYA Zhoukoudian, China
H. erectus
800,000 YA
Longgupo, China
H. erectus
1.9 MYA
Java
H. erectus
1.6-1.8 MYA
Java
H. erectus
~40,000 YA
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence
Northern Latitude Colonization
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence
Evolutionary Biochemical Adaptations Similar to Carnivores
Cats Humans
1. Synthesis of Taurine Lacking Inefficient (Semi-conditional)
2. Synthesis of vitamin A
from beta carotene Lacking Inefficient
3. Desaturase enzymes Extremely low Low
4. Dietary B12 requirement Essential Essential
Cordain L et al. The paradoxical nature of hunter-gatherer diets:
meat based, yet non-atherogenic. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002;56 (suppl 1): s42-s52
Homo sapiens
H. neanderthalensis
H. antecessor
H. heidelbergensis
H. erectus
H. ergaster
Au.
rudolfensis
Au.
bahrelghazali
Au.
anamensis
Australopithecus
habilis
Au. garhi
Au.
africanus
Au. afarensis
P. robustus
Paranthropus
boisei
Ardipithecus
ramidus
Orrorin
tugenensis
Sahelanthropus
tchadensis
Kenyanthropus
platyops
P. aethiopicus
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Millio
ns o
f Y
ea
rs
Pleistocene
Pliocene
H. floresiensis
Au. sediba
Mo
re A
nim
al
Fo
od
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:
The Uncertain – How Much Plant Food?
How Much Animal Food?
Clearly, plant:animal subsistence would have varied by season, geographic locale and food availability
Were there general trends?
The ethnographic data
Gray JP. A corrected ethnographic atlas. World Cultures J 1999;10(1):24-85.
Analysis included 229 World Wide Hunter Gatherer Societies
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Uncertain – How Much Plant Food?
How Much Animal Food?
!Kung Hunter-Gatherers
Butchering Giraffe
Clues From Historically
Studied Hunter Gatherers:
Cordain L et al. Plant to animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy
estimations in world wide hunter gatherer diets. Am J Clin Nutr, 2000, 71:682-92
Frequency Distribution of Subsistence Dependence
upon GATHERED PLANT FOODS in World Wide
Hunter Gatherer Societies (n = 229)
11
35
4245
3530
23
62 0
05
101520253035404550
0-5
6-1
5
16-2
526-3
5
36-4
5
46-5
5
56-6
5
66-7
576-8
586-1
00
So
cie
ties (
n)
% Dependence
Mode = (26-35%)
Median =(26-35%)
Only 13.5% of all
societies have
> 56%
subsistence
upon gathered plant
foods
Cordain L et al. Plant to animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy
estimations in world wide hunter gatherer diets. Am J Clin Nutr, 2000, 71:682-92
Frequency Distribution of Subsistence Dependence
upon TOTAL (FISHED + HUNTED) ANIMAL FOODS
in World Wide Hunter Gatherer Societies (n = 229)
0 26
23
3035
4542
35
11
05
101520253035404550
0-5
6-1
5
16-2
526-3
5
36-4
5
46-5
5
56-6
5
66-7
576-8
586-1
00
So
cie
ties (
n)
% Dependence
Mode = (56-65%)
Median =(56-65%)
58 % of all
societies
have > 56%
subsistence
dependence
upon animal foods
Cordain L et al. Plant to animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy
estimations in world wide hunter gatherer diets. Am J Clin Nutr, 2000, 71:682-92
Shortcomings of
Ethnographic Data
The majority of
ethnographic data is
subjective & not
quantitative
However, a few
quantitative studies
of hunter-gatherer
