Organic chemical contamination of groundwater in Australia ...Organic chemical contamination of groundwater in Australia - an overview to 1993 Michael J. Knightl There are an estimated

AGSO Journal of Australian Geology & Geophysics, 14 (2/3), 107-122 © Commonwealth of Australia 1993

Organic chemical contamination of groundwater in Australia -an overview to 1993 Michael J. Knightl

There are an estimated 7000 contaminated si tes in Australia that involve soil, rock and groundwater influenced by manufactured chemicals. Of the 7000, possibly 2000 petrol stations may have leaking facilities or spill effects. More than 183 (non·petrol station) sites in Australia have some probability of organic chemicals in adjacent groundwater. These represent 4% of the 5000 total contaminated sites, excluding petrol stations. The major groundwater impact at this stage of knowledge appears to be in Victoria, Western Australia, and South Australia. Most investiga•tions have been into hydrocarbon bulk storage and refining

Introduction The study of contaminated land, and to a lesser extent groundwater, has been growing since the 1960s. Some early studies of organic chemical contamination of the Botany Sands aquifer from a range sources, sewage pipes, various manufacturing industries, etc., were documented by Smart (1974), who drew on various unpublished State Government Reports, including Wallis (1967) and Hawke (1973).

In Victoria, some pioneering work in the field of phenolic compound contamination of groundwater in Newer Basalt aquifers in and near Melbourne was carried out by Riha (1975, 1977).

Many of these earlier studies were substantially ignored until the 1980s, which then saw an upsurge in knowledge and the beginnings of remediation. This movement has been the result of a combination of a new awareness of the significance of contamination, corporate responsibility, and new and increasingly enforced environmental legisla•tion. A general review of groundwater pollution in Australia, including a limited reference to organic contami•nants, has been reported by Lane (1990).

A recent review of legislation in each state related to contaminated land was provided by Chem. Unit (1991).

The organic chemical contamination has been derived mainly from a range of industrial, manufacturing, servic•ing, and agriculturally related activities. These are listed in Appendix 1 together with the main compounds that are potentially associated. The main groups are:

• pesticide/herbicide related: manufacture/agricultural application;

• hydrocarbon related: petroleum refining, storage and petrol service station supply;

• gas works: past conversion of coal to gas;

• organochlorine solvents: manufacturing, cleaning, de•greasing;

National Centre for Groundwater Management, University of Technology - Sydney (UTS), Broadway, NSW, 2007.

facilities, petrol stations, and gas works sites. Cattle dip sites, numbering in excess of 2000, have had little attention from a groundwater impact point of view. Documentation and knowledge of sites is very variable between states. It appears likely that not all sites have been found in urban or rural areas. Screening techniques using models are suggested to assist with non-point pesticide/herbicide problems of consequence . Remedial action has been limited to organically contaminated sites with only petroleum hydrocarbons, and gas works compounds being seriously attempted . Research and practice on bioremediation is to be encouraged.

• explosive manufacture;

• various specialised compound manufacture and use: electrical and timber industries;

• mixed chemical manufacture and use;

• waste management; and

• spills and accidents.

In this paper, the organic chemicals include those of essentially synthetic origin and exclude those resulting from essentially natural degradation or other processes.

National distribution of organic chemical contaminants in Australia A detailed assessment of available, and as far as possible documented, data on a state-by-state basis has been made. The situation in each state is described in the next section. The national status of probable organic chemical contami•nation of groundwater and its relationship with the total number of contaminated sites (inorganic/organic; with and without groundwater) are summarised in Table l.

The vast majority of these sites, as one would expect, are located in urban capital city areas of each state (Fig. 1). Some of this locational focus reflects the ease of data compilation in relation to the location of the investigators. Country areas have tended to be neglected due to cost and man-power resource problems. However, it is, with the exception of Perth, the country areas where groundwater is most frequently used for stock, crops, and domestic supplies. Fortunately, chemical-producing industries do not generally manufacture in the country. However, distribution and use of chemicals does occur, e.g. pesti•cides/herbicides.

The data in Table 1 suggests that the states with the most problems are Victoria, Western Australia, and New South Wales. Victoria has the highest, because it has a coinci•dence of a large manufacturing base, aquifers (Newer Basalt and Tertiary /Quaternary sands), and a history of vigorous investigation activity. Western Australia (Perth) has an extensive aquifer across the Swan Coastal Plain and, though its manufacturing industrial base is smaller than New South Wales, the probability of contamination is higher due to the limited extent of aquifers in Sydney. One

108 MICHAEL J. KNIGHT

Table 1. State-by-state distribution of sites with a probable organic chemical contaminant component and their proportion of all contaminated sites.

Contaminated sites Location Sites with some probable organic % of total sites Provisional no. of total sites

chemicals in groundwater (some documentation)

Victoria 83 25-31 269 to 330 Western Australia 53 5 1080 New South Wales 16 1 1651*2 Australian Capital Territory 4*1 57*1 7 Queensland ? 1500*2 South Australia 22 7 300 Northern Territory 2 ? Tasmania 3 2 143*3

Totals >183 4 4950-5011*4

Petrol service stations 2000 2000 (national estimate of leakage)

Grand Totals >2183 26-31 6950-7011

*1. Three petrol stations. Petrol stations are not included in other states. If petrol stations ignored, the proportion is 14%. *2. Numerous cattle-dip chemicals, probably mainly involving the soil zone. *3. Consists of 140 landfills (domestic mainly). *4. Excludes about 90 gas works sites that are not documented.

suspects that the number of contaminated sites in New South Wales will rise with time as the new Environment Protection Authority carries out more extensive surveys. The precise definition of the Queensland contaminated sites (large state area, large number of sites) will become clearer over time, if a greater focus of money and investigation is applied.

Organic chemical contaminants in groundwater for various states and terri•tories of Australia Victoria Groundwater contamination by organic chemicals has been evaluated by two State Government agencies and consult•ants:

• Environment Protection Agency (EPA VIC) - Waste Management Branch;

• Osmers (1991, pers comm) and Young (1991, pers comm);

• Department of Conservation and Environment -Groundwater Policy Section (Shugg, 1991, pers comm).

Over the past 10-15 years, the "Groundwater Policy Section" has moved progressively from the Geological Survey of Victoria, to the Department of Industry Technol•ogy and Commerce, to the Department of Water Resources, to the Department of Conservation and Environment, and is currently (1993) in the Department of Conservation and National Resources. There is a publically available register of 73 (inorganic/organic) contaminated sites across Victo•ria (EPA VIC, 1991) and an unpublished consolidated list (not complete) of 124 landfills in the Melbourne-Geelong region, their waste composition, and impact on groundwa•ter (Shugg, 1990). Some industrial/manufacturing sites with organic chemical contamination have been docu•mented in detail with respect to their groundwater impact

as follows .

Phenolic substances: Quarry seepage into Newer Basalt at Footscray (Riha, 1977), and borehole injection into Newer Basalt at Laverton (Riha, 1975).

The extent of phenolic contamination at Footscray is illustrated in Figure 2. These detailed studies in 1975 and 1977 are thought to be some of the earliest extensive investigations of organic contamination of groundwater in Australia.

