TheUnited Nations(UN) is anintergovernmental organizationestablished on 24 October 1945 to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffectiveLeague of Nations, the organization was created following theSecond World Warto prevent another such conflict. At its founding, the UN had 51member states; there are now 193. TheUN Headquartersis situated inManhattan,New York Cityand enjoysextraterritoriality. Further main offices are situated inGeneva,NairobiandVienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states. Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict.United Nations and agenciesTheUnited Nations General Assembly(UNGA,GA, or, from theFrenchAssemble Gnrale, "AG") is one of the six principalorgans of theUnited Nationsand the only one in which all member nations have equal representation. Its powers are to oversee the budget of the United Nations, appoint the non-permanent members to theSecurity Council, receive reports from other parts of the United Nations and make recommendations in the form ofGeneral Assembly Resolutions.[2]It has also established a wide number ofsubsidiary organs.The first session was convened on 10 January 1946 in theWestminster Central Hallin London and included representatives of 51 nations.TheUnited Nations Security Council(UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of theUnited Nationsand is charged with the maintenance ofinternational peace and security. Its powers include the establishment ofpeacekeepingoperations, the establishment ofinternational sanctions, and the authorization ofmilitary actionthroughSecurity Council resolutions; it is the only UN body with the authority to issue binding resolutions to member states. The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946.TheUnited Nations Economic and Social Council(ECOSOC) (French:le Conseil conomique et social des Nations unies;CSNU) constitutes one of the principal organs of theUnited Nations. It is responsible for coordinating the economic, social and related work of 14 UN specialized agencies, their functional commissions and five regional commissions. The ECOSOC has 54 members; it holds one four-week session each year in July. Since 1998, it has also held a meeting each April with finance ministers heading key committees of theWorld Bankand theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF).TheUnited Nations Secretariat(French: leSecrtariat des Nations unies) is one of the principal organs of theUnited Nations, an intergovernmental organization charged with the promotion of aiding states to collectively maintain international peace and security; it serves as a forum for member-states to discuss and resolve pressing issues in the international field through primarily diplomatic resources.TheInternational Court of Justice(French:Cour internationale de justice; commonly referred to as theWorld CourtorICJ) is the primary judicial branch of theUnited Nations. It is based in thePeace PalaceinThe Hague,Netherlands. Its main functions are to settle legal disputes submitted to it bystatesand to provide advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorized international branches, agencies, and the UN General Assembly.TheUnited Nations Trusteeship Council(French:Le Conseil de tutelle des Nations unies), one of the principal organs of theUnited Nations, was established to help ensure thattrust territorieswere administered in the best interests of their inhabitants and of international peace and securityThe UN also includes various Funds, Programmes andspecialized agencies:TheFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO;French:Organisation des Nations unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture,Italian:Organizzazione delle Nazioni Unite per l'Alimentazione e l'Agricoltura) is an agency of theUnited Nationsthat leads international efforts to defeat hunger. Serving bothdevelopedanddeveloping countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy. FAO is also a source of knowledge and information, and helps developing countries and countries in transition modernize and improveagriculture,forestryandfisheriespractices, ensuring goodnutritionandfood securityfor all.HeadquartersPalazzo FAO,Rome,Italy

TheInternational Labour Organization(ILO) is a United Nations agency dealing withlabourissues, particularlyinternational labour standardsanddecent workfor all.[1]185 of the 193 UN member states are members of the ILO.In 1969, the organization received theNobel Peace Prizefor improving peace among classes, pursuing justice for workers, and providing technical assistance to other developing nations.[2]HeadquartersGeneva, Switzerland