diet do exist
Bannock Indians (circa 1870)
% animal % plant
Population Location Latitude food food Reference
Aborigines
(Arhem Land) Australia 12S 80 20 McArthur, 1960
Ache Paraguay 25S 90 10 Hill et al, 1984
Anbarra Australia 12S 87 13 Meehan, 1982
Efe Africa 2N 44 56 Dietz et al, 1989
Eskimo Greenland 69N 96 4 Sinclair, 1953; Krogh & Krogh, 1914
Gwi Africa 23S 24 76 Silberbauer, 1981; Tanaka, 1980
Hadza Africa 3S 54 46 Blurton Jones et al, 1997;
Hawkes et al, 1989
Hiwi Venezuela 6N 78 22 Hurtado & Hill, 1986;
Hurtado & Hill, 1990
!Kung1 Africa 20S 33 67 Lee, 1968
!Kung2 Africa 20S 68 32 Yellen, 1977
Nukak Columbia 2N 61 39 Politis G, 1996
Nunamiut Alaska 68N 99 1 Binford, 1978
Onge Andaman 12N 81 19 Rao et al, 1989; Bose, 1964
Islands
MEAN 69 31
Without Eskimo, Nunamiut 64 36
The 13 Quantitative Studies of Hunter
Gatherer Animal: Plant Subsistence
Cordain L et al. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002;56 (suppl 1): s42-s52
Richards MP et al. Neanderthal diet at
Vindija and neanderthal predation: the
evidence from staple isotopes. Proc Natl
Acad Sci 2000;97:7663-66 0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Neanderthal 1 Neanderthal 2
Wolf Actic Fox
Herbivore Bison
Deer
d1
5N
(%
o)
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Uncertain – How Much Plant Food?
How Much Animal Food?
Clues From
Stable Isotopes: “The isotope evidence overwhelmingly
points to the Neanderthals behaving
as top-level carnivores”
Neanderthal Mandible, Vi-207 11.41
from Vindija (29,080 + 400 Yr BP)
Richards MP et al. Gough’s Cave
Human stable Isotope values
indicate a high animal protein diet.
J Archaeolog Sci 2000;27:1-3. 0
2
4
6
8
H. sapien1 H. sapien2
H. sapien3 H.sapien4
H. sapien5 Arctic Fox
Deer Auroch
Horse
d1
5N
(%
o)
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Uncertain – How Much Plant Food?
How Much Animal Food?
Gough’s Cave Adult Cranium,
OXA 2796 (12,380 + 110 yr BP)
Clues From
Stable Isotopes:
“We were testing the hypothesis that
these humans had a mainly hunting
economy, and therefore a diet high in
animal protein. We found this to be the
case. . .”
Minimally Processed,
Wild Plants
Highly Processed, Refined Foods
What are the Health
Implications?
Minimally Processed,
Wild Animals
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten
These foods comprise (>70% energy)
in typical Western Diets
But were virtually unknown in
Ancestral Human Diets
Breads, Cereals, Rice and Pasta Dairy Products Added Salt
Refined Vegetable Oils Refined Sugars
(except honey) Alcohol
Cordain et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;71:682-92
Processed
Meats
Refined sugars, grains, vegetable oils and
dairy = 70.9% of energy in the U.S. food supply
Refined sugars, grains, vegetable oils and dairy represent
Neolithic & Industrial era foods that were not present in traditional
ancestral human diets
By default, their inclusion displaces minimally processed, wild
plant and animal foods.
15.71.4
3.1
3.3
4.8
0.8
10.623.9
17.8
18.6
Refined
Sugars Refined
Vegetable Oils
Vegetables
Fruits
Grains
Nuts, Seeds
Legumes
Eggs
Dairy
Meats,
Fish
Miscellaneous
Gerrior S, Bente I. 2002. Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply, 1909-99: A Summary Report.
