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International Journal of Jaina Studies (Online) Vol. 15, No. 3 (2019) 1-21

ON WORD-NUMERALS IN NĀGAVARMA’S CANARESE PROSODY

Dipak Jadhav

1. Introduction In India, three major systems, based on alphabets of Devanāgari script or words of a particular Indian language such as Sanskrit or Prakrit or Canarese, were developed for expressing numbers. The two are the kaṭapayādi system1 and Āryabhaṭa I’s alphabetical notation2 and the other one is word-numerals (bhūta-saṃkhyā). These systems excluding Āryabhaṭa I’s alphabetical notation have been widespread in India in various disciplines of learning including not only mathematics but also prosody. The purpose of these systems was two-fold. One was to preserve important results.3 The other was to compose the verses using these systems in accordance with the requirements of their metres.4

In the system of word-numerals, numbers were expressed by means of significant words often arranged as in the decimal place-value notation. For example, 4 is represented by kṛta5 as it is a special term, meaning cater, employed in India for the dice or the side of a dice with four dots.6 The word-numerals are found to have been used in India long before the commencement of the Christian era. The earliest instance of a word being used to denote a whole number is found in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa. The word used therein is kṛta denoting 4. The same word for the same purpose was also used in the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa. The word gāyatrī (Vedic metre or metre of 24 syllables) denoting 24 is found to have been used in the Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra.

1 Sarma 2012: 37-66. 2 ĀBha v. 1.2, pp. 3-5. 3 Jadhav 1998a: 55f. 4 Datta & Singh 1935: 54; Sarma 2012: 38. 5 Datta & Singh 1935: 57. 6 Basham 1954: 207.

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The Lāṭyāyana Śrauta Sūtra has the word jagatī (earth or world or metre of 48 syllables) for 48.7 The word-numerals were used in India for expressing both large numbers and small ones. For example, Nemicandra (c. 981), a mathematician of the canonical class of the Jaina school of Indian mathematics,8 composes, in Prakrit, the compound vidhu-ṇidhi-ṇaga-nava-ravi-ṇabha-ṇidhi-ṇayaṇa-bala-iddhi-ṇidhi-kharā-hatthī-igitīsasuṇṇasahiya (Skt. vidhu-nidhi-naga-nava-ravi-nabha-nidhi-nayana-balabhadra-ṛddhi-nidhi-khara-hastin- ekatriṃśaśūnyasa hitā, moon-sea-mountain-nine-sun-sky-sea-eye-gentle heroes-spiritual attainment-sea-khara-elephant with thirty one zeroes) to express 311099681979120929 × , a very large number,9 and gayaṇa (Skt. gagana, sky) to express 0, a very small number.10 Both of the numbers are important result; the former is the number of mustards, in a pit of diameter 105 yojanas and depth 103 yojanas, obtained when calculated while the latter is used to form the formula for finding the breadth of the n th circular annulus. According to the Digambara Jainas, there are nine balabhadras (gentle heroes) of the present avasarpiṇī (descending half cycle of the cosmic time). They are Vijaya, Acala, Bhadra, Suprabha, Sudarśana, Nandisena, Nandimitra, Rāma, and Balarāma. Detailed comments on the term khara will be offered in chapter 3. M. Rangacharya gives a list of the word-numerals with their numerical and ordinary significances in English as Appendix I11 to his edition of the Gaṇita-sāra-saṅgraha of Mahāvīrācārya published in 1912. The words usually employed as word-numerals have been compiled from the treatises composed in Sanskrit, without their significances, and listed in Devanāgari script as an Appendix12 by K. S. Shukla to his edition of the Vaṭeśvara-Siddhānta published in 1986. As far as the present author knows, his compilation is the longest one.13

Nāgavarma was a noted poet of the Canarese language in the late 10th century.14 The Chandōmbudhi (“Ocean of Prosody”), the Karṇāṭaka Kādambari, and the Kannaḍa Chandassu (“Canarese Prosody” or “Karnāṭa Prosody”) are his important works. The Chandombudhi is 7 Datta & Singh 1935: 57f. 8 Jadhav 2017: 322. 9 TriLoSā v. 21, pp. 28f. 10 TriLoSā v. 309, p. 254. 11 GaSāSa1, pp. 287-295. 12 VaSi, pp. 369-384. 13 The same compilation has been given in Roman script by K. V. Sarma. See Sarma 2003: 59-69. 14 For the date of Nāgavarma see Pollock 2006: 99; cf. Klatt 2016: 541.