Petroleum hydrocarbons. There are a number of hydrocar•bon storage sites with sub-surface contamination that have

WESTERN AUSTRALIA

500 km

, \ , NORTHERN \ TERRITORY ,

, I QUEENSLAND ~ ___ ---L_-, '\ SOUTH ~

AUSTRALIA I ------\ I NEW SOUTH

Adel~ WALES

, ""\.. ACT !Sydney VICTOR~ I.. (tCanberra -.. d r.Aelbo;;lne

Geelong 'f' o '\ NTASMANIA

\.J1:obart 19/N392

Figure 1. Location of the States and cities where most groundwater contamination occurs.

252 Sample locality

1 Concentration contours -100- (mglL), June 1973

N

I 100 m

257

19/J55-S/1

Figure 2. Contours of phenolic concentrations(mg/L) in the lower of two Newer Basalt aquifers adjacent to Stony and Kororoit Creeks, West Footscray, Melbourne, Victoria. Data after Riha (1977).

been, and are being, studied in detail. The BP (British Petroleum) facility at Port Melbourne (Bayside), which involves leakage into the Port Melbourne Sands aquifer, has been documented by Shugg (1987). Another quarry seepage site in Newer Basalt was reported by Shugg (1981). Many other sites are documented in confidential consultant's reports.

Gasworks. Several sites have been reported on in publicly accessible reports and papers: Port Melbourne (Port Melbourne Sands; Shugg, 1989) and West Melbourne (Port Melbourne Sands and Coode Island Silt; Parker & Wolfe, 1990).

Statistical summary of groundwater impact, aquifers and organic chemical compounds involved for Victorian contaminated sites It is possible for data in Victoria to statistically summarize the impact ("inferred" and "reasonably certain") of organic chemicals on groundwater, the aquifers involved, and the range of chemical compounds observed. "In•ferred" and "reasonably certain", as used in this paper, are really relative terms and should not be taken in a strict measurement or analytical sense. "Reasonably certain", in most cases, means a higher probability of occurrence than "inferred" and assists in assigning priorities for further detailed analytical study. There are few sites in Victoria (or elsewhere) where detailed analytical support for specific contamination is publically available. No doubt, data are contained in confidential consultant's reports and other files.

Two groupings of available groundwater contamination data are appropriate. One set relates to the sector involving:

industrial-manufacturing sites where on-site disposal has been practised, and

• spill and other accident (e.g. fire) sites.

The base data for this analy sis are:

• register of contaminated sites (EPA VIC, 1991),

ORGANIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION 109

• Shugg (1991, pers comm),

• Osmers (1991, pers comm), and

• Young (1991, pers comm).

The other set of information involves the list of 126 landfills in the Melbourne-Geelong Region (Shugg, 1990).

Industrial-manufacturing and spill-accident sites. The number of organic chemical contaminants (inferred and reasonably certain) impacting groundwater are summarised in Table 2.

Table 2. Organic chemical-aquifer relationships linked to industrial manufacturing/on site disposal/spill and other accident sites over Victoria.

Groundwater contamination

Inferred Reasonably

certain

Organic chemical contamination

Inferred

3 3

Reasonably certain *

17 29

Total contamination

sites (145)

13.8 22.1

Data derived from: EPA VIC (1991), Osmers (1991 pers comm), Young (1991 , pers comm), Shugg (1991 , pers comm).

1. There are four sites with definite organic chemical contamination restricted to soil zone.

2. There are an additional 57 sites (50 gasworks) with inferred organic contamination that have not been studied for soil or groundwater impact.

3. Total sites with inferred/reasonably certain groundwater contaminated by inferred/reasonably certain organic chemicals = 52 (36%) of total documented sites.

There are 52 sites (36%) out of the sample of 145 total contaminated sites across Victoria that potentially suggest groundwater contaminated by organic chemicals. About 5% of the organic-chemical contaminated sites have a significant degree of knowledge (reasonably certain com•pounds/reasonably certain groundwater links).

The distribution of organic-chemical sites (all categories) between the Melbourne-Geelong Region and country areas is as follows:

Melbourne-Geelong Region:

Country:

and includes:

Airport pesticide spills/sheep dip spills:

Gasworks:

Aquifers-industrial/spill sites

41 (79%)

11 (21 %)

6 sites

3 sites

The frequency distribution for aquifers involved in organic chemical contamination is summarised in Table 3.

The two major aquifers involved are the fractured Newer Basalt (42%), and the largely unconsolidated Tertiary and Quaternary sediments (38% of sites with organic contami•nant contamination).

110 MICHAELJ. KNIGHT

Table 3. Frequency of aquifers involved (inferred and reasonably certain) with organic chemical contamination (inferred and reasonably certain) related to industrial manufacturing/on site disposal/spill and other accident sites over Victoria.

Aquifer

Newer Basalt Tertiary /Quaternary sediments

Undifferentiated sediments Port Melbourne Sands Coode Island Silts Yarra Delta Silts Brighton Group Pleistocene/Quaternary alluvium Waurn Ponds Limestone Fyansford Formation

Total Tertiary/Quaternary sediments Uncertain

Totals

No. of sites Frequency %

21

4 4 3 2

3

19

12

52

40

37

23

100

Data compiled from EPA VIC (1991), Osmers (1991, pers comm), Young (1991, pers comm), Shugg (1991, pers comm).

Chemical compound frequency - industrial spill sites. The types and frequency of occurrence of chemical compounds involved are summarized in Table 4. The major contaminants ranked in order to date (1991) are:

• Pesticides/herbicides 31%

• Petroleum hydrocarbons 17%

• Gasworks compounds 13%

• Organic solvents 10%

The pesticide sites are all point sources, either at site of manufacture or spills at point of use (e.g. airport loading).

Landfills with co-disposed organic chemicals in the Melbourne-Geelong region. There are 31 (25%) of the 124 landfill sites in the Melbourne-Geelong region that have some evidence of organic-chemical contaminants influencing groundwater (Table 5).

About 55% of sites with organic-chemical evidence have a considerable degree of knowledge (proven com•pounds/proven groundwater links).

Aquifers - landfills. The frequency distribution of aquifers involved with organic chemical contaminants is

Table 4. Frequency of organic chemical compounds (inferred and reasonably certain) associated with groundwater linked with industrial manufacturing/on site disposal/spill and other accident sites over Victoria.

Pesticides/herbicides Pesticides/dioxins/furans

Compound

Sheep dip (pesticides, arsenic) Pesticides & petroleum hydrocarbons

Total pesticides/herbicides related contaminants

Petroleum hydrocarbons Petroleum hydrocarbons and phenolics

Total petroleum hydrocarbon related contaminants

Gasworks compounds Organic solvents Mixed compounds (undifferentiated) Explosive chemicals (TNT, RDX, etc) Explosives and hydrocarbons

Total explosive chemical related contaminants

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) PCBs, hydrocarbons, poly aromatic hydrocarbons

Total PCB related contaminants

Miscellaneous compounds/groups Phenolics/resins Phenols/dyes Tolune, disocyanate Polyaromatic hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons

Total miscellaneous compounds/groups

Total

No. of occurrences

12

2

8

2 1

1 2

No. of occurrences (grouped)

16

9

7 5 4

3

2

6

52

Data for Table 4 derived from EPA VIC (1991), Osmers (1991, pers comm), Young (1991 , pers comm), Shugg (1991, pers comm).