U.S.D.A, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Home Economics Research Report No. 55
Evolution of the Western Diet:
Neolithic (10,000 to 5,500 yrs ago) Food
Introductions
10,0
00
9,0
00
8,0
00
7,0
00
6,0
00
5,0
00
4,0
00
3,0
00
2,0
00
1,0
00
Years ago
0 66 100 133 167 200 233 267 300 333 Human
Generations
(30 yrs)
pre
sen
t
33
SUCROSE
WHEAT & BARLEY DOMESTICATED ~10,000 YRS AGO
WINE AND BEER
SHEEP, GOATS, COWS DOMESTICATED
FIRST DAIRYING EVIDENCE
FIRST SALT MINES
Evolution of the Western Diet:
Industrial Revolution (~200 yrs ago)
1798
1828
1858
1888
1918
1948
1978Year
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 Human
Generations
(30 yrs)
20
08
1
REFINED GRAINS
HFCS
HYDROGENATED OILS
SUCROSE
REFINED VEGETABLE OILS
FEEDLOT PRODUCED MEATS
Evolution of the Western Diet:
Industrial Revolution Processed Foods – The 20th Century
1898
1908
1918
1928
1938
1948
1958
1968
1978
1988
1998Year
O 2 3 4
Human
Generations
(30 yrs)
20
08
1
1900: HERSHEY’S CHOCOLATE BAR
1902: PEPSI
1906: KELLOGS CORN FLAKES
1911: CRISCO
1913: OREO COOKIE
1921: WONDERBREAD
1928: RICE KRISPIES
1932: CORN CHIPS
1941: M&M’s
1952: SUGAR FROSTED FLAKES
1969: PRINGLES CHIPS
Neolithic and Industrial Era
Foods: Nutritional Implications As Neolithic & Industrial Era foods
displace minimally processed, wild plant and animal foods, they adversely affect the following nutritional factors:
1. The Glycemic Load
2. The Fatty Acid Balance
3. The Macronutrient Balance
4. The Trace Nutrient Density
5. The Acid/Base Balance
6. The Sodium/potassium Balance
7. The Fiber Content
Disruption of these 7 nutritional
components fundamentally underlies
much of the chronic diseases in the
Western World
Item % total energy
Whole grains 3.5
Refined grains 20.4
TOTAL: 23.9
85 % of all grains are
consumed as refined grains
Gerrior S, Bente I. 2002. Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply, 1909-99: A Summary Report.
U.S.D.A, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Home Economics Research Report No. 55
Contribution of Cereals
To Total Energy in the U.S. Diet
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten
(Cereals)
Cereal grains which are
the seeds of grasses
(Poaceae) in their wild
state are:
1. Small
2. Difficult to harvest
3. Minimally digestible
without (a) grinding to
break down cell walls (b)
cooking to gelatinize
starch granules
Cordain L. Cereal grains: humanity’s double edged sword. World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics
1999;84:19-73
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten
(Cereals)
Bar-Yosef O. The Natufian culture in the Levant, threshold to the origins of agriculture. Evol
Anthropol 1998; 6:159-177.
Wright K. The origins and development of ground stone assemblages in Late Pleistocene Southwest
Asia. Paleorient 1991;17:19-45
Thus, the appearance of
crude grindstones and
mortars in the Middle East
(Natufians) and elsewhere
(10-15,000 years ago) heralds
the beginnings of humanity’s
use of cereal grains as a
staple food
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten
(Cereals)
How Cereals Were Milled
until about 1880
Water or Draft Animal
Powered Stone Mill
100% extraction, unless
flour sieved of bran
Human Mortar & Grindstone
100% of flour (endosperm,
germ, bran) used – hence
100 % extraction
Evolution of the Western Diet: Industrial Food Introductions (Refined Cereals)
Steel rollers squeeze endosperm out of coating to leave germ & bran to be sieved off
Whereas, Stone mills pulverize & mix germ along with endosperm; bran remains unless sieved; flour particle size is mixed
Multiple breaks with steel rollers = uniformly small particle size
Steel Rollers to Mill Wheat
Invented ~1880
Stone Milling of Wheat
Storck J, Teague WD. A History of Milling. Flour for Man’s Bread. Minneapolis, Univ
Minnesota Press, 1952.