TheInternational Civil Aviation Organization(ICAO, pronounced/akeo/;French:Organisation de l'aviation civile internationale, OACI), is aspecialized agencyof theUnited Nations. It codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of internationalair transportto ensure safe and orderly growth.[2]Its headquarters are located in theQuartier InternationalofMontreal,Quebec,Canada.heInternational Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA) is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use ofnuclear energy, and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, includingnuclear weapons. The IAEA was established as an autonomous organization on 29 July 1957. Though established independently of the United Nations through its own internationaltreaty, the IAEA Statute,[1]the IAEA reports to both theUnited Nations General AssemblyandSecurity Council.TheUnited Nations Atomic Energy Commission(UNAEC) was founded on 24 January 1946 byResolution 1of theUnited Nations General Assembly"to deal with the problems raised by the discovery of atomic energy.The IAEA has its headquarters inVienna, Austria. The IAEA has two "Regional Safeguards Offices" which are located inToronto, Canada, and in Tokyo, Japan. The IAEA also has two liaison offices which are located in New York City, United States, and inGeneva, Switzerland. In addition, the IAEA has three laboratories located inViennaandSeibersdorf, Austria, and inMonaco.The IAEA serves as an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical cooperation in the peaceful use ofnuclear technologyandnuclear powerworldwide. The programs of the IAEA encourage the development of the peaceful applications of nuclear technology, provide international safeguards against misuse of nuclear technology andnuclear materials, and promotenuclear safety(includingradiation protection) and nuclear security standards and their implementation.The IAEA and its former Director General,Mohamed ElBaradei, were jointly awarded theNobel Peace Prizeon 7 October 2005. The IAEA's current Director General isYukiya Amano.heUnited Nations Children's Fund(UNICEF;/junsf/ew-ni-sef)[1]is a United Nations Program headquartered inNew York Citythat provides long-termhumanitarianand developmental assistance tochildrenandmothersindeveloping countries. It is one of the members of theUnited Nations Development Groupand its Executive Committee.[2]UNICEF was created by theUnited NationsGeneral Assemblyon December 11, 1946, to provide emergency food and healthcare to children in countries that had been devastated byWorld War II. In 1953, UNICEF became a permanent part of theUnited Nations Systemand its name was shortened from the originalUnited Nations International Children's Emergency Fundbut it has continued to be known by the popularacronymbased on this previous title.TheUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization(French:Organisation des Nations unies pour l'ducation, la science et la culture;UNESCO;/junsko/) is aspecialized agencyof theUnited Nations(UN).Its purpose is to contribute to peace and security by promoting international collaboration through education, science, and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, therule of law, and human rights along with fundamentalfreedomproclaimed in theUN Charter.[1]It is the heir of theLeague of Nations'International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation.UNESCO has 195 member states[2]and nine associate members.[3][4]Most of the field offices are "cluster" offices covering three or more countries; there are also national and regional offices.UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs: education,natural sciences, social andhuman sciences, culture, and communication and information.Projects sponsored by UNESCO include literacy, technical, and teacher-training programmes; international science programmes; the promotion of independent media andfreedom of the press; regional and cultural history projects; the promotion ofcultural diversity; translations of world literature; international cooperation agreements to secure the worldculturalandnatural heritage(World Heritage Sites) and to preserve human rights, and attempts to bridge theworldwide digital divide. It is also a member of theUnited Nations Development Group.[5]TheUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization(French:Organisation des Nations unies pour l'ducation, la science et la culture;UNESCO;/junsko/) is aspecialized agencyof theUnited Nations(UN).Its purpose is to contribute to peace and security by promoting international collaboration through education, science, and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, therule of law, and human rights along with fundamentalfreedomproclaimed in theUN Charter.[1]It is the heir of theLeague of Nations'International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation.UNESCO has 195 member states[2]and nine associate members.[3][4]Most of the field offices are "cluster" offices covering three or more countries; there are also national and regional offices.UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs: education,natural sciences, social andhuman sciences, culture, and communication and information.Projects sponsored by UNESCO include literacy, technical, and teacher-training programmes; international science programmes; the promotion of independent media andfreedom of the press; regional and cultural history projects; the promotion ofcultural diversity; translations of world literature; international cooperation agreements to secure the worldculturalandnatural heritage(World Heritage Sites) and to preserve human rights, and attempts to bridge theworldwide digital divide. It is also a member of theUnited Nations Development Group.[5] The UN maintains various offices: United Nations Headquarters(New York City) United Nations Office at Geneva United Nations Office at Nairobi United Nations Office at ViennaEnvironmental organizations[edit]See also:List of supranational environmental agencies Agreement for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels(ACAP) Global Environment Facility(GEF) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) TheInternational Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN) Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia(PEMSEA) United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) World Nature Organization(WNO)Financial, trade, and customs organizations[edit]See also:International financial institutions,Trade bloc Lists of trade blocs,List of free trade agreements,Central bank,Bretton Woods systemandCartel Alliance for Financial Inclusion(AFI) African Development Bank Asian Development Bank Bank for International Settlements Black Sea Trade and Development Bank(BSTDB) Caribbean Development Bank(CDB) Inter-American Development Bank International Bureau of Weights and Measures(BIPM) International Energy Agency(IEA) International Fund for Agricultural Development(IFAD) International Development Law Organization(IDLO), headquartered in Rome (www.idlo.int) International Monetary Fund(IMF) Islamic Development Bank(IDB) Netherlands Development Finance Company(FMO) Nordic Development Fund(NDF) Nordic Investment Bank(NIB) OPEC Fund for International Development(OPEC Fund) Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) International Organization for Economic Development(IOED) Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries(OPEC) West African Development Bank(BOAD) World Bank Group International Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD) International Development Association(IDA) International Finance Corporation(IFC) Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency(MIGA) International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes(ICSID) World Customs Organization(WCO) World Trade Organization(WTO) TheInternational Energy Agency(IEA;French:Agence internationale de l'nergie) is aParis-based autonomous intergovernmental organization established in the framework of theOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) in 1974 in the wake of the1973 oil crisis. The IEA was initially dedicated to responding to physical disruptions in the supply ofoil, as well as serving as an information source on statistics about the international oil market and otherenergysectors. The IEA acts as a policy adviser to its member states, but also works with non-member countries, especiallyChina,India, andRussia. The Agency's mandate has broadened to focus on the "3Es" of effectual energy policy:energy security, economic development, and environmental protection.[1]The latter has focused on mitigating climate change.[2]The IEA has a broad role in promotingalternate energysources (including renewable energy), rational energy policies, and multinational energy technology co-operation. TheAsian Development Bank(ADB) is aregional development bankestablished on 22 August 1966 which is headquartered inMetro Manila,Philippinesto facilitate economic development of countries in Asia.[3]The bank admits the members of theUnited Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(UNESCAP, formerly known as the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East) and non-regionaldeveloped countries.[3]From 31 members at its establishment, ADB now has 67 members - of which 48 are from within Asia and the Pacific and 19 outside. ADB was modeled closely on theWorld Bank, and has a similar weighted voting system where votes are distributed in proportion with member's capital subscriptions. By the end of 2013,Japanholds the largest proportions of shares at 15.67%. TheUnited Statesholds 15.56%,Chinaholds 6.47%,Indiaholds 6.36%, andAustraliaholds 5.81%.[4] heInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) is aninternational organizationthat was initiated in 1944 at theBretton Woods Conferenceand formally created in 1945 by 29 member countries. The IMF's stated goal was to assist in the reconstruction of the world'sinternational payment systempostWorld War II. Countries contributefundsto a pool through a quota system from which countries with payment imbalances temporarily can borrow money and other resources. As of the14th General Review of Quotasin late 2010 the fund stood atSDR476.8bn, or about US$755.7bn at then-current exchange rates.[1]Through this fund, and other activities such as surveillance of its members' economies and the demand for self-correcting policies, the IMF works to improve the economies of its member countries.[2] The IMF is a self-described "organization of 188 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world.[3]The organization's objectives are stated in the Articles of Agreement[4]and can be summarised as: to promote international economic co-operation,international trade, employment, and exchange-rate stability, including by making financial resources available to member countries to meetbalance of paymentsneeds.[5]Its headquarters are inWashington, D.C.,United States. The OPEC Fund for International Development (OFID) is a multilateral development finance institution established in 1976 by the Member States of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). OFID was conceived at the Conference of the Sovereigns and Heads of State of OPEC Member Countries, which was held in Algiers, Algeria, in March 1975. A Solemn Declaration of the Conference reaffirmed the natural solidarity which unites OPEC countries with other developing countries in their struggle to overcome underdevelopment, and called for measures to strengthen cooperation between these countries.[1] OFIDs objective is to reinforce financial cooperation between OPEC Member Countries and other developing countries, by providing financial support to the latter for their socioeconomic development. The institution's central mission is to foster South-South Partnership with fellow developing countries worldwide with the aim of eradicating poverty.[2]OFID's headquarters are located inVienna,Austria. The current Director-General isSuleiman Jasir Al-HerbishofSaudi Arabia. heOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) (French:Organisation de coopration et de dveloppement conomiques,OCDE) is aninternational economic organisationof 34countries founded in 1961 to stimulate economic progress and world trade. It is a forum of countries committed todemocracyand themarket economy, providing a platform to compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practices and coordinate domestic and international policies of its members. The OECD originated in 1948 as theOrganisation for European Economic Co-operation(OEEC),[1]led byRobert MarjolinofFrance, to help administer theMarshall Plan(which was rejected by theSoviet Unionand its satellite states[2]). This would be achieved by allocating American financial aid and implementing economic programs for the reconstruction of Europe afterWorld WarII, where similar efforts in the Economic Cooperation Act of 1948 of the United States of America, which stipulated the Marshall Plan that had also taken places elsewhere in the world to war-torn Republic of China and post-war Korea,[3]but the American recovery program in Europe was the most successful one.[4][vague] In 1961, the OEEC was reformed into the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development by theConvention on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Developmentand membership was extended to non-European states. Most OECD members arehigh-income economieswith a very high Human Development Index (HDI) and are regarded asdeveloped countries. The OECD's headquarters are at theChteau de la MuetteinParis, France. OPEC(/opk/oh-pek) (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) is aninternational organizationand economiccartelwhose mission is to coordinate the policies of the oil-producing countries. The goal is to secure a steady income to the member states and to collude in influencing world oil prices through economic means.[2][3] OPEC is an intergovernmental organization that was created at the Baghdad Conference on 1014 September 1960, byIraq,Kuwait,Iran,Saudi ArabiaandVenezuela. Later it was joined by nine more governments:Libya,United Arab Emirates,Qatar,Indonesia,Algeria,Nigeria,Ecuador,Angola, andGabon. OPEC was headquartered inGeneva,Switzerlandbefore moving toVienna,Austria, on September 1, 1965.[4] TheWorld Bank Group(WBG) is a family of fiveinternational organizationsthat make leveraged loans to poor countries. It is the largest and most famous development bank in the world and is an observer at theUnited Nations Development Group.[2]The bank is based inWashington, D.C.and provided around $30 billion in loans and assistance to "developing" and transition countries in 2012.[3]The bank's stated mission is to reduce poverty.[3] The World Bank's (theIBRDandIDA's) activities are focused ondeveloping countries, in fields such as human development (e.g. education, health), agriculture and rural development (e.g. irrigation and rural services), environmental protection (e.g. pollution reduction, establishing and enforcing regulations), infrastructure (e.g. roads, urban regeneration, and electricity), large industrial construction projects, andgovernance(e.g. anti-corruption, legal institutions development). The IBRD and IDA provide loans at preferential rates to member countries, as well as grants to the poorest countries. Loans or grants for specific projects are often linked to wider policy changes in the sector or the country's economy as a whole. For example, a loan to improve coastal environmental management may be linked to development of new environmental institutions at national and local levels and the implementation of new regulations to limit pollution, or not, such as in the World Bank financed constructions of paper mills along the Rio Uruguay in 2006.[4]TheWorld Trade Organization(WTO) is anorganizationthat intends to supervise andliberalizeinternational trade. The organization officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under theMarrakech Agreement, replacing theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT), which commenced in 1948.[5]The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participant's adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by representatives of member governments[6]:fol.910and ratified by their parliaments.[7]Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from theUruguay Round(19861994). TheSouth Asian Association for Regional Cooperation(SAARC) is aneconomicandgeopoliticalorganization of eightcountriesthat are primarily located inSouth Asia.[10]The SAARC Secretariat is based inKathmandu,Nepal.[11]The idea of regional political and economical cooperation in South Asia was first raised in 1980 and the first summit was held inDhakaon 8 December 1985, when the organization was established by the governments ofBangladesh,Bhutan,India,Maldives,Nepal,Pakistan, andSri Lanka.[12][13]Since then the organization has expanded by accepting one new full member,Afghanistan,[14]and several observer members.[12]The SAARC policies aim to promotewelfare economics, collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia, and to acceleratesocio-culturaldevelopment in the region.[15]The SAARC has developedexternal relationsby establishing permanent diplomatic relations with theEU, theUN(as anobserver), and other multilateral entities.[15]The official meetings of the leaders of each nation are held annually whilst the foreign ministers meet twice annually.[15]The 18th SAARC Summit is scheduled to be held in Kathmandu in November 2014.[16]TheBay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation(BIMSTEC) is an international organisation involving a group of countries inSouth AsiaandSouth East Asia. These are:Bangladesh,India,Myanmar,Sri Lanka,Thailand,BhutanandNepal.TheAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations[5](ASEAN/si.n/ah-see-ahn,[6]/zi.n/ah-zee-ahn)[7][8]is a political and economic organisation of ten countries located inSoutheast Asia, which was formed on 8 August 1967 byIndonesia,Malaysia, thePhilippines,SingaporeandThailand.[9]Since then, membership has expanded to includeBrunei,Cambodia,Laos,Myanmar (Burma)andVietnam. Its aims include acceleratingeconomic growth,social progress,sociocultural evolutionamong its members, protection of regional peace and stability, and opportunities for member countries to discuss differences peacefully.[10]Worldwide[edit] Earth System Governance Project(ESGP) Global Environment Facility(GEF) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) World Nature Organization(WNO) World Wide Fund for Nature(WWF) GreenpeaceTheIndian Council of Forestry Research and Education(ICFRE)[1][2][3]is an autonomous organization[4][5]orgovernmental agencyunder theMinistry of Environment and Forests,[6]Government of India. Headquartered inDehradun, its functions are to conductforestryresearch; transfer the technologies developed to the states of India and other user agencies; and to impart forestry education. The council has 9 research institutes and 4 advanced centres to cater to the research needs of different bio-geographical regions. These are located atDehradun, Shimla, Ranchi, Jorhat, Jabalpur, Jodhpur, Bangalore, Coimbatore, Allahabad, Chhindwara, Aizawl, Hyderabad and Agartala.[7]TheMinistry of Environment and Forests(MoEF) is anIndian governmentministry. The Minister of Environment and Forests holdscabinetrank as a member of theCouncil of Ministers. The ministryportfoliois currently held byPrakash Javadekar, Union Minister of Environment and Forests.The ministry is responsible for planning, promoting, coordinating, and overseeing the implementation ofenvironmentalandforestryprogrammes in the country. The main activities undertaken by the ministry include conservation and survey of theflora of Indiaandfauna of India,forestsand otherwilderness areas; prevention and control ofpollution;afforestation, andland degradationmitigation. It is responsible for the administration of thenational parks of India.TheCivil Services,Indian Forest Service(IFS) is under the administration and supervision of the Ministry of Environment and Forests.Central Pollution Control Board(CPCB) of India is a statutory organisation under theMinistry of Environment and Forests(MoEF). It was established in 1974 underWater (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. CPCB is also entrusted with the powers and functions under theAir (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. It serves as a field formation and also provides technical services to the Ministry of Environment and Forests of the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It Co-ordinate the activities of the State Boards by providing technical assistance and guidance and resolve disputes among them. It is an apex organization in country in the field of pollution control, as technical wing of MoEF.[4][5]The board is led by itschairman, who is nominated by theCentral Government.[6]The current acting chairman isSusheel Kumar.[7]CPCB has its head office inNew Delhi, with seven zonal offices and 5 laboratories. The board conducts environmental assessment and research. It is responsible for maintain national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation withzonal offices, tribal, andlocal governments. It has monitoring the water and air quality and maintains respective quality data. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a wide variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs and energy conservation efforts. It advise the central government to prevent and control water and air pollution. It also advise the Governments of Union Territories about an industry or the pollution source causingwaterandairpollution. CPCB along with its counterparts State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) are responsible for implementation of legislations relating to prevention and control of environmental pollution.[8][9]1.Chairman of Peoples Republic of China Mao-Tse-Tung 2. President of the Chinese Republic Dr. Sun Yat Sen 3. President of U.S.A George Washington 4. Chinese Traveller to India Fahein 5. Foreign Invader to India Alexander the Great 6. Person to reach South Pole Amundsen 7. Person to reach North Pole Robert Pearey 8. Person in Space Yuri Gagarin 9. Person on Moon Neil Armstrong 10. Lady to climb Mount Everest Junko Taibei 11. European to visit China Marco Polo 12. Place where atom bomb was dropped Hiroshima - See more at: 13. Man to walk in Space Alexei Leonov 14. Woman cosmonaut in Space Valentina Tereshkova 15. Woman Prime Minister of a country Mrs. Srimavo Bhandarnaike 16. Woman President of a country Maria Estela Peron 17. Woman to Command a Space Mission Colonel Eileen Collins(U.S.A.)18. The first residents of International Space station Bill Shepherd(USA),Yuri Gidzanko and Sergei Krikalev(Russia)19. The first blind man to scale Mt. Everest Erik Weihenmayer(USA, May 25, 2001)20. The first Muslim woman to become the Secretary General of Amnesty International lrine Zubeida Khan 21. The first space astronaut to go into space seven times till date Jerry Ross(U.S.A.)22. The first South African to become the second space tourist Mark Shuttleworth 23. The first woman Prime Minister of South Korea Ms. Chang Sang 24. The first youngest grandmaster of the world in chess Sergey Karjakin(Ukraine)25. The first adventurer flying successfully across the English Channel without aircraft Felix Baumgartner(July 2003)26. China's first man in space Yang Liwei 27. The first Muslim woman to receive Nobel Prize Shirin Ebadi (Nobel Peace Prize 2003) 28. The woman with the highest individual Test score making a new world record Kiran Baloch(Pakistani cricketer,scoring 242 runs playing women'scricket test against West Indies in Karachi in March, 2004)29. The first woman of the world to climb Mt. Everest four times Lakpa Sherpa(Nepali)30. The first woman to cross seven important seas of the world by swimming Bula Chaudhury(India)31. The first aircraft pilot to round the entire world non-stop by his 2 engine aircraft in 67 hours Steve Fossett(March 2005)32. The first woman to be appointed as a Governor of a province in Afghanistan Habiba Sorabhi 33. The first woman of the world to swim across five continents Bula Chaudhury(India) (April 2005)34. The first woman athlete to touch 5.0 meter mark in pole vault Ms. Yelena Isinbayeva(Russian, July 2005)35. The first Hindu Chief Justice of Pakistani Supreme Court Justice Rana Bhagwan DasTook over on Sept. 2, 2005 asActing Chief Justice36. The first duly elected woman President of an African country Allen Johnson Sirleaf(electedPresident of Liberia in Nov. 2005)37. The first woman Governor of the State Bank of Pakistan Shanshad Akhtar38.The first woman Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel(Took over in Nov. 2005)39. The first woman President of Chile Dr. Michelle Bachelet 40. The first woman Prime Minister of Jamaica Portia Simpson Miller(Feb. 2006)41. The first woman foreign Secretary of England Margaret Backett(May 2006)42. The first double amputee to scale Mt. Everest Mark Inglis(May 15, 2006)- See more at:

Tribes and Races of the World Adivasis :A tribe in Bastar Distt. (Madhya Pradesh). Afridis :The tribals inhabiting the Pak-Afghan border area. Afrikaner : The Dutch-born in South Africa. Bantus : People of a black race of South Africa. Bhils : Ancient Dravidians living in Central India and Rajasthan. Bedouins : Nomads of Arabia and North Africa. Berbers :People of a race of North West Africa. Boers :Dutch settlers of South Africa. Dravidians :Very Ancient people (non-Aryans) living in South India. Eskimos : Natives of Greenland and Arctic region. Filipinos : Natives of Philippines Islands. Flemings : People of Belgium. Garos : A tribe in Assam and Nagaland. Gonds :A tribe in Bihar. Khasis :A hill tribe of Meghalaya. Lepchas :Tribals of Tibetan origin in Sikkim. Kiwis :People of New Zealand. Magyars :Natives of Hungary. Moplahs : People of tribe of Malabar Distt. (Kerala) Mayas :American Indians found in the highlands of Guatemala. Maoris : Natives of New Zealand. Nagas :People of Nagaland, India. Papuans :Tribals of New Guinea. Red Indians :Original inhabitants of North-America. Santhals :Aboriginal natives of Orissa and Chotta Nagpur. Todas : Natives of Nilgiri Hills (Tamil Nadu) Zulus :Natives of Natal (North Africa).

Lion emblem countries:India Belgium Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Sierra leone Sri lankaPlaces Associated with Bardoli Sardar Patel Chittore Rana Pratap Corsica Napoleon Bonaparte Fatehpur Sikri Akbar the Great Haldighati Rana Pratap Hiroshima Dropping of First Atom Bomb Jallianwala Bagh Massacre of Indians by the British on April 13, 1919 Jerusalem Jesus Christ Kapilvastu Buddha Lumbini Buddha Macedonia Alexander Mecca Prophet Mohammed Pearl Harbour Japan's attack on the U.S.A. during World War II in 1941 Pawnar Ashram Achara Vinoba Bhave Pondicherry Aurobindo Ghosh Porbunder Mahatma Gandhi Rajghat Mahatma Gandhi Srirangpattam Tipu Sultan Shantiniketan Rabindra Nath Tagore Shaktisthal Smt. Indira Gandhi Shantivan Jawahar Lal Nehru Talwandi Guru Nanak Trafalgar Nelson Virindavan (U.P.) Lord Krishna Vijay Ghat (Delhi) Lal Bahadur Shastri Veer Bhumi Rajiv Gandhi Waterloo Napoleon Wardha Mahatma Gandhi Functions of Reserve Bank1. Issue of Notes The Reserve Bank has the monopoly of note issue in the country. It has the sole right to issue currency notes of various denominations except one rupee note. The Reserve Bank acts as the only source of legal tender money because the one rupee note issued by Ministry of Finance are also circulated through it. The Reserve Bank has adopted theMinimum Reserve Systemfor the note issue. Since 1957, it maintains gold and foreign exchange reserves of Rs. 200 crore, of which at least Rs. 115 crore should be in gold.

2. Banker to the GovernmentThe second important function of the Reserve Bank is to act as the Banker, Agent and Adviser to the Government. It performs all the banking functions of the State and Central Government and it also tenders useful advice to the Government on matters related to economic and monetary policy. It also manages the public debt for the Government.

3. Banker's BankThe Reserve Bank performs the same function for the other banks as the other banks ordinarily perform for their customers. It is not only a banker to the commercial banks, but it is the tender of the last resort.

4. Controller of CreditThe Reserve Bank undertakes the responsibility of controlling credit created by the commercial banks. To achieve this objective it makes extensive use of quantitative and qualitative techniques to control and regulate the credit effectively in the country.

5. Custodian of Foreign ReservesFor the purpose of keeping the foreign exchange rates stable the Reserve Bank buys and sells the foreign currencies and also protects the country's foreign exchange funds.

6. Other FunctionsThe bank performs a number of other developmental works. These works include the function of clearing house arranging credit for agriculture, (which has been transferred to NABARD) collecting and publishing the economic data, buying and selling of Government securities and trade bills, giving loans to the Government buying and selling of valuable commodities etc. It also acts as the representative of Government in I.M.F. and represents the membership of India.Printing of Securities and Minting in India1. India Security Press(Nasik Road)Postal Material, Postal Stamps, Non-postal Stamps, Judicial and Non-judicial Stamps, Cheques, Bonds, NSC, Kisan Vikas Patra, Securities of State Governments, Public Sector Enterprise and Financial Corporations.2. Security Printing Press(Hyderabad)Established in 1982 for meeting the demand for postal material by Southern States. It also fulfils the demand for Union Excise Duty Stamps of the Country.3. Currency Notes Press(Nasik Road)Since 1991, this press prints currency notes of Rs. 1, Rs. 2, Rs. 5, Rs. 10, Rs. 50, and Rs. 100. (Earlier printing of Rs. 50 and Rs. 100 currency notes was not done here).4. Bank Notes Press(Dewas)Currency notes of Rs. 20, Rs. 50, Rs. 100 and Rs. 500 are printed here.5. Modernised Currency Notes PressTwo new modernised currency notes press are under establishment at Mysore (Karnataka) and Salboni (West Bengal).6. Security PaperHoshangabad (Established in 1967-68) makes production of Bank and Currency notes paper.7. Coins are minted at four placesMumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad and Noida.

SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of India) was initially constituted on April 12, 1988 as a nonstatutory body through a resolution of the Government for dealing with all matters relating to development and regulation of securities market and investor protection and to advise the Government on all these matters. SEBI was given statutory status and powers through an ordinance promulgated on January 30, 1992.

The statutory powers and functions of SEBI were strengthened through the promulgation of the Securities Laws (Amendment) ordinance on January 25, 1995 which was subsequently replaced by an Act of Parliament. In terms of this Act, SEBI has been vested with regulatory powers over corporates in the issuance of capital, the transfer of securities and other related matters. Besides, SEBI has also been empowered to impose monetary penalties on capital market intermediaries and other participants for a range of violations.

SEBI is managed by six membersone chairman (nominated by Central Government), two members (officers of central ministries), one member (from RBI) and remaining two members are nominated by Central Government. The office of SEBI is situated at Mumbai with its regional offices at Kolkata, Delhi and Chennai. In 1988 the initial capital of SEBI was Rs. 75 crore which was provided by its promoters (IDBI, ICICI, IFCI). This amount was invested and with its interest amount day-to-day expenses of SEBI are met. All statutory powers for regulating Indian capital market are vested with SEBI itself.Functions of SEBI1. To safeguard the interests of investors and to regulate capital market with suitable measures.2. To regulate the business of stock exchanges and other securities market.3. To regulate the working of Stock Brokers, Sub-brokers, Share Transfer Agents, Trustees, Merchant Bankers, Underwriters, Portfolio Managers etc. and also to make their registration.4. To register and regulate collective investment plans of mutual funds.5. To encourage self-regulatory organisations.6. To eliminate malpractices of security markets.7. To train the persons associated with security markets and also to encourage investors' education.8. To check insider trading of securities.9. To supervise the working of various organisations trading in security market and also to ensure systematic dealings.10. To promote research and investigations for ensuring the attainment of above objectives.Worlds largest dam Three Gorges ChinaSyncrude Tailings Canada Chapetn Argentina Pati Argentina New Cornelia Tailings United States Tarbela Pakistan Local TimeParallels of longitude determine the time at a place. Local time is 12 noon when the sun is exactly overhead. Local time varies, from Greenwich time (London) at the rate of four minutes/degree of longitude. The time of a place depends on whether it lies east orwest of Greenwich. As the earth rotates from west to east, the places that lie to the east of Greenwich are the first to receive sunlight. The earth rotates through 360 in 24 h or15 in1hor 1 in 4 min. Therefore the local time varies at the rate of 4 min/degree of longitude from the Greenwich time.

For example, Kolkata is approximately 90 east of Greenwich. So, Kolkata will be (90 x4) or 6 h ahead of the time in London.Standard Time is the uniform time fixed by each country. As the local time is found to vary constantly from one plain to another, there is an arrangement by which all places in a certain region agree to use the same time. It is the uniform time fixed in relation to the mean time of a certain meridian which passes through it.

For this purpose, the earth is divided into 24 longitudinal zones, each, being 15 or 1 h apart in time. The zero is at Greenwich (London) which gives us the Greenwich Mean Time {GMT). The 12th zone is divided by the 180th meridian, the International Date Line.

The zones to the east of this line are numbered from 1-12 with the prefix minus (-) indicating the number of hours to be subtracted to obtain the Greenwich Time. The zones to the west are also numbered 1-12 with the prefix plus (+) which means the number of hours that must be added to get the Greenwich Time.Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)Greenwich Mean Time is the UK standard time. It is based on the local time of the meridian passing through Greenwich near London.International Date LineThe 180 east meridian and 180" west meridian are one and the same line, running over the PacificOcean, deviating at Fiji, Samoa, and Gilbert Islands. The International Date Line roughly corresponds to 180 east or west , meridians of longitude, which fall on the opposite side of the Greenwich meridian. When one crosses the date line from east to west, date is to be advanced by one day.

Similarly, when one crosses the date line from west to east, the date is to be set back by one day.Bharat Ratna AwardeesBharat Ratna is the highest civilian honour, given for exceptional service towards advancement of Art, Literature and Science, and in recognition of Public Service of the highest order. The provision of Bharat Ratna was introduced in 1954.

The first ever Indian to receive this award was the famous scientist, Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman. Since then, many people, each a whiz in varied aspects of their career, have received this coveted award.

List of all Bharat Ratna awardees so far:S.NoNameBirth / deathAwardedNotesIndian state or country

1.Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan188819751954Second President, First Vice President, Philosopher.Tamil Nadu

2.Chakravarti Rajagopalachari187819721954Last Governor-General, Freedom Fighter.Tamil Nadu

3.C. V. Raman188819701954Nobel-prize winning PhysicistTamil Nadu

4.Bhagwan Das186919581955Philosopher, Freedom FighterUttar Pradesh

5.Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvarayya186119621955Civil EngineerKarnataka

6.Jawaharlal Nehru188919641955First Prime Minister, Freedom Fighter, Author.Uttar Pradesh

7.Govind Ballabh Pant188719611957Freedom Fighter, Home MinisterUttar Pradesh

8.Dhondo Keshav Karve185819621958Educationist, Social ReformerMaharashtra

9.B. C. Roy188219621961Physician, PoliticianWest Bengal

10.Purushottam Das Tandon188219621961Freedom Fighter, Educationalist.Uttar Pradesh

11.Rajendra Prasad188419631962First President, Freedom Fighter, JuristBihar

12.Zakir Hussain189719691963Former President, Scholar.Andhra Pradesh

13.Pandurang Vaman Kane188019721963Indologist and Sanskrit scholarMaharashtra

14.Lal Bahadur Shastri190419661966Posthumous, Second Prime Minister, Freedom FighterUttar Pradesh

15.Indira Gandhi191719841971Former Prime MinisterUttar Pradesh

16.V. V. Giri189419801975Former President, Trade Unionist.Andhra Pradesh

17.K. Kamaraj190319751976Posthumous, Freedom Fighter, Chief Minister-Tamil Nadu.Tamil Nadu

18.Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu (Mother Teresa)191019971980Naturalized Indian citizen, Nobel Laureate (Peace, 1979).West Bengal

19.Acharya Vinoba Bhave189519821983Posthumous, Social Reformer, Freedom Figher.Maharashtra

20.Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan189019881987First non-citizen, Freedom Fighter.Pakistan

21.M. G. Ramachandran191719871988Posthumous, Chief Minister-Tamil Nadu, Actor.Tamil Nadu

22.B. R. Ambedkar189119561990Posthumous, Architect-Indian Constitution, Leader of Buddhist people of IndiaMaharashtra

23.Nelson Mandelab. 19181990Second non-citizen and first non-Indian, Leader of Anti-Apartheid movement.South Africa

24.Rajiv Gandhi194419911991Posthumous, Former Prime MinisterNew Delhi

25.Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel187519501991Posthumous, Freedom Fighter, First Home Minister of India.Gujarat

26.Morarji Desai189619951991Former Prime Minister, Freedom Fighter.Gujarat

27.Maulana Abul Kalam Azad188819581992Posthumous, Freedom Fighter, Educator.West Bengal

28.J. R. D. Tata190419931992Industrialist and philanthropist.Maharashtra

29.Satyajit Ray192219921992Legendary Indian Film DirectorWest Bengal

30.A.P.J. Abdul Kalamb. 19311997Former President, Scientist.Tamil Nadu

31.Gulzarilal Nanda189819981997Freedom Fighter, former Prime Minister.Punjab

32.Aruna Asaf Ali190819961997Posthumous, Freedom Fighter.West Bengal

33.M. S. Subbulakshmi191620041998Classical singer.Tamil Nadu

34.Chidambaram Subramaniam191020001998Freedom Fighter, Minister of Agriculture(Father of Green revolution).Tamil Nadu

35.Jayaprakash Narayan190219791998Posthumous, Freedom Fighter, Social Reformer.Uttar Pradesh

36.Ravi Shankarb. 19201999Classicalsitarplayer.west Bengal

37.Amartya Senb. 19331999Nobel Laureate (Economics, 1998), Economist.West Bengal

38.Gopinath Bordoloi189019501999Posthumous, freedom fighterAssam

39.Lata Mangeshkarb. 19292001Play back singerMaharashtra

40.Ustad Bismillah Khan1916-20062001Hindustani classical shehnai playerBihar

41.Bhimsen Joshi192220112009Hindustani classical singerKarnataka

42.C. N. R. Raob. 19342014ScientistKarnataka

43.Sachin Tendulkarb. 19732014CricketerMaharashtra

Padma VibhushanNoNameDisciplineState

1.Dr. Raghunath A. MashelkarScience and EngineeringMaharashtra

2. Shri B.K.S. IyengarOthers-YogaMaharashtra

Gallantry AwardsParam Vir Chakra :The highest decoration for valour is the Param Vir Chakra which is awarded for the most conspicuous bravery or some daring or pre-eminent act of valour or self-sacrifice in the. presence of the enemy, whether on land, at sea or in the air.

The decoration is made of bronze and is circular in shape. It has, on the obverse, four replicas of "Indra's Vajra" embossed round the State emblem in the centre. On the reverse, the words "Param Vir Chakra" are embossed both in Hindi and English with two lotus flowers in the middle.

The decoration is worn on the left breast with a plain, purple coloured riband about 3.2 cm in width.