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the earliest available work on prosody in Kannada. It is addressed to his wife.15 The Karnāṭaka Kādambari is a novel of romance, based on mixed verse and prose called campū. It has an originality of its own although it is an adaptation of Bāṇa's Sanskrit Kādambari.16 Nāgavarma was an avowed Jaina.17 He originally belonged to a migrant Brahmin family which came from the Vengi country (in modern Andhra Pradesh).18 He was a protégé of Cāvuṇḍarāya, a feudatory of king Rācamalla IV of the western Gaṅga dynasty, who composed the Triṣaṣṭilakṣaṇa-mahāpurāṇa, better known as the Cāvuṇḍarāya-purāṇa, in 97819 and erected the superb colossal image of Lord Bāhubali at Śravaṇabeḷagoḷa. The first consecration ceremony of the image was held on Sunday 13 March of 981.20 According to Sheldon Pollock, Nāgavarma is the first among as many as five Nāgavarmas who wrote noted classics in the Canarese language over the succeeding few centuries.21 According to Govinda Pai, our Nāgavarma lived from 950 to 1015.22 Reverend Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903) was a priest and indologist of the Basel Mission in South India. He worked in Mangalore, Madikeri and Dharwad in Karnataka. He edited both the Chandombudhi (“Ocean of Prosody”) and the Kannaḍa Chandassu (“Canarese Prosody”) in 1875.23 The present author is fully dependent on Kittel’s edition of Nāgavarma’s Canarese Prosody as he could neither approach the original Kannaḍa Chandassu nor is he able to read Kannada script. There are found a lot of word-numerals in Nāgavarma’s Canarese Prosody.

This paper aims at highlighting the significances of those word-numerals, comparing them with the ones in Shukla’s compilation, and discussing other related aspects. In this way, it will bring them to the attention of modern scholarship.

15 NāCaPro, p. 6; Devarushi 2013: 17f. 16 Sastri 1958: 384. 17 NāCaPro, p. xxxviii. 18 Narasimhachar 1988: 27; Sastri 1958: 384. 19 Sastri 1958: 384. 20 Jadhav 2006: 76f. 21 Pollock 2006: 369. 22 Bhat 1993: 106. 23 Nagaraj 2003: 339.

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2. Word-Numerals from Nāgavarma’s Canarese Prosody The present author finds eighty word-numerals, if each of those that have two significances is counted for once, in Nāgavarma’s Canarese Prosody. He sorts them and arranges them in alphabetical order as shown below. WORD-NUMERALS DENOTED NUMBER

ambara.24 0 adri,25 bhujaga,26 garuḍa,27 khacara,28 mṛgadhara,29

pannagarāja,30 sura,31 śaśi.32 1

kara,33 pakṣa.34 2

24 NāCaPro v. 229, p. 64. 25 NāCaPro v. 283, pp. 88f. & 138. 26 NāCaPro v. 307, pp. 108 & 145. 27 NāCaPro v. 295, pp. 94 & 141. 28 NāCaPro v. 295, pp. 94 & 140. 29 NāCaPro v. 229, pp. 64 & 146. 30 NāCaPro v. 295, pp. 94 & 144. 31 NāCaPro v. 295, pp. 94 & XV & 149. 32 NāCaPro v. 287, pp. 90 & 148. 33 NāCaPro v. 298, pp. 96 & 140. 34 NāCaPro v. 307, p. 108.

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dhūmadhvaja,35 pura,36 śikhibraja,37 vahni.38 3 ambudhi,39 ambunidhi,40 jalanidhi,41 śaradhi,42 vārudhi

(= vārdhi),43 yuga.44 4 bāṇa,45 bhūti,46 kāmabāṇa,47 kāmāstra,48 śara,49 viṣaya.50 5

khara,51 rasa,52 ṛtu,53 ṣaṭka.54 6

35 NāCaPro p. 143. 36 NāCaPro v. 285, p. 89; v. 287, p. 90; v. 298, p. 96; v. 307, pp. 108 & XV & 144. 37 NāCaPro v. 300, pp. 99 & 148. 38 NāCaPro v. 285, pp. 89 & 147. 39 NāCaPro v. 164, pp. 47 & 139. 40 NāCaPro v. 297, pp. 95 & 139. 41 NāCaPro, p. 142. 42 NāCaPro v. 319, pp. 117 & 148. 43 NāCaPro v. 175, p. 50; v. 298, pp. 96 & 147. 44 NāCaPro v. 128, p. 39; v. 229, pp. 64 & 145. 45 NāCaPro v. 131, p. 40; v. 164, p. 47; v. 218, p. 61; v. 285, p. 89; v. 287, pp. 90 & 144. 46 NāCaPro v. 130, p. 40; v. 221, pp. 62 & 145. 47 NāCaPro v. 304, pp. 104 & 140. 48 NāCaPro v. 161, p. 47; v. 195, pp. 55 & 140. 49 NāCaPro v. 168, p. 48; v. 221, p. 62; v. 238, pp. 68f.v. 285, pp. 89 & 148. 50 NāCaPro v. 283, pp. 88f.; v. 311, pp. 112 & 148. 51 NāCaPro v. 251, p. 74; v. 308, pp. 109 & 140. 52 NāCaPro v. 136, pp. 41-42; v. 290, p. 91; v. 299, p. 98; v. 300, pp. 99 & 146. 53 NāCaPro v. 229, p. 64; v. 313, p. 115; v. 335, pp. 124 & 139. 54 NāCaPro v. 229, p. 64.