How Steel Roller Milling of Flour
Influences Fiber Content, Particle Size
& Glycemic Index
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
100 90 80 70 60 50 40
Flour extraction Rate (%) Flour Remaining
WHITE BREAD [steel milled particles] - 72% extraction: GI=70
FANCY PATENT FLOURS [steel milled
particles] 40-65% extraction: GI=70-80
WHOLE WHEAT KERNEL -100% extraction [fully intact particle] : GI=41
CRACKED WHEAT KERNEL (bulgur bread) - [cracked
particles] GI=52
WHOLE MEAL FLOUR[steel milled particles] - : GI=69
High Glycemic Foods ALMOST ALL REFINED GRAINS
HAVE HIGH GLYCEMIC INDICES
Rice Chex Cereal 89
Corn flakes 84
Pretzels 83
Rice Krispie Cereal 82
Rice Cakes 82
Rye bread 76
Waffles 76
Total Cereal 76
Graham crackers 74
Cheerios 74
Bagels 72
Short grain white rice 72
Corn chips 72
White bread 70
Whole Wheat bread 69
HIGH G.I. FOODS > 70
MEDIUM G.I. FOODS 55-70
LOW G.I. FOODS < 55
Foster-Powell K et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:5-56
High Glycemic Load Carbohydrates
Promote Diseases of Insulin Resistance
Type 2 Diabetes
Hypertension
Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)
Dyslipidemia (Reduced serum HDL
cholesterol, elevated triglycerides,
elevated VLDL, elevated small
dense LDL cholesterol)
Obesity
Gout
Liu S et al. Dietary glycemic load and atherothrombotic risk. Curr Atherosclerosis Rep 2002;4:454-61
Ludwig DS. The glycemic index. Physiological mechanisms relating to obesity, diabetes and
cardiovascular disease. JAMA 2002;287:2414-23.
The Metabolic Syndrome
Cereal Grains Are Net Acid
Producers
+ values = acid
-values = alkaline
Grains: Meats, Fish, Eggs
Brown rice 12.5 Trout 10.8
Rolled oats 10.7 Turkey 9.9
Whole wheat bread 8.2 Chicken 8.7
Spaghetti 7.3 Eggs 8.2
Cornflakes 6.0 Beef 7.8
White Rice 4.6 Cod 7.1
Dairy: Fruits
Parmesan cheese 34.2 Raisins -21.0
Processed cheese 28.7 Black currants -6.5
Hard cheese 19.2 Bananas -5.5
Cottage Cheese 8.7 Apricots -4.8
Whole milk 0.7 Vegetables
Legumes: Spinach -14.0
Peanuts 8.3 Celery -5.2
lentils 3.5 Carrots -4.9
Peas 1.2 Lettuce -2.5
Potential Renal Acid Loads of Foods (100 g portion)
Remer T, Manz F. Potential renal acid load of foods and its influence on urine pH.
J Am Diet Assoc 1995;95:791-97
Cereal Grains:
Acid/Base Balance
Kurtz I et al. Effect of diet on plasma acid-base composition in normal humans. Kidney Int
1983;24:670-80
The average western diet produces a slight chronic metabolic acidosis
Net Acid Yielding:
1. Cereal Grains = 23.9 % energy
2. Meats, fish = 15.7 % energy
3. Dairy = 10.6 % energy
4. Nuts, legumes = 3.1 % energy
5. Eggs = 1.4 % energy
6. Salt (NaCl) = 9.6 g/day
Net Alkaline Yielding:
1. Vegetables = 4.8 % energy
2. Fruits = 3.3 % energy
Neutral (but displace alkaline foods):
1. Refined sugars = 18.6 % energy
2. Refined Oils = 17.9 % energy
Cereal Grains:
Acid/Base Balance
Sebastian A et al. Estimation of the net acid load of the diet of ancestral preagricultural Homo
sapiens and their hominid ancestors. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:1308-16
The displacement of fruits and
vegetables by cereal grains
shifted hominin diets to net
acid yielding
Diseases promoted by a net
metabolic acidosis:
1. Osteoporosis
2. Hypertension
3. Kidney stones
4. Stroke
Refined Grains Reduce the Trace
Nutrient Density of the Western Diet
20 17
2
2520
33
18
50
24
0
20
40
60
80
100
Biotin Vit E Vit B3 Vit B2 Vit B1 Panto
Acid
Vit K
Whole wheat White flour
Perc
enta
ge
Enriched
Only since 1998 (not
the same as folate!)