Frequency %

31

17

13 10

8

6

4

11

100

Table 5. Organic chemical·aquifer relationship related to industrial and domestic waste co-disposal landfills in the Melbourne-Geelong Region.


Inferred Reasonably

certain


Inferred

3 11

Reasonably certain

17

Data derived from: Shugg (1990).

% of total landfill sites

(124)

2.4 22.5

Total landfill sites with groundwater contaminated by inferred and reasonably certain organic chemicals = 31. (25% of total documented sites).

summarized in Table 6.

Table 6. Frequency of aquifers involved (reasonably certain) with organic chemical contamination (inferred and reasonably certain) in industrial and co-disposal landfills in the Melbourne-Geelong region.

Aquifer No. of sites Frequency

Newer Volcanics 19 Tertiary sands (Brighton Group, etc.) 6 Quaternary sands 3

Total 28

Data after Shugg 1990).

68 21 11

100

The exclusive involvement of Newer Basalt (68%) and Tertiary-Quaternary Sands (32.5 %) reflects region abun•dance of quarries used for aggregate and sand extraction prior to being backfilled with waste.

Chemical compound frequency - landfills. The fre•quency of occurrence and types of chemical compounds observed are listed in Table 7. Organic solvents as an individual group are the most frequently occurring (11 %). Most sites are undifferentiated and are described as "mixed" compounds (39%).

W estern Australia There have been three major studies (some ongoing) that have included organic-chemical contamination of ground•water in Western Australia:

• A survey of synthetic organic compounds in Perth drinking water supplies; Jago & Kavanagh (1990) of the Water Authority of Western Australia.

• The development of an inventory list of reasonably certain and inferred groundwater contamination sites which are also located on several map sheets (Perth North and South); Hirschberg (1988) of the Geological Survey of Western Australia and its revision, Hirschberg (1991).

• Ongoing research by the CSIRO Division of Water Resources focussing on hydrocarbons leaking to groundwater from petrol service stations; Barber (1991, pers comm).


Table 7. Frequency of organic chemical compounds (inferred and reasonably certain) associated with groundwater (reasonably certain) linked with landfill sites in the Melbourne-Geelong region.

Compound

Organic Solvents(including turpentine, vinylchloride) Petroleum hydrocarbons Petroleum hydrocarbons (PH) and others

PH + surfactants (1) PH and mixed chemicals (1)

Mixed Mixed and specific compounds

Ethylacrylate Formalin

Gasworks chemicals Specific compounds

Metal naphthenates (1) Hexane (1) Urea/formaldehyde (1) Surfactants (1) Creosote (1) Acrylics (1) Epichlorhydrin polymer (1)

Total

Data interpreted from Shugg (1990).

No. of occurrences

3

2 2

11 2

7

28

Frequency %

11

7 7

39 7

4 25

100

Organic solvents as an individual group are the most frequently occurring (11 %). Most sites are undifferentiated and are described as " mixed " compounds (39%).

The drinking water survey of Jago & Kavanagh (1990) consisted of 182 samples collected from 169 sites (un•treated surface and groundwater sources) and the metro•politan water supply system over the period April to June 1989. These were tested for NHMRC schedule 3, organic chemicals with the main groups being:

• pesticides,

• industrial solvents,

• petroleum hydrocarbons, and

• disinfection by-products.

The surveyed sites showed no gross contamination. Some 95% of samples had no detectable compounds. In all cases, where detectable compounds were observed, they were below NHMRC guideline values and close to detection limits. A significant proportion of the analyses with measurable concentrations were disinfection by-products (trihalomethanes) in a distribution system where chlorine is used for disinfection purposes.

The Hirschberg (1991) report suggests that there could potentially be 1080 contaminated sites in the Perth Basin, all of which overlie groundwater of the Swan Coastal Plain. This represents an increase of 376 sites from Hirschberg (1988). A precise evaluation of every site with respect to reasonably certain or inferred organic chemical contami•nants in groundwater at each site is clearly impossible. Some estimate has been made based on the Hirschberg (1988 and 1991) and Hirschberg (1993, pers comm) subdivision of the data into "proven", redefined here as

112 MICHAEL 1. KNIGHT

"reasonably certain" and "inferred" groundwater con•tamination coupled with a judgement (unchecked) based on stated land-use activities. The conclusions reached are not meant to be precise, but a guiding hypothesis only. The results are summarised in Table 8.

Table 8. Estimate of organic chemical contamination of groundwater from urban land use in the Perth Basin based on the data of Hirschberg (1991) and Hirschberg (1993, pers comm).


Major plumes near Perth l

Landfills proportion2 Total inferred or reasonably certain groundwater contamination sites3

Total organic sites


Inferred Reasonably certain

15

38

53

1. Hirschberg (1993, pers comm.)

Total contamin•ation sites

1080

2. Derived by computing 22% of the 173 landfill sites listed by Hirschberg (1991). This was based on the Melbourne landfill/organic chemical contaminant study by Shugg (1990) and assumes a similar pattern applies. No petrol stations included.

3. After Hirschberg (1991).

Reasonably certain groundwater contaminated sites, either inferred or containing organic chemicals from urban land-use sites, may be about 5% of all inferred and reasonably certain sites . However, there is a high level of uncertainty in the interpretation of the data (landfills especially), and the difficult and costly task of field and laboratory checking is still to be done.

In the survey of Jacobson & Lau (1988), one definite organic chemical contamination (petroleum) incident is listed. Of the other 25, some 14 are listed as "industrial" contaminants; two as "leachate" from landfills . A propor•tion (unknown) of these latter categories could contain organic chemical contaminants.

The research of Barber (1991, pers comm) as stated has focussed on assessing petroleum hydrocarbon leaks (or spills) to groundwater. About eight of the 40 studied (20%) had some definite hydrocarbon evidence, and one has a plume 600 m in length. Two of these sites are reported in detail by Davis & others (this issue).

Hirschberg (1993, pers comm) has indicated that the minor plumes detected near Perth prior to 1991 consisted of: chlorinated phenols, phenoxy herbicides, hydrocarbons (diesel, mixed), and cyclohexanthiol. Post-1991, the new plumes were found to contain: hydrocarbons (4), phenols (2), chlorinated benzenes, surfactants atrazine, organo•phosphorous pesticides, trichloroethylene, and perchlore•thylene. A seepage case of groundwater pollution at Kwinana is documented by Appleyard (this issue).