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agendra,55 adri,56 dineśahaya,57 giri,58 hayanikara,59 hayatati,60 hayavrāta,61 kulagiri,62 muni,63 naga,64 śaila,65 turagavrāta,66 yati.67 7

āśāgaja,68 danti,69 digdanti,70 dikkari,71 diś,72 diśā,73 diśāgaja,74

55 NāCaPro v. 176, pp. 50 & 138. 56 NāCaPro v. 218, p. 61; v. 287, pp. 90 & 138. 57 NāCaPro v. 153, pp. 45 & 142. 58 NāCaPro v. 126, p. 39; v. 217, p. 61; v. 219, p. 61; v. 222, pp. 62 & 141. 59 NāCaPro v. 207, pp. 58 & 150. 60 NāCaPro v. 172, pp. 49 & 150. 61 NāCaPro v. 212, pp. 59 & 150. 62 NāCaPro v. 155, pp. 46 & 140. 63 NāCaPro v. 167, p. 48; v. 227, pp. 64 & 146. 64 NāCaPro v. 229, pp. 64 & 143. 65 NāCaPro v. 140, p. 42; v. 154, p. 45; v. 219, pp. 61 & 148.

66 NāCaPro v. 212, pp. 59 & 142. 67 NāCaPro v. 189, pp. 54 & 146. 68 NāCaPro v. 221, pp. 62 & 139. 69 NāCaPro v. 185, pp. 53 & 142. 70 NāCaPro v. 151, pp. 45 & 142. 71 NāCaPro v. 220, pp. 61 & 142. 72 NāCaPro v. 137, pp. 42 & 143. 73 NāCaPro v. 149, pp. 44 & 143. 74 NāCaPro v. 139, p. 42; v. 153, pp. 45 & 143.

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diśākari,75 gaja,76 gajavraja,77 gajavrāta,78 hari,79 kari,80 madagaja,81 nāga,82 vasu.83 8 nidhi,84 randhra.85 9 hara,86 rudra.87 11 arka,88 bhānu,89 bhāskara,90 dinakara,91 dinanātha,92 dinapa,93

75 NāCaPro v. 198, pp. 56 & 143. 76 NāCaPro v. 229, p. 64; v. 297, p. 95. 77 NāCaPro v. 212, pp. 59 & 141. 78 NāCaPro v. 212, pp. 59 & 141. 79 NāCaPro v. 224, p. 63; v. 226, pp. 63 & 150. 80 NāCaPro v. 215, p. 60; v. 222, p. 62; v. 226, p. 63; v. 248, p. 72; v. 251, p. 74; v. 316, p. 116; v. 318, pp. 117 & 140. 81 NāCaPro, p. 145. 82 NāCaPro v. 229, pp. 64 & 143. 83 NāCaPro v. 165, p. 48; v. 189, p. 54; v. 194, p. 55; v. 214, pp. 60 & 147. 84 NāCaPro v. 166, p. 48; v. 170, pp. 48-49; v. 173, pp. 49-50; v. 196, pp. 55 & 143. 85 NāCaPro v. 129, p. 40; v. 147, p. 44; v. 208, pp. 58 & 146. 86 NāCaPro v. 214, p. 60; v. 224, pp. 63 & 150. 87 NāCaPro v. 203, p. 57; v. 204, pp. 57 & 146. 88 NāCaPro v. 326 p. 120; v. 329, pp. 121 & 139. 89 NāCaPro v. 327, pp. 121 & 145. 90 NāCaPro v. 184, pp. 52f.& 145. 91 NāCaPro v. 223, pp. 62 & 142. 92 NāCaPro v. 205, p. 57; v. 216, pp. 60 & 142. 93 NāCaPro v. 248, pp. 72 & 142.

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dineśa,94 divasādhipa,95 divasakara,96 mārtaṇḍa,97 padminīmitra,98 ravi,99 vidyādhara.100 12

manu.101 14 pakṣa.102 15 dharaṇīśvara,103 mahīśvara,104 rāja.105 16 rāvaṇakara.106 20 3. Discussion Before stressing the significances of the above word-numerals the present author would like to inform the reader that the angular bracket, wherever it is used, contains paraphrase supplied by him to achieve comprehensiveness together with clarity.