Vitamin Depletion from Flour Milling
Vit B6 Folic
Acid
Hyperhomocysteinemia: low B6,
folate = Increased risk for CHD Enriched following WWII
Fo
late
F
oli
c A
cid
Mineral Depletion from Flour Milling
50
33
20 20 1810
75
20 22
0
20
40
60
80
100
Ca Cr Cu Fe Mg Mn Se Zn K
Whole wheat White flour
Perc
enta
ge
Enriched
Refined Grains Reduce the Trace
Nutrient Density of the Western Diet
Diseases: iron deficiency anemia (Fe),
osteoporosis (Ca), hypogonadal dwarfism (Zn)
Both Whole and Refined Cereals
Reduce Fiber Content
624
41
185
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Refined
Cereals
Whole Grain
Cereals
Fruits Non Starchy
Vegetables
To
tal F
ibe
r (g
ram
s)
10
00
kc
al s
am
ple
(n = 3) (n = 8)
(n = 20)
(n = 20)
Diseases: Constipation, appendicitis, hemorrhoids, deep vein
Thrombosis, varicoses veins, diverticulitis, hiatal hernia, gastro-
esophageal reflux
Ancestral Human Diet: Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten
(Dairy)
Ever tried to approach a wild animal?
How about milking it?
Item % total energy
Whole milk 1.6
Low fat milks 2.1
Cheese 3.2
Butter 1.1
Other 2.6
TOTAL: 10.6
Gerrior S, Bente I. 2002. Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply, 1909-99: A Summary Report.
U.S.D.A, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Home Economics Research Report No. 55
Contribution of Dairy Products
To Total Energy in the U.S. Diet
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten
(Dairy)
10,0
00
9,0
00
8,0
00
7,0
00
6,0
00
5,0
00
4,0
00
3,0
00
2,0
00
1,0
00
Years ago
0 66 100 133 167 200 233 267 300 333 Human
Generations
(30 yrs)
pre
sen
t
33
SHEEP, GOATS, COWS DOMESTICATED
FIRST DAIRYING EVIDENCE
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten
(Dairy)
Hiendleder S et al. Proc R Soc Lond B 2002;269:893-904 (SHEEP); Luikart G et al. Proc
Natl Acad Sci 2001;98:5927-32 (GOATS); Loftus RT et al. Mol Ecol 1999 8:2015-22 (COWS)
Evershed RP et al. Nature. 2008;455(7212):528-31
Dairy Foods:
Glycemic Index/Insulin Metabolism
MILK, SKIM MILK, FERMENTED MILK
AND YOGURTS HAVE LOW GLYCEMIC
INDICES
Skim Milk 32
Whole Milk 27
Reduced Fat Yogurt 27
Non Fat Yogurt 24
Fermented Milk (3% fat) 11
BUT PARADOXICALLY HAVE INSULIN
INDICES SIMILAR TO:
White Bread 100
Yogurt 115
Fermented Milk 98
Whole Milk 90
Skim Milk 90
Foster-Powell K et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:5-56
Ostman EM et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:96-100 Hoyt G, Hickey MS, Cordain L. Brit J Nutr
2005;93;175-77.
HIGH G.I. FOODS > 70
MEDIUM G.I. FOODS 55-70
LOW G.I. FOODS < 55
Nilsson M et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:1246-53
Dairy Foods:
Glycemic Index/Insulin Metabolism
CRONIC EFFECTS (Animals)
Intensely milk fed calves experience
insulin resistance, hyperglycemia and
glucosuria. Hostettler-Allen RL et al. J Anim Sci
1994;72:16073
CHRONIC EFFECTS (Humans)
24 8-yr boys consumed 53 g protein as
milk or meat daily for 7-d. “Our results
indicate that a short-term high milk, but
not meat, intake increased insulin
secretion and resistance” Hoppe C et al. Eur J
Clin Nutr 2005;59:393-98.