Mahavir Chakra :Mahavir Chakra is the second highest decoration for valour and is awarded for acts of conspicuous gallantry in the presence of enemy, whether on land, at sea or in the air.

It is made of standard silver and is circular in shape. Embossed on the obverse is a five pointed heraldic star with domed centre-piece bearing the gilded State emblem in the centre, The words "Mahavir Chakra" are embossed both in Hindi and English on the reverse with two lotus flowers in the middle. The decoration is worn on the left breast with a half-white and half-orange riband about 3.2 cm in width, the orange being near the left shoulder.

Vir Chakra :Vir Chakra is third in the order of awards given for the act of gallantry in the presence of the enemy, whether on land, at sea or in the air.

The decoration is made of standard silver and is circular in shape. Embossed on the obverse is a five pointed heraldic star which has an Ashoka Chakra in the centre. Within this chakra, there is a domed centre-piece bearing gilded State emblem. On the reverse, the words "Vir Chakra" are embossed, both in Hindi and English, with two lotus flowers in the middle. The Chakra is worn on the left breast with a half-blue and halforange riband, about 3.2 cm in width, the orange being nearer the left shoulder.

Ashok Chakra :The Ashok Chakra series of awards are open to civilians also. Recommendations received in respect of civilians from the State Governments/Union territory Administra-tions and Ministries/Departments of the Central Government are processed by the Ministry of Defence for the consideration of the Central Honours and Awards Committee chaired by the Defence Minister. These awards are biannual and are given on the Republic Day and Independence Day.

Kirti Chakra :The decoration is the nation's second highest award for gallantry during peacetime. It is made of standard silver and is circular in shape. The obverse and the reverse are exactly the same as in Ashok Chakra.

The Chakra is worn on the left breast with a green silk riband, about 3.2 cm in width and divided into equal segments by two orange vertical lines.

Shaurya Chakra :The decoration is awarded for an act of gallantry. It is exactly like Ashok Chakra, except that it is made of bronze.

The Chakra is worn on the left breast with a green silk riband, about 3.2 cm in width and divided into four equal segments by three orange vertical lines.

Param Vishisht Seva Medal, Ati Vishisht Seva Medal, Vishisht Seva Medal :The Vishisht Seva (Distinguished Service) Medals are awarded to personnel of all the three services in recognition of distinguished service of the "most exceptional", "exceptional" and "high" order, respectively. Param Vishisht Seva Medal is made of gold, Ati Vishisht Seva Medal of standard silver and Vishisht Seva Medal of bronze, all circular in shape and 3.5 cm in diameter. Each medal has on its obverse five pointed stars and on its reverse the Lion Capitol. Its riband is golden with one dark-blue stripe down the centre for Param Vishisht Seva Medal, two dark-blue stripes dividing it into three equal parts for Ati Vishisht Seva Medal and three dark-blue stripes dividing it into four equal parts for Vishisht Seva Medal.

President Pranab Mukherjee on 26 January, 2014 conferred awards of 79 Gallantry and other Defence decorations to Armed Forces personnel and others as part of the 65rd Republic Day Celebrations.

This includes 03 Kirti Chakra, 10 Shaurya Chakra, 1 Bar Sena Medal (Gallantry), 48 Sena Medal (Gallantry), 02 Nao Sena Medal (Gallantry), 1 Bar to Vayu Sena Medal (Gallantry), 14 Vayu Sena Medal (Gallantry).Nobel Literature Prize Winners Nobel Prize Winners in Chemistry Nobel Prize Winners in Physics Nobel Prize Winners in Physiology or Medicine Nobel Prize Winners in Literature Nobel Prize Winners in Peace Nobel Prize Winners in Economics

No.BookAuthor

1.A House For Mr. BiswasV.S. Naipaul

2.Aag Ka DariyaQurratulain Hyder

3.Adha GaonRahi Masoom Reza

4.Adhe AdhureMohan Rakesh

5.All About H. HatterrGV Desani

6.Aranyer Din RatriSunil Gangopadhyay

7.Charandas ChorHabib Tanvir

8.ChidamabaraSumitranandan Pant

9.CoolieMulk Raj Anand

10.DipshikhaMahadevi Verma

11.English AugustUpamanyu Chatterjee

12.Family MattersRohinton Mistry

13.Ghasiram KotwalVijay Tendulkar

14.God of Small ThingsArundhati Roy

15.Golden GateVikram Seth

16.Hajar Churashir MaMahasweta Devi

17.IndulekhaO. Chandu Menon

18.Interpreter of MaladiesJhumpa Lahiri

19.KanthapuraRaja Rao

20.KayarThakazhi Sivasankara Pillai

21.Khasakinte IthihaasamO.V. Vijayan

22.Kitne PakistanKamleshwar

23.Kitni Navon Men Kitni BarAjneya

24.KrishnakaliShivani

25.KurukkuFaustina Barna

26.KutiyozhikkalVailoppilli Sreedhara Menon

27.MadhushalaHarivansh Rai Bachchan

28.Marali MannigeKota Shivaram Karanth

29.Midnight's ChildrenSalman Rushdie

30.Nilkanthi BrojaIndira Goswami

31.ParajaGopinath Molianty

32.ParimalSuryakant Tripathi 'Nirala'

33.Pather PanchaliBibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay

34.Pathummayude AaduVaikom Mohammed Basheer

35.Raag DarbariShrilal Shukla

36.RandamuzhamM. T. Vasudevan

37.Rasidi TicketAmrita Pritam

38.Sabdar AkashSitakant Mohapatra

39.SamskaraU. R. Ananthamurthy

40.Shadow LinesAmitav Ghosh

41.Swami and FriendsR. K. Narayan

42.TamasBhisham Sahni

43.Terhi LakeerIsmat Chugtai

44.The Flight of PigeonsRuskin Bond

45.Train To PakistanKhushwant Singh

46.TughlaqGirish Karnad

47.ZindaginamaKrishna Sobti

Hindi:Shree Lal Shukla, Nirmal Verma(Recipient of Jnanpith Award for 1999). Dr. Ram Vilas Shanna. Krishna Sobti and Giriraj Kishore, Manglesh Dabral(Winner of Sahitya Academy Award for 2000). P.C.K. Prem. Ramdarsh Misra, Alka Saraogi(Winner of Sahitya Academy Award, 2001), Dr. Ram Murthy Tripathy(Winner of Shankar Puruskar, 2001), Rajesh Joshi(Winner of Sahitya Academy Award, 2002), Kamleshwar(Winner of Shlaka Samman 2002-03 and Sahitya Akademi Award 2003), S. R. Harnot, Dr. Biswambha Pahi, Rajendra Yadav. Viren Dangwal.(Winner of Sahitya Academy Award, 2004)Ante date :To give a date prior to that on which it is written, to any cheque, bill or any other document.

Appreciation of Money :It is a rise in the value of money caused by a fall in the general price level..Assets :Property of any kind available towards the discharge of the liabilities of a testator, intestate debtor or company.

At Sight :A form of notification written on bills or notes denoting that they are not payable on demand but after expiry of a specified period and allowing three days of grace there after.

Arbitration :A method for compounding dispute, generally of an industrial nature, between the employer and his employees by reference to disinterested parties-called arbitrators.

Advice :Any notification of a business transaction, apprising an agent, correspondent, or customer that a certain thing has been done.

Bear :A speculator in the market who believes that price will go down.

Bill of Credit :A letter authorising the advance of money to a specified person, implying thereby the obligation on the part of the writer to repay that amount.

Black Money :Unaccounted money on which no Income-tax has been paid. The main reason for accumulation of black money has been the steep rise in rate of taxation : tax evasion becomes attractive and profitable. The business community, politicians and bureaucrats all have accumulated black money during the last few years. The Government of India demonetised high denomination notes in Jan. 1978 in order to reduce the evil or black money. Voluntary Disclosure Income Scheme was introduced in 1977 by the Govt. Over Rs. 10,000 crores were netted by the Govt. by Feb 28, 1998.Bond :A written monetary agreement between two persons, or between two governments or between a person and a government or corporation, or between a corporation and a government.

Bull :A speculator in the stock market who buys goods, in some cases without money to pay with, anticipating that prices will go up.

Balance of Trade :The difference between the imports and exports of a country. It is favourable when the value of exported goods exceeds the value of imported goods. And it is unfavourable if the imports exceed exports.

Bankers' Cheque :A cheque drawn by one bank on its own branch.

Bank Rate :The rate at which the Central Bank (Reserve Bank of India) will discount first class bills of exchange.

Basket Currencies :14 currencies whose average value has been taken to calculate the value of S.D.R. Similarly, the rupee exchange rate is announced on the basis of average value of half a dozen basket currencies.

Buyers' Market :An area in which the supply of certain goods exceeds the demands, so that purchasers can drive hard bargains.

Carat :Measure or weight for precious stones, about 4 grains; 24 carat gold is the purest gold, thus 22 carat gold means a piece of gold in which 22 .parts are pure gold and 2 parts of an alloy, usually copper.

Caution Money :It is money deposited as security for the fulfilment of a contract of obligation.

Central Bank :A bank which is (a) banker to the Government, (b) banker to the commercial banks, and (c) manages the currency and credit policy of that country. The Reserve Bank of India is the Central Bank.

Clearing House :The place where clerks from the different banks meet daily, bringing with them all bills cheques drawn on each other bank on that day. The bills/cheques are then exchanged and outstanding differences settled.

Letter of Credit :A letter from a bank, firm or one person to another authorising payment to a third person of a specific sum, for which the sender assumes full responsibility.

Crossed Cheque :A cheque is crossed for protection. In a crossed cheque two parallel lines are drawn across its face and the words 'and Co'. are written between the lines. Such a cheque must be paid into one's own account in the ban} and then realised.