94 NāCaPro v. 200, pp. 56 & 142. 95 NāCaPro v. 148, pp. 44 & 143. 96 NāCaPro v. 186, pp. 53 & 142. 97 NāCaPro v. 199, pp. 56 & 146. 98 NāCaPro v. 213, pp. 59 & 144. 99 NāCaPro v. 209, p. 58; v.295, p. 94; v. 316, pp. 116 & 146. 100 NāCaPro v. 295, pp. 94 & 147. 101 NāCaPro v. 316, p. 116; v. 318, p. 117; v. 321, p. 118; v. 330, pp. 122 & 145. 102 NāCaPro v. 210, p. 59; v. 211, pp. 59 & 144. 103 NāCaPro v. 297, pp. 95 & 143. 104 NāCaPro v. 198, pp. 56 & 146. 105 NāCaPro v. 248, p. 72; v. 316, pp. 116 & 146. 106 NāCaPro v. 248, pp. 72 & 146.

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2.1 Since sky is empty, ambara (sky) represents 0. 2.2 Adri represents 1 when it appears in the sense of Meru where Meru is a particular mountain in ancient Indian Jaina cosmography. It is situated in the middle of the Jambūdvīpa (‘Rose-apple or Plum-Tree Island’).107 There are the two major epics of ancient India; one is the Rāmāyaṇa and the other is the Mahābhārata. Garuḍa is a mythical bird. According to the epic Rāmāyaṇa, Kaśyapa, son of Marīci and grandson of Brahmā, had eight wives. One of them was Tāmrā. Five daughters were born to her. One of them was Śukī. Nalā was born from her and from Nalā was born Vinatā. Garuḍa was one of the two sons of Vinatā.108 This way, garuḍa is only one of a kind. Hence, garuḍa indicates 1. Khaga is the synonym of khacara.109 According to Paurāṇik thought, khaga is either a serpent born in the Kaśyapa family or a synonym of Lord Śiva.110 Since each of them is one in number, khacara denotes 1. Vāsuki was one of the famous serpents. He was anointed by the serpents as their king.111Pannagarāja means to be the king (rāja) of serpents (pannaga).112 In this way, Vāsuki is pannagarāja. Since Vāsuki is the name of a particular serpent, each of pannagarāja and its synonym bhujaga113 denotes 1. Since god is always only one in true sense, sura (god)114 represents 1. Moon represents 1 as there is only one moon.115 This is why śaśi (moon) indicates 1. 107 Jaini 1917: 67. 108 Mani 1975: 281. 109 Cappeller 1891: 143. 110 Mani 1975: 408. 111 Mani 1975: 838. 112 Cappeller 1891: 296 & 446. 113 Cappeller 1891: 380. 114 Cappeller 1891: 626. 115 The Jainas had a peculiar conception of two suns, two moons, and two sets of 27 nakṣatras (asterisms). This conception was a consequence of the Jaina cosmography according to which the earth is regarded as a series of an innumerable number of concentric circular annuli which are alternatively islands and oceans. See Bose, Sen, & Subbarayappa 1989: 80. Following this conception, moon should have denoted 2 instead of 1. However, Nemicandra (c. 981), Nāgavarma’s contemporary mathematician of the canonical class of the Jaina school of Indian mathematics, used the term vidhu (moon) to represent 1. See TriLoSā v. 21, pp. 28f. After Nāgavarma, Rājāditya, a mathematician of the exclusive class of the Jaina school of Indian mathematics, of the twelfth century used each of the terms caṃdra (Skt. candra, moon), himakara (moon), himāṃśu (moon), iṃdu (Skt. indu, moon), sasi (Skt. śaśin, moon), sitakara (Skt. śītakara, moon), soma (moon), etc., to denote 1. See Jadhav 2018: 55 and 57. The general conception of one moon seems to have been followed by the Jainas while using or employing world-numerals. See Schubring 1935/2000 § 128 on this matter.

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The present author could not identify as to why mṛgadhara represents 1. However, mṛgadhara seems to him to mean to be moon. None of adri, khacara, garuḍa, pannagarāja, bhujaga, mṛgadhara, and sura is found in Shukla’s compilation.116 2.3 Words that occur always in pairs represent 2. So, both kara (‹two› hand‹s›) and pakṣa (‹two› fortnight‹s›) denote 2. Each of them is found in the Vyavahāra-gaṇita (‘Mathematics of Transaction’ or ‘Determinations Regarding Mathematics’), the first available mathematical text in Kannada, composed by Rājāditya (12th century).117 2.4 In Vedic thoughts, agni (fire) is considered to be the mouth of the gods and the goddesses. Fire on land, lightning in the atmosphere, and the sun in the sky are its manifestations at three levels.118 As per the thoughts on sacrificial fire, gārhapatya, āhavanīya, and dakṣiṇa are three sacrificial fires (agnis).119 Since dhūmadhvaja (smoke-flag), śikhibraja, and vahni (fire) are synonyms of agni,120 each of them, for one of the two reasons, represents 3. If śikhibraja appears in the sense of sun, it denotes 1.121 According to Paurāṇika thoughts, Tārākṣa, Kamalākṣa, and Vidyunmālī were three demon brothers. Since tripura (three cities) or simply pura (city) designates the three moving cities made of gold, silver, and iron, built by them, and destroyed by Lord Śiva when the three brothers became a threat to the gods,122 pura denotes 3. Among these four word-numerals dhūmadhvaja and śikhibraja are not found in Shukla’s compilation.123 2.5 In the Ṛgveda are mentioned the four oceans (samudra). Those four seas are the Arvāvat sea, the Parāvat sea, the Sarasvat sea, and the Śaryaṇāvat sea.124 This is why ambudhi, (‹four›