Health Effects: Dietary Interventions
Detrimental Effects
Nutritional Differences among Wild,
Grass Fed, Grain Fed and Processed Meats
Vs. Vs.
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Rarely Eaten
(Processed, Grain Produced Muscle Meats)
Prior to Agriculture, all animal foods consumed by humans were: Wild Animals
The entire edible carcass (all organs) was usually consumed
In Western countries rarely are meats other than grain produced muscle/processed consumed
Grain Produced & Processed Meats:
Year Round Staples in Western Diets
Hot Dogs
82 % Fat, 14 % Protein
Salami
74 % Fat, 22 % Protein
Ground Beef
64 % Fat, 33 % Protein
T-bone Steak
68 % Fat, 30 % Protein
Bacon
77 % Fat, 21 % Protein
Pork Ribs
72 % Fat, 26 % Protein
Wild vs. Domestic
Animals
Body fat in wild animals
waxes and wanes
seasonally
With the advent of animal
husbandry 10,000 years
ago, it became possible to
attenuate or prevent the
seasonal decline in body fat
% by provisioning captive
animals with plant food
It also became feasible to
consistently slaughter the
animal at peak body fat %
Caribou
Seasonal Change in Wild Mammal
Body Fat % (by Weight)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Mature Bull Caribou Young Bull Caribou Mature Female Caribou
Month of the Year
Spiess AE. Reindeer and Caribou Hunters: An Archaeological Study. New York, Academic
Press, 1979.
Seasonal Change in Wild Mammal
Body Fat % (by Weight)
4.6 3.7 3.2 2.9 3.1 3.3 4.36.9
1216.6
11 9.3
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month of the Year
For 7 months out of the year, the group mean body fat % is 3.6
For the entire year, the mean body fat % is 6.4
Spiess AE. Reindeer and Caribou Hunters: An Archaeological Study. New York, Academic
Press, 1979.
Wild vs. Domestic Animals: Body
Fat Differences
Whereas, wild
caribou body fat
ranges from (3.1
to 6.8 %)
Feed lot
produced cattle
are typically
slaughtered at
(25 to 30 % fat)
Wild Deer
Carcass Feedlot Cattle
Carcasses
Industrial Era Food Introductions:
Feed Lot Produced Beef As feed lot produced beef replaced
traditional grass, pasture and free range beef ~150 years ago the following nutritional factors were adversely affected:
1. The Fatty Acid Balance (increased ω6 fatty acids; reduced ω3 fatty acids
2. The Macronutrient Balance (More Fat/Less Protein)
3. The Trace Nutrient Density (Fat contains fewer vitamins & minerals than muscle or organs per calorie)
Disruption of these 3 nutritional
components may contribute to
many chronic diseases in the
U.S. and elsewhere
Literature Summary (n=7 studies) of ω-3 and
ω-6 Fatty Acid Differences between Grass
and Grain Produced Beef
12.2 28.5 38.5
285
9.539.1
6093.2
171
1.930
50
100
150
200
250
300
18:3n3 LC n-3 PUFA Total n-3 Total n-6 n6/n3
Grain Fed Beef Grass Fed Beef
mg
/100 g
beef
Long Chain (LC) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) =
20:5n3 (EPA), 22:5n3 (DPA), 22:6n3 (DHA)
Cordain L. Grass fed beef in the human diet: Applications to clinical disease, 2007
Vs.
100 g average grain produced steak:
28.5 mg LC ω-3 fatty acids
100 g grass produced steak:
60.0 mg LC ω-3 fatty acids
Diseases linked to reduced ω-3 fatty acids: CHD, the metabolic syndrome,
Certain cancers, autoimmune diseases, many inflammatory (“itis”) diseases
Replacing Fatty Grain Produced Beef
with Lean Grass Fed Beef: Potential
Health Effects: (Omega 3 Fatty Acids: EPA, DPA and DHA
Total Salt (NaCl) in the U.S. Diet (Grams per Day)
Source grams/day
Added in processed foods 7.2
Table salt and cooking use 1.4
Naturally occurring in foods 1.0
TOTAL: 9.6
Gerrior S, Bente I. 2002. Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply, 1909-99: A Summary Report.