Debentures :A debenture is a certificate issued by a company to its creditors promising the payment of a stated sum at fixed rate of interest, after a specified period of time. A debenture is the first charge on the assets of the company.

Deflation :A state in monetary market when money in circulation has decreased and is characterised by low prices, unemployment, etc.

Demand Draft :An instrument drawn by one bank on any of its own branches or on another bank under agency arrangement is payble on demand.

Devaluation :A deliberate reduction in the value of the home currency to foreign currency. It is done always by a governmental action, and is resorted to in order to reduce imports and increase exports. India devalued her currency by 37 per cent on 6th June, 1966. Of late so many countries,viz.,U.K., U.S.A., and France have resorted to this expedient to balance their payment positions.

Draft :A cheque drawn by one bank on another.

Estate Duty :A form of death duty and a method of direct taxation, imposed when the property is transferred on the death of its owner. It has been abolished in India but was reintroduced in a limited way in 1988.

EURO :The European Union declared to introduce a common currency for its member countries, called EURO. Eleven of the fifteen countries agreed to become members of the common currency introduced on Jan. 1, 1999. Four countries are likely to become members later. By 2002, it is hoped that the local currencies will disappear and replaced by EURO.

Excise Duty :It is the duty charged on goods manufactured within the country; excise duties on alcohol, tobacco, sugar, match-box, cIoth, etc., have been levied by the Government of India.

Floating Currency :On account of too wide a fluctuation between the official and unofficial rates for various currencies of the world, some of the countries decided not to fix any particular rate of the currency vis-a-vis others and let the value be determined on a daily basis.

Foreign Exchange :The method by which transactions in international trade are financed.

Fixed Exchange Rate :When the exchange rate of the currency is fixed by the concerned government and it can only be changed either by devaluation or revaluation.

Floating Exchange Rate :A situation in which the exchange rate of any currency is determined by the forces of demand and supply for this currency. Today rupee is also floating and its exchange rate with other currencies is determined by the demand and supply. Periodically the Reserve Bank of India announces the exchange rates of rupee with other currencies. The exchange rate is calculated by taking average value of basket currencies.

Free Trade :A tariff system which treats foreign imports and home produced articles on the same basis, either taxing both equally or exempting both.

Gold Standard :It is a system of currency based on the free coinage of gold. It presupposes that the state will sell and buy gold at fixed price in terms of the local currency; For all practical purposes, the system is dead now.

Green Revolution :The term applied for the steep rise in the production of agricultural products, during the past few years. The Green Revolution was made possible by : (i) better use of fertilizers {ii) intensive cultivation, (iii) latest varieties of seeds and especially the hybrid varieties (iv) pesticides and insecticides and (v) availability of assured means of irrigation green revolution turned gray in 1973-74 when food production was considerably lower. The main reason, according to a few, is not the non-availability offood articles, but faulty distribution. There were food grain shortages in 1980 on account of severe drought in 1979. In 1998, the country reaped a large harvest of over 194 million tones and over 200 million tones in 1999.

Hard Currency :The currency of a country in relation to which we have an adverse balance of payment,i.e.,which is hard to be obtained.

Hot Money :Money which moves from one place to another to seek profit or higher rate of interest is called hot money.

Index Number :A statistical method of indicating approximately the variations in the prices of essential commodities over certain periods of time.

Inflation :It is an increase in the quantity of money in circulation without any corresponding increase in goods, and, therefore, it leads to an abnormal rise in the price level.

Key Currency :A currency which is internally acceptable and is used in international payments.Communalism :The political theory or trend of thought which insists too much upon the rights and interests of a particular religion, as distinguished from those of the nation at large. The 1991 elections were marked by appeal to communal sentiments.

Communism :It may mean either the type of society in which right to property is vested in the community, every individual receiving what he needs and working according to his capacity, or it may mean the revolutionary movement which seeks to achieve that type of society by overthrowing the capitalist system and establishing a dictatorship of the proletariat. Modern communism has its basis in Marxism, as developed by the Russianrevolutionary leader, Lenin(1870-1924). Communism now survives only in China, Vietnam, North Korea and Cuba. However, in India the communists still enjoy a clout.1. British Governor General of Bengal Warren Hastings 2. Governor General of Independent India Lord Mountbatten 3. Commander-in-chief of Free India General Roy Bucher 4. Cosmonaut Sqn. Ldr. Rakesh Sharma 5. Emperor of Mughal Dynasty in India Babar 6. Field Marshal S. H. F. J. Manekshaw 7. Indian Governor General of Indian Union C. Rajagopalachari 8. Indian I.C.S. Officer Satyendra Nath Tagore 9. Indian Member of Viceroy's Executive Council Sri S. P. Sinha 10. Indian to swim across English Channel Mihir Sen 11. Indian woman to swim across-English Channel Miss Arati Saha 12. Man to climb Mount Everest Tenzing Norgay 13. Man to climb Mount Everest without Oxygen Phu Dorjee 14. Man to climb Mount Everest twice Nwang Gombu 15. Nobel Prize winner Rabindra Nath Tagore 16. President of Indian National Congress W. C. Banerjee 17. President of Indian Republic Dr. Rajendra Prasad 18. Talkie Film Alam Ara(1931)19. Test Tube Baby (Documented) Indira20. Viceroy of India Lord Canning 21. Woman Minister of Indian Union Rajkumari Amrit Kaur 22. Woman Chief Minister of State Mrs. Sucheta Kriplani 23. Woman Governor Mrs. Sarojini Naidu 24. Woman President of Indian National Congress Dr. Annie Besant 25. Woman Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi 26. Woman Speaker of a State Assembly Mrs. Shanno Devi 27. Prime Minister of India Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru 28. Muslim President of Indian Union Dr. Zakir Hussain 29. Speaker of Lok Sabha G. V. Mavlankar 30. Woman to climb mount Everest Bachhendri Pal 31. Woman Judge in Supreme Court Mrs. Meera Sahib Fatima Biwi 32. Woman Chief Justice of a High Court Smt. Leela Seth 33. Indian Woman to go in space (Now U.S. Citizen) Kalpana Chawla 34. The first Indian weightlifter to win bronze medal in Olympics Karnam Malleshwari(Sydney, in 2000)35. The First Indian World Chess Champion Vishwanathan Anand 36. India's first paperless Newspaper The News Today(Launched on Jan. 3, 2001)37. India's First woman Merchant Navy Officer Sonali Banerjee 38. The first Dalit Speaker of the Lok Sabha G. M. C. Balyogi 39. The first Vice-President of India to die in harness Krishna Kant 40. The first Indian woman cricketer to score double century Mithali Raj(August 2002 playing against England)41. The first woman Air Vice-Marshal P. Bandopadhyaya 42. The first Indian to be appointed as United Nations Civilian Police Advisor Ms. Kiran Bedi 43. The first astronaut of Indian origin to perish aboard U.S. space shuttle in a tragic accident Dr. Kalpana Chawla(Columbia space shuttle, Feb. I, 2003)44. The first woman to be appointed Deputy Governor of Reserve Bank of India K. J. Udeshi(appointed on June 10, 2003)45. The first Indian girl to register a win in a Wimbledon tournament Sania Mirza(2003)46. The first Indian lady to win a medal in World Athletic Championship Anju Bobby George(Aug. 2003)47. The first woman Chairman and Managing Director of NABARD Mrs. Ranjana Kumar 48. The highest individual test scorer of India Virendra Sehwag( 309 runs in the first test in Multan against Pakistan)49. The first Indian cricketer to make double centuries five times Rahul Drgvid (playing test against Pakistan in Pakistan in. April 2004)50. The first Odisha woman to top I.A.S. Smt. Roopa Misra(Indian Civil Services Exam., 2003)51. The first Sikh Prime Minister of India Dr. Manmohan Singh 52. The first woman Director General of Police of a State Kanchan C. Bhattacharya(DGP Uttarakhand)53. The first woman to be appointed as the crime branch chief MeeriJ Borwankar(took over as crime branch chief of Mumbai police)54. The first woman to reach the rank of Lt. General in the Indian army Puneeta Arora(Commandant, Armed Forces Medical College, Pune)55. The first Indian to cross seven important seas by swimming Bula Chaudhury 56. The first woman to become Indian Air Force's first woman Air Marshal Air Marshal Padma Bandhopadhyay 57. The first youngest MP, at the age of 25 years Dharmendra Yadav(Mainpuri : Samajwadi Party MP)58. India's first woman athlete to win WTA open Tennis title Sania Mirza(Feb. 2005, Hyderabad)59. The first Indian to set a world record of ever having reached the highestof heights yet in a hot balloon Vijaypath Singhania(Nov. 26, 2005. 69852 ft.)60. The first wonder child of Odisha only about 4 years and a half of age completes a race of 65 km. Budhia(May 2006)61. The first woman Commissioner of Police of an Indian metro (Chennai Metro Police) Letika Saran 62. The first Indian to Ski to the North Pole Ajeet Bajaj(April 26, 2006)63. The first sportsman ever to win Gold Medal in Shooting in the World Shooting Championship Abhinav Bindra(July 24, 2006)64. The first person of Indian origin to win the Miss Great Britain title Preeti Desai(2006)65. The first woman President of the Republic of India Pratibha Patil Largest and HeaviestBlue WhaleAverage length 30.5 mLargest ever recorded 33.58 mPregnant female may weigh 203 tonesSmallest Land MammalKitti's hog-nosed Bat(Found in Thailand)2Wing span 16 cmweight 1.75 to 2 gSmallest Marine Mammal