Order for action under the Environmentally Hazardous Chemicals Act 1985

New South Wales The State Pollution Control Commission (SPCC) had in 1991 a list of 59 contaminated sites that have had a Section 35 notice* issued to landowners. Of these, 43 sites had organic chemicals as contaminants distributed, as shown in Table 9. By 1993, some 95 Section 35 notices have been issued with some sites having more than one notice. Some 1607 cattle tick dip sites have been documented for New South Wales by the Cattle Tick Dip Management Commit•tee (DIPMAC, 1992). A limited number (about 4) of these sites have Section 35 notices issued.

Table 9. Number of NSW sites (soil, groundwater, inferred/reason certain) contaminated by various organic chemicals.

Mixed chemicals Dioxin

Type

Petroleum hydrocarbons2 Gasworks chemicals Cattle dip chemicals PCBs PCBs and petroleum hydrocarbons PCBs and pesticides Methacrylate Organochlorine solvents Organochlorine chemicals and hydrocarbons Creosote Coal tar and printers ink Banana growing pesticides/herbicides3

Total

No. of contaminated sites inNSW

10 8 5 4

16071 4

1 2 1

1647

Data after SPCC 1991 (Balding 1991, pers comm; Rescei 1991, pers comm). 1. DIPMAC (1993) 2. Does not include any petrol service stations, major storage facilities only. 3. An extensive area in the Coff's Harbour region is known to have

contaminated soil (Rescei, 1993, pers comm).

The number of extensive groundwater locations, where organic chemical contamination is reasonably certain, is small to date though only some of the contaminated sites listed above have been tested for groundwater significance.

Hydrocarbons

Anna Bay: Coastal Alluvium (Jacobson & Lau, 1988)

Matraville (Sydney):

Botany Sands aquifer

Chlorinated hydrocarbons and petroleum hydrocarbons (major storage or loading facilities) Botany:

Plasticisers Botany:

Botany Sands Aquifer (AG Environmental Engineers, 1990). An example of one parameter measured in shallow groundwater is tetrachloroethylene (perchlorethylene); the plume developed since the 1940's due to past disposal practice is illustrated in Figure 3. The site is being evaluated in detail at the present time.

Botany Sands Aquifer (Smart, 1974)

0> c: E t o Z

i

6242000

6241600

6240400

q?

SOt",,'?Y 1;>0",,0'

o ....

WG23

•

w

!~ i8


Easting

WG47 •

WG48 •

WG24 •

WG22 •

0.1---....

WG46

• WG49

G

tl \\ 1 ~ \ \ tl g: 8

WG50 \ll •

~ :J iii· 0 :J

(F)

iii ~

WG45 •

• WG37

o

WG44 •

WG35.,.'

Observation bore

- 5 - Perchloroethylene concentration (mglL)

200m

19/156-5/1

Figure 3. Preliminary contours of tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene) (mg/L) in the shallow groundwater zone of the Botany Sands Aquifer, Botany. Data courtesy of leI Australia Ltd.

114 MICHAEL J. KNIGHT Some sites with a moderate probability of contamination include:

• Hopefield Siding: Inferred pesticide spill (Jacobson & Lau, 1988; and Gates, 1991, pers comm) (Hydrogeology Section, Water Resources Department of NSW, Par•ramatta)

• Mulwala: Inferred explosive organic chemicals in Quaternary Alluvium (Gates, 1991, pers comm)

Of the 43 Section, 35 contaminated sites found in 1991, an additional 10 sites could have had inferred groundwater contamination. The main areas of uncertainty in New South Wales with respect to groundwater contamination by organic chemicals relate to the dip sites and banana growing.

Summary for NSW Total contaminated (most documented) in NSW 1651

Estimated (documented) organic chemically contaminated groundwater sites in NSW 1646

"Reasonably certain" organic chemically contaminated groundwater sites in NSW 4

" Inferred" organic chemically contaminated groundwater sites in NSW 2

South Australia There are an estimated 300 contaminated sites (soil, groundwater) in South Australia. There are 34 sites with reasonably certain organic chemicals in groundwater consisting of

• 12 of petrol station origins, and

• 22 with contaminants from timber treatment, trans•port industry, gasworks, and pulp and paper industry (Emmett, 1993).

The industrialised urban areas of Adelaide and adjacent towns have fewer organic chemical contamination prob•lems in groundwater than other areas, such as the Southeast. This is because the deeper aquifers are protected by a thick layer of low permeable Hindmarsh Clay (Armstrong, 1991, pers comm). However, there are some thin aquifers in the Hindmarsh Clay that are contaminated (Harris, pers comm). The main area that has reasonably certain organic chemical contamination in groundwater is in the Southeast where karstified limestones are often involved, e.g. Gambier Limestone, Padthaway Limestone. The main contaminant groups are petroleum hydrocarbons, creosote (timber industry), organochlorines (pulp mill), solvents and herbicides (atrazine).

There is an accessible register of contaminated sites (soil Other possible organic chemically contaminated groundwater sites in NSW

Australian Capital Territory

10 and groundwater) managed by the office of the Environ•ment Protection Authority. Some incidents and aquifers involved have also been documented by Jacobson & Lau (1988) and others:

Jacobson & Lau (1988) indicated that there have been three petroleum (petrol station) contamination incidents where affected aquifers have been in Silurian mudstone and limestone.

The Pialligo co-disposal landfill received mixed organic wastes, including petroleum hydrocarbons (Holmes, 1989). Groundwater in shallow colluvium/alluvium and fractured rock (mudstone) aquifers contains leachate with probable organic chemicals (Jacobson & Evans, 1981). Phenolic contamination of groundwater has been reported at an industrial estate (Jacobson & Hohnen, 1980).

Queensland There is no accessible register of sites or groundwater contaminated by organic chemicals or other contaminants at this time. However, this is being compiled as foreshad•owed in the Green Paper on Contaminated Land Legislation (Chern. Unit, 1991).

A knowledge-base of contaminated land and groundwater is being compiled by the "Chemical Hazards and Emer•gency Management Unit", Division of the Bureau of Emergency Services (Brunner, 1991, pers comm). There are an estimated 1500 contaminated sites in Queensland with many being related to cattle dip spill/disposal points. There is no available precise differentiation of contamina•tion into soil and groundwater. It is a perception that most contamination is in the soil zone, but many sites are only drilled if groundwater use is an issue. Jacobson & Lau (1988) identified one petroleum contamination plume in groundwater (alluvial aquifer, Cairns), and an industrial tip site in Brisbane that could have the potential for organic contamination.

Petroleum hydrocarbons Mt Gambier Limestone:

Murray Group:

Proterozoic Mudstone:

Proterozoic Granite:

Cambrian Limestone:

Herbicide (atrazine)

2 sites (Mt Gambier)

1 site (Bordertown)

1 site (Jamestown)

1 site (Fregon)

1 site (Minlayton)

Padthaway Limestone, Quaternary (Keith) (Armstrong, 1991, pers comm)

Creosote Timber sawmill (Mt Gambier), (Emmett, 1991, pers comm; Smith, 1983)

Organochlorines Mt Gambier Limestone (Snuggery near Millicent) (Emmett, this volume)

Northern Territory There is no register of contaminated sites in the Northern Territory, and organic chemical contamination of ground•water is considered to be insignificant. Aldrin has been used to treat termites. One incident of Aldrin entering a shallow well in the Darwin Rural Area has been observed (VanderbeJt, 1991, pers comm) (Water and Power Author•ity, Northern Territory, Darwin). A termite mound was

treated and Aldrin was conducted to a well via a tree root linking the well to the mound. Within a few weeks, Aldrin levels in the well were non-detectable.