U.S.D.A, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Home Economics Research Report No. 55
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Rarely Consumed
(Added Salt)
Salt was known to be
gathered on a dry lake bed in
China ~ 8,000 years ago
First inland salt mines appear
in Europe ~ 6,000 years ago
Hunter gatherers living near
the ocean dipped food in
seawater and used dried sea
salt
Inland hunter-gatherers
rarely used salt on a regular
basis
The first known salt mine in Europe
(6,200 - 5,600 years ago)
The Mountain of Salt
(Cardona, Catalonia, Spain)
Diseases linked to salt consumption: Hypertension, stroke, osteoporosis, kidney
stones, Menierre’s Syndrome, stomach cancer, insomnia, motion sickness, asthma,
exercise induced asthma
Weller O. Antiquity 2002;76:317-18.
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Rarely Consumed
(Added Salt)
Contribution of Refined Sugars to
Total Energy in the U.S. Diet
Item % total energy
Sucrose 8.0
High fructose
corn syrup 7.8
Glucose 2.6
Syrups 0.1
Other 0.1
TOTAL: 18.6
Gerrior S, Bente I. 2002. Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply, 1909-99: A Summary Report.
U.S.D.A, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Home Economics Research Report No. 55
U.S.D.A. Economic Research Service, 2002. Food consumption (percapita) data system, sugars
Sweeteners, Washington D.C.
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Not Consumed
(Refined Sugars)
Crystalline sugar was first
produced from sugar cane
in Northern India in ~ 500
BC
Honey would have always
been part of the human diet,
but was only available
seasonally.
Thus, year round
consumption of refined
sugars would not have been
possible
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Not Consumed
(Refined Sugars)
Galloway JH. The Cambridge World History of
Food, Vol 1. Cambridge Univ Press, 2000, 437-49
Evolution of the Western Diet:
Industrial Era Food Introductions (Refined Sugars)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1745
1760
1775
1790
1805
1820
1835
1850
1865
1880
1893
1905
1915
1922
1930
Year
Pe
r c
ap
ita
co
ns
um
pti
on
(lb
s.)
Per Capita Sugar (Sucrose) Consumption
in the Netherlands (1745-1937)
Evolution of the Western Diet:
Industrial Era Food Introductions (Refined Sugars)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1815
1830
1846
1860
1870
1880
1895
1910
1915
1918
1920
1930
1940
1944
1946
1948
1952
1955
Year
Pe
r c
ap
ita
co
ns
um
pti
on
(lb
s.)
Per Capita Sugar (Sucrose) Consumption
in England (1815-1970)
WWI WWII
020406080
100120140160
1909-
19
1920-
29
1930-
39
1940-
49
1950-
59
1960-
69
1970-
79
1980-
89
1990-
99
2000-
09
All sugars
90 105
123 115
Annual Per Capita Consumption of
Refined Sugars in the U.S. (1909-2009)
113 112 109 127
148
64 %
141
Changes in the Refined Sugar Composition
in the U.S. Diet Since 1970
In 1960, 90 % of the refined
sugar in the U.S. Food
supply came from sucrose
With the advent of
chromatographic
enrichment technology
Beginning in the late 1970’s
it became economically
feasible to manufacture
high fructose corn syrup in
mass quantity from corn
starch Ion Exclusion Chromatography
columns for fructose syrup
manufacture
Cordain L et al. Hyperinsulinemic diseases of
civilization: more than just syndrome X.
Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 2003;136:95-112.