ProbablyHeaviside's dolphin(Found in South Atlantic)Length 1.22 mWeight 41 kgRarest Mammal Rarest MammalAspecies oftenrecfrom Madagascar is only known from a single specimen.Fastest MammalCheetah(found in Africa, Middle East, W. Asia) can run at 100 kph over short distances.Pronhorn antelope(Found in USA)Can run at 60 kph over long distances.Slowest MammalThree-toedsloth(found in South America) covers about 5 m a minute in trees, and only 2 m aminute on the ground.Highest Mammal

Yak(found in Tibet and China) climbs to 6000 m to feed.REPTILESLargest and HeaviestEstuarine Crocodile(found in Asia, Australia)Average length (male) up to 4.3 mLongest ever recorded 8.23 mLargest LizardKomodo dragon(found in Indonesian Island)length up to 3 mlargest TurtlePacific leatherback turtleAverage length (male) up to 2.13 mweight up to 363 kg.Fastest Amphibian (On Land)Six-linedracerunner(found in USA)can run at 29 kphFastest Amphibian (In Water)(In Water)Pacific Leatherback turtlecan swim at 35 kphLongest SnakeReticulated Python(found in India and South-east Asia)Average length more than 6 mLongest ever recorded 10 mMost Poisonous SnakeSea Snake(found in North West Australia)Most Poisonous Land SnakeFierce Snake(found in Australia) has most toxic venom.AMPHIBIANSLargest AmphibianChinese gaintsalamanderAverage length 1mLongest ever recorded 1.52 mWeight 11 to 13 kg.Largest FrogGoliath Frog(found in Africa)Length of body 33.5 cmLargest ToadProbably marinetoad(found in South America)Length 22.9 cm.Largest NewtRibbed newt(found in Africa)Length upto 40 cmWeight 450 gHighest ToadCommon toadOne found in Himalayas at 8000 mMost PoisonousKokoiarrow-poison frog(found in South America)A tiny amount of toxin is enough to kill a man.Smallest NewtStriped newt(found in USA)length 5.1 cmBIRDSLargest Bird (Flightless)North African OstrichHeight (male) 2.74 mWeight 156.5 kgeggs up to 20 cm longLargest Wing SpanWandering albatross(found in Southern Oceans)Average length (male) 3.15 mLargest ever recorded 3.6 mSmallest BirdHelena's humming bird(found in Cuba)Average length (male) 5.8 cm(head and body 1.5 cm)Weight 2 gEgg 1.14 cm longRarest BirdMauritius Kestrel(found in Mauritius)About 5 are thought to remain.Fastest BirdSpine-tailed swift(found in Russia and Himalayas)flies at 171 kphLongest FlightArctic ternMay cover 40,000 km a year migrating from Arctic to Antarctic and back.Fastest Under WaterGentoo Penguinswims at 36 kphLargest NestBald eaglesone was 2.9 m wide and 6 m deep.FISHESLargest Fish (Plankton-eating)Whale SharkLargest ever recorded 18.5 m long.Largest Fish (Meat Eating)Great white shark(the man-eater)Average length up to 4.57 m.Heaviest Bony FishOcean sunfishis the heaviestlargest ever recorded 2.28 tonnes.Longest Bony FishRussian sturgeonorBelugaLength up to 8 mFastest FishProbablySailfishfastest ever recorded 109 kphMost Poisonous FishStonefish(foundin Indian and Pacific Oceans)Poison carried in spines can cause a person's death within a few hours.Most ElectricElectric eel(found in South America)can produce 400 to 500 volts.INSECTSLargest InsectGoliath beetle(found in Africa)Weight (male) 100gLongest InsectTropical stick insectLength up to 33 cmLargest locust SwarnA Swarn of desert locusts that crossed the Red Sea in 1889.Swarn estimated to contain 250,000,000 insectsweighing about 500,000 tonnes and covering 5,000 sq. kmLargest ButterflyQueen Alexandra bird wing(found in Guinea)Wing span 28 cm, weight 5 gMost Dangerous AntBlack bulldog ant(found in Australia and Tasmaina)One bite can kill a man.Fastest Wing BeatA tinymidgecan beat its wings 1000 times a second.

Country Name of Parliament Afghanistan Shora Albania People's Assembly Algeria National Popular Assembly Angola National Popular Assembly Argentina National Congress Australia Federal Parliament Austria National Assembly-Bundesversammlung Bahamas General Assembly Bangladesh Jatiya Sangshad Balize National Assembly Benin National Revolutionary Assembly Bhutan Tsongdu Bolivia National Congress Botswana National Assembly Brazil National Congress Britain Parliament (House of Commons and House of Lords) Bulgaria Narodna Subranie (National Assembly) Burma (Myanmar) Pyithu Hluttaw Cambodia National, Assembly Canada Parliament (House of Commons and Senate) Cape Verde People's National Assembly China, Mainland National People Congress China, National Yuan (National Assembly) Columbia Congress Cuba National Assembly of People's Power Denmark Folketing Ethiopia Shergo Egypt People's Assembly Finland Eduskusta France National Assembly Germany (United) Bundestag (Lower House)Bundestrat (Upper House) Greenland Landstraad Guyana National Assembly Hungary National Assembly Iceland Althing India Lok Sabha (Lower House)Rajya Sabha (Upper-House) Indonesia People's Consultative Assembly Iran Majlis Iraq National Assembly Ireland Oireachtas or National Parliament (Dail Eireann: House of Representatives and Seanad Eireann : Senate) Israel Knesset Japan Diet Jordan National Assembly Kenya National Assembly Kuwait National Assembly Laos People's Supreme Assembly Liberia National Assembly Libya General People's Congress Malaysia Dewan Rakyat and Dewan Negara Maldives Majlis Mongolia Great People's Khural Mozambique People's Assembly Nepal National Panchayat The Netherlands The Staten General New Zealand Parliament (House of Representatives) Norway Storting Papus New Guinea National Parliament Poland Sejm Retania Grand National Assembly Senegal National Assembly Seychelles People's Assembly Somalia People's Assembly South Africa House of Assembly Spain Cortes Sudan National Assembly Surinam Staten Swaziland Liblandia Sweden Riksdag Switzerland Federal Assembly (Nationairat and Standerat Bundesver Sammilung) Syria People's Council Tunisia National Assembly Turkey Grand National Assembly United States Congress (House of Representatives and Senate) Vanuatu Representative Assembly Venezuela National Congress Vietnam National Assembly Serbia & montenegro Federal Assembly Zaire National Legislative Council Zambia National Assembly - See more at: http://currentgk.com/world/miscellaneous/countries_parliaments.html#sthash.WDy5QQtw.dpuf