116 VaSi, p. 369. 117 Jadhav 2018: 55. 118 Lochtefeld 2002: 14f. 119 GaSāSa1, p. 287. 120 NāCaPro, p. 143. The exact meaning of śikhibraja could not be learnt by the present author. 121 NāCaPro, p. 99; Apte 1893: 149. 122 Harshananda 2008 III: 394. 123 VaSi, p. 369. 124 Bhargava 1964: 1-23.

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sea‹s›) shows 4. Vārudhi or vārdhi must be vāridhi (sea).125 Since ambunidhi (receptacle for water), jalanidhi (receptacle for water), and vārudhi or vārdhi are the synonyms of ambudhi,126 each of them represents 4. Since śaradhi (receptacle for arrows) is also used to designate a type of ocean,127 it denotes 4. The Purāṇas often refer to four yugas (epochs) which come and go in a cyclic order. They are Kṛta, Tretā, Dvāpara, and Kali. They differ from one another in their characteristic features. This is why yuga (‹four› epoch‹s›) represents 4. Among these word-numerals śaradhi is not found in Shukla’s compilation128 but occurs in the Vyavahāra-gaṇita of Rājāditya (12th century).129 2.6 Kāma is a young handsome god. He is also called Kāmadeva (god of sexual desire or love), Madana, or Manmatha. The tips of his five arrows are fragrant flowers. Aravinda (day-lotus), Aśoka (‹the flower of› Aśoka tree), Cūta (‹the flower of› Mango tree), Navamālikā (jasmine), Nīlotpala (blue lotus) are those five flowers.130 For this reason each of bāṇa (‹the five› arrow‹s› ‹of Kāma›), its synonym śara (arrow), and its associated terms kāmabāṇa (the arrow of Kāma) and kāmāstra (the weapon of Kāma) denotes 5. Tejas (fire), vāyu (air), pṛthvī (earth), ākāśa (space/ether), and ap (water) are the five elements (pañcabhūta). The whole visible world is composed of one or more of these five elements.131 This is why bhūta (‹the five› element‹s›) corresponds to 5. The chief instruments, with which a human being is equipped for acquiring knowledge from the external world and react to it, are the five indriyas (sense-organs). Those five indriyas are ghrāṇa (olfactory system), tvag (somatosensory system), rasanā (gustatory perception system), cakṣu (ocular system), and śrotra (auditory system).132 Since the pleasure

125 Cappeller 1891: 486; Apte 1893: 381. 126 Apte 1893: 291. 127 Cappeller 1891: 539. 128 VaSi, pp. 369-370. 129 Jadhav 2018: 55. 130 Mani 1975: 378f.; Apte 1893: 224 & 248; Cappeller 1891: 40 & 174. 131 Cappeller 1891: 382; Mani 1975: 547. 132 Harshananda 2008 II:68f.