A diesel fuel tank spill has also been reported from Croker Island (150 km northeast of Darwin), but this was close to the sea and did not significantly involve groundwater.

Cattle dip spills are thought to occur, but probably only involve soil contamination.

No systematic surveys of organic chemical contamination of groundwater have been carried out. In the absence of a substantial chemical manufacturing industry, significant contamination is unlikely. However, some potential sources (agriculture, mining, war dump residuals, fuel oil tanks) may be worthy of further study .

Tasmania There is currently no accessible register of contaminated sites in Tasmania. Some 140 landfill disposal sites were listed in the Department of Environment and Planning records in 1990 (Gentizen, 1990), who has assessed the hydrogeology of 70 landfills across Tasmania but did not evaluate specific chemical contamination. Precise data about organic-chemical contamination of groundwater is unknown.

Mixed organic chemical residues from fires, etc., are known to have been disposed of as follows :

• at DUston (30 km north of Launceston) in 6-7 m of low permeability weathered dolerite (Donaldson, 1991, pers comm);

• at Cambridge (near Hobart airport) in Tertiary saline sediments of low permeability (Donaldson, 1991, pers comm);

• at Exeter, dieldrin has been disposed and has been observed in groundwater (Mollison, 1991, pers comm); and

• several hydrocarbon leaks from petrol service stations have been reported, but precise locations are unknown (Donaldson, 1991, pers comm).

Selected activity related contamination Motor vehicle service stations Based on Australian Institute of Petroleum and Prices Surveillance Authority (1989 information) and perceptions of consultants (Harwood, 1991, pers comm) (Groundwater Technology Inc., Sydney), a number of observations may be made:

• the number of major oil company service stations nationally is 7035 (PSA, 1989)*1;

• the number of minor service stations nationally is about 2965; and

*1. The State proportions as estimated from PSA (1989) are: New South Wales: 29.7% Victoria and Tasmania: 29.7% Queensland: 18.5% Western Australia: 12.6% South Asutralia: 9.5%.


• total sites nationally, 10000 (AlP, 1990 quoted in PSA, 1990).

• About 5% of the national total have been assessed (to 1991) to varying degrees. A minimum of 300 have been evaluated in detail. Of those studied, about 20% are perceived as showing some evidence of leaking (or spilling of liquids) into soil or groundwater or both (Harwood, 1991, pers comm). An independent research study in Perth of 40 service stations also suggested that 20% had leakage problems and one produced a 600 m long plume in groundwater (Barber, 1991, pers .comm). The earliest celebrated (infamous) case of a groundwa•ter with hydrocarbons (petrol) from service stations entering a basement facility in Canberra (Center Cinema) has been documented by Jacobson (1983) (Figs 4 and 5). In this case, one person was killed and one injured after a petrol vapour explosion caused by a welding spark in the confined basement.

• Hydrocarbons from leaking (spilled) service station facilities usually involve soil and/or weathered rock, though in areas such as Melbourne and Perth significant groundwater aquifers are potentially involved. The soil/ rock environment may involve perched groundwa•ter (e .g. Sydney on low permeability Hawkesbury sandstone) or shallow soil " groundwater" interflow.

4km I

Figure 4. Location of Centre Cinema, Canberra City, Austra•lian Capital Territory (Jacobson, 1983).

116 MICHAEL J. KNIGHT Both these pathways are potentially dangerous locally, The distribution by State was: if they intersect and enter trenched service facilities (e .g. telephone cable ways). South Australia : 6

• Inferred estimate of number service stations nationally ACT: 3 that could have some associated land/groundwater contamination with hydrocarbons is about 2000. Queensland: 2

• Only a small number (13) of petrol stations contaminat- Victoria: 1 ing groundwater have been documented in accessible literature to date (Jacobson & Lau, 1988). New South Wales: 1

1 N

I I•....

o

- 2- Isopach of petrol thickness (m) .29 Observation bore

-+- Groundwater flow direction

Figure 5.

(a)

1 N

I

19/ 155-16/ 104

40m -56/- Potentiometric contour(m) L-_____ -', -+ Groundwater flow direction

~2 Garama V Place o

(b)

19/ 155-16/ 101

.23 Observation bore o 40m I I

A. Isopachs of petrol thickness near Center Cinema, Canberra, July 1977, and extent of plume to April 1978.

B. Potentiometric contours of the fractured mudstone aquifer involved in petrol pollution near Centre Cinema Canberra and groundwater flow direction, July 1977.

(A, B) after Jacobson (1983)

Western Australia: No information known to Jacobson & Lau (1988).

The information related to many sites documented by consultants remains in confidential reports. It is of interest to note that the number of groundwater locations in South Australia that have contamination from leaking petrol stations has risen to 12 in 1993 (Emmett, 1993).

Gas works sites Introduction. There are a considerable number (>100) of contaminated sites due to past conversion of coal to gas in Australia, e.g. Victoria has 51 sites with 30 being closed by 1930 (Osmers, 1991, pers comm). Some sites have long histories that stretch back to the last century. Parker & Wolfe (1990) have indicated that there are three common processes involved:

• coal carbonisation,

• water gas and/or carburetted gas, and

• oil gasification.

Wastes and chemicals. The main wastes from these processes (Gas Research Institute, 1987) are:

• organics-coal and oil tars, oil-water emulsions and hydrocarbon sludges; and

• inorganic compounds-coke and ash, spent oxide and lime washes, sulphur scrubber blowdowns and ammo•nium sulphate.

The main chemicals of concern have been summarized by Parker & Wolfe (1990) and include organic chemical groups, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (P AH), vola•tile aromatics, and phenolics (Table 10).

Some of these organic compounds are known to be carcinogenic (benzene) and some are suspected (such as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons) benzo(a)pyrene, chrysens and benzofluoranthene) (Parker & Wolfe, 1990).

Listed and documented sites. The 17 gas works sites that have some public record are listed below. Many other sites have been studied by consultants, but the data are confidential and thus not available.

Victorian gas works sites Groundwater reasonably certain:

Port Melbourne (Shugg, 1989) West Melbourne (Parker & Wolfe, 1990) South Melbourne (EPA VIC, 1991) Melbourne (Blythe Street)

Groundwater inferred:

Echuca (EPA VIC, 1991) Morwell (EPA VIC, 1991) Heidelberg (Melbourne) Geelong North Ballarat

Soil contamination only:

Lilydale (EPA VIC, 1991)


New South Wales gas works sites Listed by SPCC (Section 35 Notice, Environmentally Hazardous Chemicals Act 1985) (Balding, 1991, pers comm).