TheMaastricht Treaty(formally, theTreaty on European UnionorTEU) undertaken to integrate Europe was signed on 7 February 1992 by the members of theEuropean CommunityinMaastricht,Netherlands.[1]On 910 December 1991, the same city hosted theEuropean Councilwhich drafted the treaty.[2]Upon its entry into force on 1 November 1993 during theDelors Commission,[3]it created theEuropean Unionand led to the creation of the single European currency, theeuro. The Maastricht Treaty has been amended by the treaties ofAmsterdam,NiceandLisbon.TheIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) is a scientificintergovernmental bodyunder the auspices of theUnited Nations,[1][2]set up at the request of member governments.[3]It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, theWorld Meteorological Organization(WMO) and theUnited Nations Environment Programme(UNEP), and later endorsed by theUnited Nations General Assemblythrough Resolution 43/53. Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP.[4]The IPCC is chaired byRajendra K. Pachauri.The IPCC produces reports that support theUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC), which is the main international treaty on climate change.[5][6]The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic [i.e., human-induced] interference with the climate system".[5]IPCC reports cover "the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change, its potentialimpactsand options foradaptationandmitigation."[6]The IPCC does not carry out its own original research, nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself. The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature, which includespeer-reviewedand non-peer-reviewed sources.[7]Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute (on a voluntary basis, without payment from the IPCC)[8]to writing and reviewing reports, which are then reviewed by governments. IPCC reports contain a "Summary for Policymakers", which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments. Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries.[9]The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change,[10]producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments. The 2007Nobel Peace Prizewas shared, in two equal parts, between the IPCC andAl Gore.TheNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO;/neto/;French:Organisation du trait de l'Atlantique Nord(OTAN)), also called the [North]Atlantic Alliance, is anintergovernmentalmilitary alliancebased on theNorth Atlantic Treatywhich was signed on 4April 1949. The organization constitutes a system ofcollective defencewhereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are inBrussels, Belgium, one of the 28 member states across North America and Europe, the newest of which,AlbaniaandCroatia, joined in April 2009. An additional 22countries participate in NATO'sPartnership for Peaceprogram, with 15other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% ofthe global total.[4]Members' defense spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP.[5]NATO was little more than a political association until theKorean Wargalvanized the organization's member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two U.S. supreme commanders. The course of theCold Warled to a rivalry with nations of theWarsaw Pact, which formed in 1955. Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasiondoubts that led to the development of theindependent French nuclear deterrentand the withdrawal of the French from NATO's military structure in 1966 for 30 years. After the fall of theBerlin Wallin 1989, the organization was drawn into thebreakup of Yugoslavia, and conducted its first military interventions inBosnia from 1992 to 1995and laterYugoslavia in 1999. Politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004.Article5 of the North Atlantic treaty, requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the11 September 2001 attacks,[6]after which troops were deployed toAfghanistanunder the NATO-ledISAF. The organization has operated a range of additional roles since then, including sendingtrainers to Iraq, assisting in counter-piracy operations[7]and in 2011 enforcing ano-fly zoneover Libyain accordance withU.N. Security Council Resolution 1973. The less potent Article 4, which merely invokes consultation among NATO members, has been invoked four times: byTurkeyin 2003 over theIraq War, twice in 2012 by Turkey over theSyrian Civil Warafter thedowningof an unarmed TurkishF-4 reconnaissance jetand after a mortar was fired at Turkey from Syria[8]and in 2014 by Poland following theRussian intervention in Crimea.[9]TheAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations[5](ASEAN/si.n/ah-see-ahn,[6]/zi.n/ah-zee-ahn)[7][8]is a political and economic organisation of ten countries located inSoutheast Asia, which was formed on 8 August 1967 byIndonesia,Malaysia, thePhilippines,SingaporeandThailand.[9]Since then, membership has expanded to includeBrunei,Cambodia,Laos,Myanmar (Burma)andVietnam. Its aims include acceleratingeconomic growth,social progress,sociocultural evolutionamong its members, protection of regional peace and stability, and opportunities for member countries to discuss differences peacefully.[10] Economics is best described as the study of humans behaving in response to having only limited resources to fulfill unlimited wants and needs. Scarcity refers to the limited resources in an economy. Macroeconomics is the study of the economy as a whole. Microeconomics analyzes the individual people and companies that make up the greater economy. The Production Possibility Frontier (PPF) allows us to determine how an economy can allocate its resources in order to achieve optimal output. Knowing this will lead countries to specialize and trade products amongst each other rather than each producing all the products it needs. Demand and supply refer to the relationship price has with the quantity consumers demand and the quantity supplied by producers. As price increases, quantity demanded decreases and quantity supplied increases. Elasticity tells us how much quantity demanded or supplied changes when there is a change in price. The more the quantity changes, the more elastic the good or service. Products whose quantity supplied or demanded does not change much with a change in price are considered inelastic. Utility is the amount of benefit a consumer receives from a given good or service. Economists use utility to determine how an individual can get the most satisfaction out of his or her available resources. Market economies are assumed to have many buyers and sellers, high competition and many substitutes. Monopolies characterize industries in which the supplier determines prices and high barriers prevent any competitors from entering the market. Oligopolies are industries with a few interdependent companies. Perfect competition represents an economy with many businesses competing with one another for consumer interest and profits. Microeconomics is generally the study of individuals and business decisions(supply/demand), macroeconomics looks at higher up country and government decisions(GDP/unemployment). The bottom line is that microeconomics takes abottoms-upapproach to analyzing the economy while macroeconomics takes atop-downapproach. Amonopolyis a market structure in which there is only one producer/seller for a product. In other words, the single businessisthe industry In anoligopoly, there are only a few firms that make up an industry. This select group of firms has control over the price and, like a monopoly, an oligopoly has high barriers to entry. Base-Effect The consequence of abnormally high or low levels of inflation in a previous month distorting headline inflation numbers for the most recent month. A base effect can make it difficult to accurately assess inflation levels over time. It wears off over time if inflation levels are relatively constant. Inflation is calculated from a base year in which a price index is assigned the number 100. For example, if the price index in 2010 was 100 and the price index in 2011 rose to 110, the inflation rate would be 10%. If the price index rose to 115 in 2012, what would be the best way to assess inflation? On the one hand, prices have only risen 5% over the previous year, but they've risen 15% since 2010. The high inflation rate in 2011 makes the inflation rate in 2012 look relatively small and doesn't really provide an accurate picture of the level of price increases consumers are experiencing. This distortion is the base effect.Difference Between FDI and FIIFDI vs FIIBoth FDI and FII is related to investment in a foreign country. FDI or Foreign Direct Investment is an investment that a parent company makes in a foreign country. On the contrary, FII or Foreign Institutional Investor is an investment made by an investor in the markets of a foreign nation.In FII, the companies only need to get registered in the stock exchange to make investments. But FDI is quite different from it as they invest in a foreign nation.The Foreign Institutional Investor is also known as hot money as the investors have the liberty to sell it and take it back. But in Foreign Direct Investment, this is not possible. In simple words, FII can enter the stock market easily and also withdraw from it easily. ButFDIcannot enter and exit that easily. This difference is what makes nations to choose FDIs more than then FIIs.FDI is more preferred to the FII as they are considered to be the most beneficial kind of foreign investment for the wholeeconomy.Foreign Direct Investment only targets a specific enterprise. It aims to increase the enterprises capacity or productivity or change its management control. In an FDI, the capital inflow is translated into additional production. The FII investment flows only into the secondary market. It helps in increasing capital availability in general rather than enhancing the capital of a specific enterprise.The Foreign Direct Investment is considered to be more stable than Foreign Institutional Investor. FDI not only brings in capital but also helps in good governance practises and better management skills and even technology transfer. Though the Foreign Institutional Investor helps in promoting good governance and improving accounting, it does not come out with any other benefits of the FDI.While the FDI flows into the primary market, the FII flows into secondary market. While FIIs are short-term investments, the FDIs are long term.Summary1. FDI is an investment that a parent company makes in a foreign country. On the contrary, FII is an investment made by an investor in the markets of a foreign nation.2. FII can enter the stock market easily and also withdraw from it easily. But FDI cannot enter and exit that easily.3. Foreign Direct Investment targets a specific enterprise. The FII increasing capital availability in general.4. The Foreign Direct Investment is considered to be more stable than Foreign Institutional InvestorThe financial needs of businesses and individuals are increasing day by day and many a times, they have to borrow themoney(i.e. Mortgage or loan) from financial institutions in order to meet their financial goals. In exchange of the borrowed amount, they are required to pay a certain percentage of that amount to financial institutions on a regular basis. This cost is commonly known as an Annual Percentagerate(APR) or Interest Rate. Although, people use these terms interchangeably but there is a difference between these twoamounts.Definition of 'Monetary Policy'

The actions of a central bank, currency board or other regulatory committee that determine the size and rate of growth of the money supply, which in turn affects interest rates. Monetary policy is maintained through actions such as increasing the interest rate, or changing the amount of money banks need to keep in the vault (bank reserves).Fiscal policyis the means by which a government adjusts its spending levels and tax rates to monitor and influence a nation's economy. It is the sister strategy tomonetary policythrough which a central bank influences a nation's money supply. These two policies are used in various combinations to direct a country's economic goals

Anindirect tax(such assales tax, aspecific tax,value added tax(VAT), orgoods and services tax(GST)) is ataxcollected by an intermediary (such as a retail store) from the person who bears the ultimate economic burden of the tax (such as the consumer). The intermediary later files a tax return and forwards the tax proceeds togovernmentwith the return. In this sense, the term indirect tax is contrasted with adirect taxwhich is collected directly by government from the persons (legal or natural) on which it is imposed. Some commentators have argued that "a direct tax is one that cannot be shifted by thetaxpayerto someone else, whereas an indirect tax can be."[1]An indirect tax may increase the price of a good so that consumers are actually paying the tax by paying more for the products.[2]Examples would be fuel, liquor, and cigarette taxes. Anexcise dutyon motor cars is paid in the first instance by the manufacturer of the cars; ultimately the manufacturer transfers the burden of this duty to the buyer of the car in form of a higher price. Thus, an indirect tax is such which can be shifted or passed on. The degree to which the burden of a tax is shifted determines whether a tax is primarily direct or primarily indirect. This is a function of the relativeelasticityof thesupply and demandof the goods or services being taxed. Under this definition, evenincome taxesmay be indirect.In a general sense, a direct tax is one imposed upon an individual person (juristicornatural) or property (i.e. real and personal property, rental profits, livestock, crops, wages, etc.) as distinct from a tax imposed upon a transaction. In this sense, indirect taxes such as asales taxor avalue added tax(VAT) are imposed only if and when a taxable transaction occurs. People have the freedom to engage in or refrain from such transactions; whereas a direct tax (in the general sense) is imposed upon a person, typically in an unconditional manner, such as a poll-tax or head-tax, which is imposed on the basis of the person's very life or existence, or a property tax which is imposed upon the owner by virtue of ownership, rather than commercial use. Some commentators have argued that "a direct tax is one that cannot be shifted by the taxpayer to someone else, whereas an indirect tax can be."[1]The unconditional, inexorable aspect of the direct tax was a paramount concern of people in the 18th century seeking to escape tyrannical forms of government and to safeguard individual liberty.The distinction between direct and indirect taxation was first extensively discussed byAdam Smithin hisWealth of Nations, as in the following passage:It is thus that a tax upon the necessaries of life operates exactly in the same manner as a direct tax upon the wages of labour. ... if he is a manufacturer, will charge upon the price of his goods this rise of wages, together with a profit; so that the final payment of the tax, together with this overcharge, will fall upon the consumer.[2]

AT- Value Added TaxVAT is a sales tax collected by the government (of the state in which the final consumer is located) u2013 which is the government of destination state on consumer expenditure.Over 120 countries worldwide have introduced VAT over the past three decades and India is amongst the last few to introduce it.India already has a system of sales tax collection wherein the tax is collected at one point (first/last) from the transactions involving the sale of goods. VAT would, however, be collected in stages (instalments) from one stage to another.The mechanism of VAT is such that, for goods that are imported and consumed in a particular state, the first seller pays the first point tax, and the next seller pays tax only on the value-addition done u2013 leading to a total tax burden exactly equal to the last point tax.CENVAT - Central Value Added TaxCENVAT is the new name for MODVAT. Basically they are the same. These are related to central excise.CENVAT means, Tax on Value Addition on the goods manufactured according to Central Excise & Customs Act Difinition. Here the value addition means the Additional Ser