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acquired through these five sense-organs is viṣaya133, the viṣaya denotes 5. Those five pleasures are gandha (smell), sparśa (touch), rasa (taste), rūpa (form), and śabda (sound).134 Among these six word-numerals kāmabāṇa and kāmāstra are not found in Shukla’s compilation.135 2.7 Āyurveda recognizes six tastes, namely, madhur (sweet), amla (sour), lavaṇa (salty), kaṭu (bitter), tikta (pungent), and kasāya (astringent). They are called either ṣaḍrasa (‹six› taste‹s›) or simply rasa. This is why rasa represents 6. Unlike many other countries, the Indian subcontinent has six seasons. They are vasanta (spring), griṣma (summer), varṣā (rainy/monsoon), śarad (autumn), hemanta (fall winter), and śiśira (winter). This is why ṛtu (‹six› season‹s›) denotes 6. There is no need to explain why ṣaṭka (consisting of six)136 represents 6 as its meaning itself is sufficient. Catherine Morice-Singh gives an indication on how the uncertain and seemingly lost link between khara (hard, harsh, rough, etc.) and the number 6 can be recovered.137 She had noticed that in the notes attached to one manuscript of the Gaṇita-sāra-saṅgraha found by Hiralal Jain in Karanja, District Akola, Maharashtra short comments about the meaning of khara in a bhūta-saṃkhyā (word-numeral) context appear in the beginning of chapter two. These notes can also be read in the Annexe 5 of L. C. Jain’s translation of the Gaṇita-sāra-saṅgraha into Hindi. There, khara is first linked to jīva (khara iti ṣaḍjīva). Then, a link between puruṣa and jīva (puruṣa – jīvoityarthah) and finally a saying, are given: “satya-saṃdhaḥkharojñeyaḥkharo ’pi puruṣomataḥ”.138 The general meaning would be that man is one among the numerous categories of beings (jīva) which may, according to Jain ontology, be grouped into six main ones, five sthāvaras (immobile beings) and one trasa (mobile being). But man is the only one who has the capacity to be firm enough and true to his engagements if he decides to know that it is his own firmness and efforts which could lead him to gain ultimate liberation. This is why khara represent 6. At two places, Kittel writes that khara = kara.139 In

133 Cappeller 1891: 511. 134 GaSāSa1, p. 293. 135 VaSi, p. 370. 136 Cappeller 1891: 565. 137 Morice-Singh 2016: 42. 138 Morice-Singh 2015: 71; GaSāSa2, p. 62. 139 NāCaPro, pp. 109 & 140.

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the notes attached to Karanja edition of the Gaṇita-sāra-saṅgraha are found no links between khara and kara.

Among these four word-numerals ṣaṭka is not found in Shukla’s compilation.140 2.8 According to Paurāṇika thoughts, there are seven mountains in the region of Bharatavarṣa. They are Mahendra, Śukti, Malaya, Ṛakṣaka, Pāriyātra, Sahya, and Vindhya.141 This is why adri (‹seven› mountain‹s›) represents 7. Since giri, naga, and śaila, are the synonyms of adri142 and its associated terms are agendra (king of mountains) and kulagiri (family of mountains), each of them shows 7. Since seven rays of the sun are its seven bright horses,143 dineśahaya (sun’s ‹seven› horse‹s›) denotes 7. The present author could not identify the complete meaning of each of hayanikara, hayatati, hayavrāta, and turagavrāta but is sure that each of them represents 7 as each of them contains the term haya (horse) or turaga (horse). Aṅgirasaṛṣis have been said to be seven in number. By way of the Paurāṇika tradition they have reached us as saptarṣi (seven sages ‹or seven stars of the Great Bear›).144 Since muni (ascetics) and yati (ascetics) are the synonyms of ṛṣī, each of them is a sign of 7. Among these thirteen word-numerals agendra, dineśahaya, hayanikara, hayatati, hayavrāta, kulagiri, and turagavrāta are not found in Shukla’s compilation.145 2.9 According to the Paurāṇika thoughts, eight elephants hold the earth in eight directions. Those eight elephants are Airāvat in pūrva (east), Puṇḍarīka in āgneya (south-east), Vāmana in dakṣiṇa (south), Kumuda in nairṛta (south-west), Añjana in paścima (west), Puṣpadanta in vāyavya (north-west), Sārvabhauma in uttara (north), and Supratīka in īśāna (north-east).146 This is why each of danti (elephant‹s› ‹in eight directions›), its synonyms gaja (elephant), kari (karī or karin, ‹wild› elephant), and, nāga (male elephant)147, and its associated terms digdanti (‹eight› direction‹s› of elephant‹s›), dikkari (‹eight› direction‹s› of elephant‹s›), diś (‹eight› 140 VaSi, p. 370. 141 SiŚi, Golādhyāya, Bhuvanakośa, v. 42, p. 351. 142 Apte 1893: 275. 143 Jadhav 1998b: 3. 144 Jadhav 1998b: 3. 145 VaSi, p. 370. 146 AKo v. 1.3.3, p. 25. 147 Cappeller 1891: 265.