10283
64 66 65
019 50
6453
19 2022
22
16
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
1970 1980 1990 2000 2008
Sucrose High Fructose Corn Syrup Glucose
121 122
151 136
Annual Per Capita Consumption of
Refined Sugars in the U.S. HFCS has increased from 0.4 lb in 1970 to 64 lbs in 2000.
Total fructose (from sucrose & HFCS) has increased from
51.5 lbs in 1970 to 64.9 lbs in 2000 (26 %)
Gerrior S, Bente I. 2002. Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply, 1909-99: A Summary Report.
U.S.D.A, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Home Economics Research Report No. 55
U.S.D.A. Economic Research Service, 2002. Food consumption (percapita) data system, sugars
Sweeteners, Washington D.C.
136
Diseases linked
to refined
sugars:
Metabolic
Syndrome (Type
2 diabetes, CHD,
dyslipidemia,
obesity, gout,
hypertension
Dental caries
Certain cancers
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Not Consumed
(Refined Sugars)
Cordain L et al. Hyperinsulinemic diseases of civilization: more than just syndrome X.
Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 2003;136:95-112.
Contribution of Refined Vegetable
Oils to Total Energy in the U.S. Diet
Item % total energy
Salad, Cooking Oils 8.8
Shortening 6.6
Margarine 2.4
TOTAL: 17.8
Gerrior S, Bente I. 2002. Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply, 1909-99: A Summary Report.
U.S.D.A, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Home Economics Research Report No. 55
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Not Consumed
(Refined Vegetable Oils)
Vegetable Oils are
made via three
processes:
1. Rendering &
pressing (oldest)
2. Steel expeller
pressing (recent)
3. Solvent
extraction (recent)
Oils made from walnuts, almonds
0lives, sesame seeds and flaxseed
were first produced via rendering &
pressing ~ 5-6,000 years ago
However, except for olives most oils were
used for non-food purposes (lubrication,
Illumination, medicine)
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Not Consumed
(Refined Vegetable Oils)
O’Keefe SF. Cambridge World History of Food,
Vol 1. Cambridge Univ Press, 2000, 375-97
High pressure steel expeller
technology developed in the
industrial era + new purification
processes allowed non
traditional oilseeds to be
exploited (i.e. cottonseed –
Wesson oil -- 1899)
The hydrogenation process was
first developed in 1897 which
allowed vegetable oils to
become solidified to produce
shortening and margarine
Yielding novel trans fatty acids
Steel Expeller for the
Extraction of Vegetable Oils
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Not Consumed
(Refined Vegetable Oils)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1909-
19
1920-
29
1930-
39
1940-
49
1950-
59
1960-
69
1970-
79
1980-
89
1990-
99
Margarine Shortening Salad, cooking oils Total Vegetable Oils
Per Capita Change in Refined
Vegetable Oils in the U.S. (1909-99)
Total vegetable oil consumption has increased 459 % since 1909
Gerrior S, Bente I. 2002. Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply, 1909-99: A Summary Report.
U.S.D.A, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Home Economics Research Report No. 55
Salad, Cooking Oil consumption has increased 1340 % since 1909
Margarine consumption has increased 488 % since 1909
Shortening consumption has increased 237 % since 1909
Vegetable oils are high in ω-6 fatty acids (linoleic acid), but low in long chain ω-3 fatty acids (EPA, DPA, DHA)
Diseases linked to high ω-6 (linoleic acid)/ low long chain ω-3 fatty acids :
Metabolic Syndrome (Type 2 diabetes, CHD, dyslipidemia, obesity, gout, hypertension), cancers, autoimmune diseases, virtually all inflammatory (“itis”) diseases
Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Not Consumed
(Refined Vegetable Oils)
Humanity’s Evolutionary
Food Plate
Cordain L et al. Plant-animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in worldwide
hunter-gatherer diets. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:682-92
“My Plate” replaced the USDA
Food Pyramid in June 2011
Fresh Fruits Fresh Veggies
Nuts/Seeds Fish/Seafood Grass Produced
Meats
Healthful
Oils
Recommendations for a Contemporary Diet
Based Upon Paleolithic Food Groups
Thank You!