Groundwater involved:

Newcastle Mortlake (Sydney)

Soil and minimal groundwater:

Waverton Little Manly Point

Unlisted Site:

Woollstoncraft (Sydney); soil and minimal groundwater

Western Australia gas works sites Involving groundwater:

East Perth (Parker & Wolfe, 1990)

Probably involving groundwater:

2 unidentified sites (Hirschberg, 1988), one of these (Hirschberg, 1993, pers comm; Principal Geologist, Geological Survey of Western Australia) has organic chemicals, the other does not.

Other known sites:

Some other sites are known by experience (MacNamara, 1991, pers comm; Sinclair Knight and Partners, Sydney)

New South Wales:

Sydney: 5 additional to above Country: 10, Armidale, Tamworth, Casino, Albury, Cootamundra, Goulburn, Lithgow, Bathurst, Orange, Dubbo? Miscellaneous: 20

Queensland:

6 (including Brisbane: 2)

Observation. The 17 sites with some documented public record are clearly a small fraction of the total (>100) number of gas works sites. It appears relevant that further activity in this regard would be useful since many such sites are redeveloped for other uses.

Agricultural activities A number of organic chemicals are manufactured and applied for agricultural production. These are various pesticide/herbicide formulations used for crops and animal (sheep/cattle) dips to prevent disease.

Compounds. A possible cattle dip formulation is listed in Appendix 2.

Some of the compounds/formulations and residues listed as being important in relation to contaminated sites include: organochlorine/organophosphate compounds, endosul•phur, dicofol, DTT, dieldrin, aldrin, simzine, 2,4 dichlo•rophenoxyacetic acid, pentachlorophenol, and 2,4,5-trichlorophenol.


Table 10. Main chemicals found to be significant in former gas works sites.

Inorganics Metals Volatile aromatics Phenolics Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons

Ammonia Cyanide Nitrate Sulfate Sulfide Thiocyanate

Aluminium Antimony Arsenic Barium Cadmium Chromium Copper Iron Lead Manganese Mercury Nickel Selenium Silver Vanadium Zinc

Benzene Ethyl Benzene Toluene Total Xylenes

Data after Parker & Wolfe (1990).

Distribution of reported sites (point sources). Cattle/Sheep dips. Only five sites were documented by EPA's in Victoria and New South Wales to 1991.

Victoria:

Gisbourne (inferred groundwater impact) (EPA VIC, 1991)

New South Wales:

Mullumbimby

Lismore A: Goonellabah (unknown groundwa•ter impact) (Balding, 1991, pers comm; Waste Management Branch, NSW State Pollution Control Com•mission)

B: (Groundwater involved) Alstenville, Newrybar, soil involved) (Balding, 1991, pers comm; Waste Management Branch, NSW State Pollution Control Commission).

Some 1603 others in New South Wales have been identified between 1991 and 1992 (DIPMAC, 1992). The relationship of these to groundwater has not been assessed.

Of Queensland's 1500 sites, "many" are related to dip sites but are thought to involve soil only (Brunner, 1991, pers comm; Chern. Unit, Chemical Hazards and Emergency Management Unit. Division of the Bureau of Emergency Services. Queensland Govt., Brisbane). Rarely have groundwater studies been carried out.

The Northern Territory is thought to have some sites also, but documentation is lacking.

Cropping/pesticides/herbicides/sites. These point sources relate mainly to place of manufacture or spills during loading at identifiable points, e.g. airfields as in Victoria (Benalla, Shepparton, Mooroopra, Darrinallum and Balla•rat) and inferred at Hopefield Railway Siding (New South Wales). Non-point contamination due to application is

Phenol 2-Methylphenol 4-Methylphenol 2,4-Dimethylphenol

discussed below.

Victoria

Acenaphthene Acenaphthylene Anthracene Benzo(a)anthracene Benzo(a)pyrene Benzo(b )f1uoranthene Benzo(g,h,i)perylene Benzo(k)f1uoranthene Chrysene Dibenzofuran Fluoranthene Fluorenapthalene Penanthrene Pyrere 2-Methylnaphthalene

Some 16 sites are registered (EPA VIC, 1991) as having pesticides. This is the largest single chemical group (31 %) of the 52 sites listed with organic-chemical evidence. Of the sixteen sites, eleven are related to manufacturing points and five are at country airports. In relation to groundwater impact:

• 8 sites have reasonably certain groundwater impact,

• 6 sites have inferred groundwater impact, and

• 2 sites have soil contamination only.

There has been no non-point source assessment.

New South Wales Two sites are indicated:

• Rozelle (manufacturing) (Balding, 1991, pers comm), and

• Hopefield Siding (Gates, 1991, pers comm; Hydrogeol•ogy Section, Water Resources Department of NSW, Parramatta).

There is little detailed knowledge about either. Hopefield Siding may have an inferred groundwater impact. There has been some limited non-point source testing to date.

Western Australia Hirschberg (1988, 1991) does not specifically identify pesticide manufacturing sites in Perth, but one potential location involves agricultural chemicals. Appleyard (this issue) has documented groundwater pollution from herbi•cide manufacture at Kwinana.

As previously noted, the Water Authority of WA carried out a survey (including some pesticide/herbicides) in drinking water (surface and groundwater) and found no

evidence of compounds above safe levels.

South Australia, Northern Territory, and Tasmania Each state reports one site

• atrazine-South Australia - Padthaway Limestone; non-point source (Keith) (Armstrong, 1991, pers comm; Chief Geologist, South Australian Department of Mines and Energy).

• aldrin-Northern Territory - Darwin Rural Area (Spill) (Vanderbelt, 1991, pers comm; Water and Power Authority, Northern Territory, Darwin).

• dieldrin-Tasmania - Exeter, Land II (Mollison, 1991, pers comm; Department of Environment, Hobart, Tas•mania) .

Each site has confirmed groundwater impact. No surveys for non-point contamination (except South Australia) are known.

Australian Capital Territory There are no known pesticide-contaminated sites in the ACT.

Non-point evaluation of pesticide/herbicide contamination of groundwater. There have been very few systematic attempts to detect and monitor pesticide/weedicide com•pounds from agricultural (non-point) applications in areas of heavy use, e.g. cotton and rice. There is some popular impression that since the compounds generally have low solubility in water and highly adsorb to clays and organic matter, it is unlikely that they will reach the groundwater. In addition , analytical costs are high and some difficulty with sampling techniques, that differ from normal water sampling, may have been a further hindrance.

This author believes that the lack of positive findings may be due to inadequate experimental design. In addition not all pesticides/herbicides have a low solubility. Pesticide•soil interaction is reviewed by Aylmore & Kookana (this issue), and information on herbicides is given by Ferris (this issue).

Research by Finlayson (1989) and Milne-Home & others (1991) suggests that it is possible to screen out particular areas that could be at risk.

Finlayson (1989) & Milne-Home & others (1991) carried out risk assessments in New South Wales that suggest that five areas (Fig. 6) could potentially have pesticide residues in unconfined aquifers. The strategy partly involves using bore records, crop use and inferred chemical application data linked with the pesticide root zone model PRZM. Milne-Home & others (1991) have extended the method to include an expert system to make the model more available to extension officers and farmers. This research is on-going at the National Centre for Groundwater Management, University of Technology, Sydney.