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direction‹s› ‹of elephants›), diśā (‹eight› direction‹s› ‹of elephants›), diśāgaja (‹eight› direction‹s› of elephant‹s›), diśākari (‹eight› direction‹s› of elephant‹s›), gajavraja (dust-particle‹s› ‹flying from the toenails› of an elephant), and madagaja (elephant’s rut) denotes 8. The present author could not identify the complete meaning of each of āśāgaja, and gajavrāta but is sure that each of them represents 8 as each of them contains the term gaja (elephant). He could not identify why hari represents 8. Vasu was Dakṣa’s daughter. Dharmadeva was her husband. Aṣtavasus (eight vasus) were born to them. They were gaṇadevatās (troops of deities who appear in classes). According to the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, they are Droṇa, Prāṇa, Dhruva, Arka, Agni, Doṣa, Vasu, and Vibhāvasu. They are, in the Harivaṃśa Purāṇa, Akha, Dhara, Dhruva, Soma, Anila, Anala, Pratyūṣa, and Prabhāsa. According to the Mahābhārata, they are Dhara, Dhruva, Soma, Ahar, Anila, Anala, Pratyūṣa, and Prabhāsa. According to certain purāṇas, they are the sons of Kaśyapa. In the Viṣṇu Purāṇa, they are Āpa, Dhruva, Soma, Dharma, Anila, Anala, Pratyūṣa, and Prabhāsa. This variation in their names only suggests that some of them have two or more names.148 This is why vasu (‹eight› vasu‹s›) shows 8.

Among these sixteen word-numerals, āśāgaja, digdanti, dikkari, diśā, diśāgaja, diśākari, gajavraja, gajavrāta, hari, and nāga are not found in Shukla’s compilation149 but digdanti of them occurs in the Vyavahāra-gaṇita of Rājāditya (12th century).150 2.10 According to the Paurāṇika thoughts, mahāpadma, padma, śaṅkha, makara, kacchapa, mukunda, kunda, nīla, and kharva are navanidhi (nine treasures) and they belong to Kubera, the god of wealth.151 This is why nidhi (‹nava›nidhi) represents 9. A human being is said to have nine exit points called navadvāra (nine gates) or navarandhra (nine outlets) through one of which the soul finally leaves the body. They are two eyes, two nostrils, two ears, one mouth, the anus, and the genitals.152 This is why randhra becomes a sign of 9. 2.11 When Sanandana, Sanaka, Sanātana, and Sanatkumāra created by Lord Brahmā showed no interest at all in the creation of the world, Brahmā became angry to such an extent that he prepared to destroy all the three parts of the world. At that time, the whole world was illuminated by the radiance that emanated from the fire of his fury. Then from his shining

148 Mani 1975: 65f. 149 VaSi, p. 370. 150 Jadhav 2018: 56. 151 Mani 1975: 544; GaSāSa1, p. 291; also see DraSaṃ, p. x. 152 BhaGī v. 5.13, pp. 255f.

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eyebrows, which were curved with fury, a figure of unbearable radiance like the mid-day sun came out. That figure was Rudra. Half of the fierce body of Rudra was a woman and the other half was a man. As soon as Brahmā said ‘divide’, Rudra split himself into the figure of a man and the figure of a woman. He again divided the body of the man into eleven figures. These eleven figures are the eleven Rudras. Similarly, from the female half eleven Rudrāṇīs came into being. They became the wives of the eleven Rudras.153 This is why rudra represents 11. The names of the eleven Rudras are given differently in the different Purāṇas. According to some Purāṇas, the eleven Rudras are Aja, Ekapāda or Ekapāt, Ahirbudhnya, Tvaṣṭā, Rudra, Śambhu, Tryambaka, Aparājita, Īśāna, Tribhuvana, and Hara.154 Since Hara is one of the eleven Rudras, hara denotes 11. 2.12 Aditi was the wife of Kaśyapa. The Sun was born to her. Several sons were born to her. They are known by the names Ādityas, Vasus and so on. Of these Ādityas (the sons of Aditi) are twelve in number. There is a difference of opinion as to who these twelve Ādityas are. According to the Agni Purāṇa, they are Varuṇa, Sūrya (the Sun), Sahasrāṃśu, Dhātā, Tapana, Savitā, Gabhsti, Ravi, Parjanya, Tvaṣṭā, Mitra, and Viṣṇu. In the Ādi Parva of the Mahābhārata it is stated that Dhātā, Aryamā, Mitra, Śukra, Varuṇa, Aṃśa, Bhaga, Vivasvān, Pūṣā, Savitā, Tvaṣṭā, and Viṣṇu are the twelve Ādityas. These names are very often used as synonyms of the Sun.155 This is why arka (sun) denotes 12. Bhānu, bhāskara, mārtaṇḍa, and ravi are the synonyms of arka.156 Each of them represents 12. Dinakara (one who makes day), dinanātha (lord of day), dinapa (dina‹-adhi›pa, lord of day), dineśa (lord of day), divasādhipa (divasa-

adhipa, lord of day), divasakara (one who makes day), and padminīmitra (lotus-friend) are semantically associated to arka. Each of them corresponds to 12. Vidyādharas, Apsarases (celestial maids), Yakṣas, Gandharvas, Kinnaras and so on are the groups of demi-gods. All these groups live in the sky. Of these, Vidyādharas wear garlands.157 The Vidyādharas (keepers of knowledge) seem to be a group of twelve demi-gods. This may be the reason for the fact that vidyādhara represents 12. Divasādhipa, divasakara, and vidyādhara, are not found among the thirteen word-numerals in Shukla’s compilation.158

153 Mani 1975: 654. 154 Mani 1975: 654. 155 Mani 1975: 770. 156 Cappeller 1891: 13 & 225; Apte 1893: 420. 157 Mani 1975: 850. 158 VaSi, p. 371.