It seems appropriate, with the current financial shortages, that such screening strategies are a possible way forward rather than simply sampling bore holes or responding to emergencies as they arise.

Remedial action Remediation to date has been largely limited to two main


144' OLD )~ --------------J Namoi/Gwydir

NSW

32' Murray/Riverina

[] ....

•• ~& .•. : .••.•.• ... '*-q

Lachlan

200 km

19/N/24

Figure 6. Areas potentially at risk of pesticide contamination of groundwater (unconfined aquifers) in New South Wales (Finlayson, 1989).

groups of contamination:

• petroleum hydrocarbons, and

• gas works sites.

Petroleum hydrocarbons Motor vehicle service stations have had the largest attention . For some companies, investigation and clean-up has occurred either at the change of lease or land sale and conversion to some other use. Most remediation has involved soil treatment with some extraction of product by pumping. The precise extent and types of remediation are unknown due to confidentiality and commercial reasons. An exception is the petrol pumping remediation case at the Centre Cinema, Canberra (Jacobson, 1983). Some major petroleum storage facilities have undergone extensive remediation mainly using pumping-strategies: Bayside (BP), Melbourne, Pulpit Point, and Matraville (Sydney). The Bayside site has now been completed.

Some petroleum hydrocarbon spill sites are being remedi•ated using microbiological techniques.

Gas works sites Gas works sites have attracted considerable consultant investigation attention. Remediation is progressing in a number of states, e.g.:

Victoria Melbourne: West Melbourne Gas works sites; removal

off site treatment (soil), pumping and treat•ment of groundwater, bioremediation (Parker & Wolfe, 1990)

New South Wales Sydney : Has a number of sites that are also undergo•

ing remediation, e.g. Mortlake and Wooll•stonecraft. Bioremediation strategies are being partially employed for the unsaturated soil/weathered rock zone.

120 MICHAELJ. KNIGHT

Conclusions There are more than 183 sites (non-petrol service station) in Australia that have some probability of having ground•water with organic chemical contamination. This repre•sents about 4% of the total (5000) contaminated sites, excluding petrol stations. Motor vehicle petrol service stations are significant site groups with an estimate of 2000-2300 leaking (20%) out of a total of about 11 500.

Most investigation attention has been given to: • hydrocarbon bulk storage and refining sites,

• motor vehicle petrol service stations, and

• gas works sites.

Because of the large number of the last two categories, many more remain to be examined or publically docu•mented.

Cattle dip sites are very large in number and their impact on groundwater is largely unknown. Investigation and remediation, where appropriate, should be a matter of urgency in New South Wales and Queensland.

Documentation of sites and knowledge of the problem is very variable between the States due to a range of factors:

• the level of manufacturing,

• abundance of aquifers,

• spatial relationship between manufacturing and aquifers (e.g. Melbourne, Perth),

• money available for investigations and reporting both in government and industry /research,

• focus of legislation,

• interests of individuals (Government, research agen•cies), and

• level of corporate responsibility.

Some States appear to be behind others in their state of knowledge. It is the thesis of this paper that not all sites have been found either in urban or rural areas. Non-point investigations, e.g. pesticides/herbicides, could benefit from the use of screening model studies to reduce costs and staff requirements.

Remedial action is very much in its infancy with only petroleum hydrocarbons (and gas works) compounds being seriously attempted. Much research on practical field bioremediation especially needs to be carried out.

Acknowledgments I wish to thank the many officers in State Government (see text for most names acknowledged) for their generous assistance in providing information. Mr. R. Harwood and Mr. L. Etheridge of Groundwater Technology also pro•vided useful information in relation to petrol stations. The Australian Institute for Petroleum is also thanked for their assistance in this regard. Mesdames S. Jenkins and A. Peters patiently typed the manuscript. Drs C. Barber and K. Hirschberg are thanked for their comments.

References AG.C. Environmental Engineers, 1990 - ICI Environ•

mental Survey. Stage 1. Preliminary investigations for State Pollution Control Commission, NSW, Sydney.

AI.P., 1990 - Australian Institute for Petroleum. Data supplied to prices surveillance authority.

Chem. Unit, 1991 - Contaminated land legislation, A Green Paper. Chemical Hazards and Emergency Man•agement Unit. Division of the Bureau of Emergency Services, Queensland, Government Queensland. Gov•ernment Printer, Brisbane.

DIPMAC, 1992 - Report on the management of contami•nated waste at cattle tick dip sites in North Eastern, New South Wales. Cattle Tick Dip Site Management Commit•tee. N.S. W, Government Task Committee.

Donaldson, R., 1991 - Geological Survey of Tasmania, Department of Mines, Hobart.

Emmett, A, 1991 - Engineering and Water Supply Department of S.A., Mt. Gambier.

Emmett, A, 1993 - Engineering and Water Supply Department of South Australia.

EPA VIC, 1991 - Contaminated sites register. Informa•tion Bulletin WM 90/03, March 1991 Environment Protection Authority. Melbourne, Victoria.

Finlayson, D., 1989 - A risk assessment of groundwater contamination by pesticide residues in selected aquifers of New South Wales. Master of Applied Science Project Report, Centre for Groundwater Management and Hydrogeology, University of New South Wales (unpub•lished).

Gas Research Institute, 1987 - Management of manufac•tured gas plant sites, Document Number GRI 87/0260.1, Chicago.

Gentizon, 0., 1990 - Geological and hydrological setting of the main tip sites throughout Tasmania. Tasmania Department of Resources Energy, Division of Mines and Mineral Resources Report 1990/08.

Hawke, J.M., 1973 - Pollution of Botany sand beds final report. Report Geological Survey NSW GS 173/329 (unpublished).

Hirschberg, K.J., 1988 - Inventory of proven and inferred groundwater contamination sites to accompany Perth North and Perth South 1:100000 Map Sheets. Geologi•cal Survey of Western Australia Record 1988/4.

Hirschberg, K.J., 1991 - Inventory of known and inferred point sources of groundwater contamination in the Perth Basin, W.A Geological Survey of Western Australia, Record 199117.

Holmes, K.G., 1989 - Leachate generation and transport from three landfills in the Australian Capital Territory. Master of Applied Science Project Report, School of Civil Engineering, University of New South Wales (unpublished).

Jacobson, G., 1983 - Pollution of a fractured rock aquifer by petrol. A Case Study. BMR Journal of Australian Geology & Geophysics, 8,313-332.

Jacobson, G. & Evans, W.R., 1981 - Geological factors in the development of sanitary landfill sites in the Australian Capital Territory. BMR Journal of Geology & Geophysics, 6, 31-41.

Jacobson, G. & Hohnen, P.D., 1980 - Groundwater investigation at the Hume Industrial Estate, A.C.T. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Australia, Record 1980/56.

Jacobson, G. & Lau, J.E., 1988 - Groundwater contami•nation incidents in Australia: an initial survey. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Australia, Report. 287.

Jago, B. & Kavangh, B., 1990 - A survey of synthetic

organic compounds in Perth drinking water supplies. Water Authority of Western Australian Scientific Serv•ices Branch Report. No. SSB03/90.

Knight, M.J., Leonard, J.G. & Whiteley, R.J., 1978 -Lucas Heights solid waste landfill and downstream leachate transport - a case study in Environmental Geology. Bulletin International Association Engineer•ing Geology, 18, 45-64.

Lane, AP., 1990 - Groundwater Pollution in Australia•Problems, Policies and Challenges. Water 17, (3), 16-19.

Milne-Home, W.A , Finlayson, D. & Yu, X., 1991 -Generalised risk assessment of groundwater contamina•tion by pesticides. An Expert System Approach to PRZM. Proceedings of workshop on modelling of chemicals in the environment, pp. 40-49. Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies, ANU, Canberra, February, 1991.

Parker, R.S. & Wolfe, R.D.A, 1990 - Groundwater Contamination Assessment of Gasworks Sites. Water 17, (3), 20-23.

PSA, 1989 - Inquiry into petroleum product prices, Matter No. p1/89/2. Prices Surveillance Authority Report 26, December 20, 1989.

PSA, 1990 - Inquiry into petroleum product prices, Matter No. p1/90/5. Prices Surveillance Authority Report 33, November 1990.

Riha, M., 1975 - Hydrochemical effects of injecting waste water into a basalt aquifer near Laverton, Victoria. Geological Survey Victoria, Report 1975/5.

Riha, M., 1977 - Hydrochemical Effects of Waste Percolation on Groundwater in Basalt Near Footscray, Victoria, Australia. Progress in Water Technology , 9, 249-266.

Shugg, A., 1981 - A Waste Disposal in the Basalt at Maribyrnong. Geological Survey of Victoria Report 1981/5 (unpublished).

Shugg, A., 1987 - Notes on solution Pier site, British petroleum hydrocarbon site, Port Melbourne. Geologi•cal Survey of Victoria Report 1987/56.

Shugg, A., 1989 - Groundwater notes, gasworks sites, Port Melbourne. Department of Water Resources, Victoria, Report (unpublished).

Shugg, A., 1990 - Metropolitan zone landfill sites. Unpublished Report, Department of Conservation and Environment, Groundwater Policy Section.

Smart, J.V., 1974 - The geology, hydrology and ground•water chemistry of part of the Botany Basin, New South Wales. Master of Science thesis University of Sydney (unpublished) .

Smith, P.C., 1983 - A groundwater resource under stress at Mount Gambier, South Australia. In Knight, M.J., Minty, E.J. & Smith, R.B. (editors). Collected Case Studies in Engineering Geology, Hydrogeology, Envi•ronmental Geology. Special Publication Geological Society of Australia, 11,307-321. Engineering Geology Specialist Group, Sydney.

Wallis, G.R., 1967 - Pollution of Botany Sand Beds, Matraville. Geological Survey ofNSW Report, 1967/062 (unpublished).


Appendix 1 Activities potentially associated with groundwa•ter and land contamination by organic chemicals in Australia

Activity

Pesticide/herbicide related Agricultural/horticultural activities Cattle/sheep dip mixtures' [

Pesticide manufacture and formulation Airports (country), filling planes for aerial spraying)

Hydrocarbon related Oil production, storage, refining (tanks, pipes) Motor vehicle service stations (tanks, pipes, filling spills) Airports (city) (tanks, pipes, filling, firefighting) (country)

Railway yards (tanks, pipes, filling spills)

Mining (storage tanks, pipes, machines), machines Gasworks (abandoned facilities that converted coal to gas)

Organochlorine solvent related Dry cleaning

Metal treatment and other metal industries

Mining (vehicle degreasing) Oil production, storage, refining

Motor vehicle service stations

Airports (city/country)

Drum reconditioning

Paint formulation and manufacture

Explosive related Defence works

Explosive manufacturing industry

Specialised compound activities Electrical industry, power stations (historical use) Timber industry, wood preservation

Paper and pulp manufacture

Main potential organic contaminants

Pesticides (point , non•point)

Pesticides

Pesticides

Hydrocarbons (potentially mixed with solvents)

Hydrocarbons (petrol), mi•nor solvents (degreasing) Hydrocarbons, mixed with degreasing solvents, fire re•tardents hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons (diesel mainly)

Diesel with some solvents (degreasing) Volatile aromatics (e .g . benzene), phenolics (e. g. 2-methyl phenol), polynu•clear a romatic hydro•carbons (e.g. pyrene)

Cleaning solvents , e .g. trichloroethylene

Degreasing solvents, e.g . tetrachloroethylene (per•chlorethylene) Solvents

Minor solvents

Degreasing solvents

Degreasing solvents mixed with hydrocarbons and fire retardents (city) Solvents and mixed or-ganics Solvents and mixed or-ganics

Explosives (TNT, RDX' 2, etc.)

Explosives (TNT, RDX ' 2, etc.)

Poly Chlorinated Biphenyls (PCBS) Creosote

Mixed and dioxin (some sites)


Activity

Mixed chemical related

Mining

Chemical manufacture and formulation Landfills (co-disposal with domestic waste), 3

Bore injection disposal Tanning, wool scouring and associated trades Pharmaceutical manufacture Waste storage and treatment

Drum reconditioning

Fire and spill accidents Paint formulation and manufacture

Main potential organic contaminants

Ore treatment processes chemicals (with hydrocar•bons and solvents)

Range

Range mixed with "natural organic" compounds from degradation processes Range Mixed, mostly "naturally occurring" organics

Range Range Range, mixed with cleaning solvents Range Range mixed with solvents

*1. See Appendix 2 for a listing of possible compounds and trade formulations. *2. TNT: 2, 4, 6 Trinitrotoluene, RDX: Cyclotrimethylenetrintramine.

Appendix 2 Possible formulation of cattle dip The following chemicals and trade formulations can occur in cattle dip (Rescei, 1991, pers comm):

•

• • •

Arsenic (to 1955)*

DDT (until 1955-1962)*

BHC (benzene hexachloride)

Toxophone

Dieldrin

Aldrin

Organophosphates, ethine, dioxine

Chlordimoform (chlorphenamidine) - withdrawn in 1976

Promacyl (trade name)

Armitric

Tatic

Vaxticol barricades

*3 . It is the author's (e.g. Knigbt & others, 1978) experience that normal solid putrescible waste urban landfills (domestic and industrial solid waste but not liquid waste) do not produce significant amounts of artificial Olganic chemical compounds but do produce a complex range of OIganic compounds in leachate derived from natural biodegradation processes. Some exceptions could occur in country areas where farm chemicals in quantities are potentially disposable. A study by Shugg (1990) suggests that up to 22% of Melbourne's waste landfills (mixed general domestic solid and co-disposal wastes) have the potential for contaminating groundwater by artificial Olganic chemicals. DIPMAC (1992) A complete listing of chemicals used in cattle dips and the associated time periods has been documented for New South Wales by DIPMAC (1992).

Documents

Organic chemical contamination of groundwater in Australia ...Organic chemical contamination of groundwater in Australia - an overview to 1993 Michael J. Knightl There are an estimated