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2.13 The universe (prapañca) is perishable. At one time, it takes its origin. At another time, it perishes. Brahmā, the creator of the universe, undergoes birth and death. The period between his birth and his death is known as mahākalpa. His one day is called kalpakāla or simply kalpa. In the Purāṇas one kalpa is divided into fourteen parts. The ruler of each of these parts is Manu. This way, there are fourteen Manus. The life-span of each Manu is called a Manvantaram.159 This is why manu designates 14. 2.14 Fifteen days make one pakṣa (fortnight).160 This is why it refers to 15. 2.15 The present author could not identify as to why each of dharaṇīśvara, mahīśvara, and rāja represents 16. None of these three word-numerals is found in Shukla’s compilation.161 2.16 According the Rāmāyaṇa, Rāvaṇa was the demon king of Laṅkā. The present author could not identify for certain as to why rāvaṇakara indicates 20. Rāvaṇa had ten heads. Keeping this in view, rāvaṇakara seems to mean to be twenty, ten multiplied by two, hands (kara). It is not found in Shukla’s compilation.162 2.17 We have observed above that Nāgavarma allows adri to denote both 1 and 7, kara to represent both 1 and 6, and pakṣa to signify both 2 and 15. He accommodated both meanings for each of them. In this way, he represented what were prevalent. But for a reader it is difficult, but not impossible on the basis of context, to choose the corresponding significance. 2.18 Nāgavarma not only expresses the number 67,108,864 by using yuga (4), ṛtu (6), gaja (8), nāga (8), ambara (0), mṛgadhara (1), naga (7), ṣaṭka (6),163 but also shows the number 16 as the sum of pura (3), bāṇa (5), vahni (3), śara (5).164

159 Mani 1975: 482. 160 Cappeller 1891: 288. 161 VaSi, p. 371. 162 VaSi, p. 371. 163 NāCaPro, p. 64. 164 NāCaPro, p. 89.

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2.19 The period between the ninth century and 1250 is the classical age of Kannada literature. Kannada appears to have been in common use for literary purpose during this period. Kannada of this period has been preserved in several works written by Jaina scholars.165 Nāgavarma, who is said to have lived from 950 to 1015, became popular during this period. During this period Kannada has borrowed many words from Sanskrit either in their true form or in the form in which Sanskrit terms changed to suit the tongue of the Kannada people.166 This is why almost all the word-numerals referred to by Nāgavarma are in Sanskrit. 4. Concluding Remarks Every word-numeral referred to by Nāgavarma is the bearer of concepts rooted in the Jaina cosmography or one of the two epics or the genealogy of gods, demi-gods, and troops of gods who appear in classes or the parts of human body or time-measures or sacrificial fires or the seas in Vedic India or the epoch or the weapon of the god of sexual desire or the constituents of the visible universe or Āyurveda or the Indian seasons or the groups of numbers or the Paurāṇika geography of mountains or the rays of the sun in terms of horses or the stars in the sky or the cosmography, using elephants or treasures or the creation of man and woman in the world.

Almost all the word-numerals referred to by Nāgavarma are in Sanskrit. Those word-numerals are the products of interlinking mathematics, particularly numbers, with other disciplines of learning. Some of the very typical Jaina terminology except for adri, in the sense of Meru, and khara is totally missing from the word-numerals Nāgavarma employed, although he was of Jaina faith. For example, rūpa (1), naya (2), ratna (3), gati (4), kaṣāya (4), vrata (5), jīva (6), dravya (6), leśyā (6), tattva (7), karman (8), and padārtha (9) are not employed as word-numerals as they are employed in the Gaṇita-sāra-saṅgraha by Mahāvīra (c. 850), who was also of Jaina faith.167 The plausible reason in this regard may be that he had written the Kannaḍa Chandassu (“Canarese Prosody”) before he became Jaina by faith. After all, he was an avowed Jaina. The other may be a reason that he freely employed the word-numerals irrespective of faith.

165Kittel 1894: iii-iv; Mugali 2006: 179. 166Kittel 1894: xiv. 167Morice-Singh 2015: 64-73.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The present author is grateful to the editor of this journal for suggestions and comments. He would also like to place on record his thanks to the referee of this paper for offering suggestions and comments, especially a detailed comment on the term khara. BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary Sources ĀBha Āryabhaṭīya, by Āryabhaṭa I. With the commentary of Bhāskara I and

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