On the assignment of gender to Chicano Anglicisms:Processes and results.

Robert N. Smead (*)

The advance of neologisms through linguistic borrowing is truly a complex process. for donorlanguage models to be changed into host language replicas, phonological along with morphologicaladaptation must take place. part along with parcel of the adaptation may end up being theassignment involving gender for you to loanwords in a host language just like Spanish. the existingarticle examines gender assignment inside two corpora of loanwords (New Mexican and alsoSouthern Colorado Spanish: N=212 as well as General Chicano Spanish: N=595). Via the successfuluse of variable rule methodology (GoldVarb 2), 5 factors are posited as significant. A Couple Of ofthose categorically figure out gender assignment when present: (1) the particular biological sex ofthe referent and also (2) your presence of the derivational suffix (or any sequence which might beinterpreted as such), additionally, gender assignment for these Anglicisms responds variably to 3some other factors: (3) the actual terminal phoneme(s) in the loanword, (4) the actual gender of thetypical Spanish synonym, and (5) your gender with the Spanish hyperonym.

Introduction

In a new language such as Spanish, gender assignment, i.e., the particular assignment of anoun/nominal into a particular category (such as masculine, feminine, or neuter) featuresmorphosyntactic repercussions for the construction of your noun cycle (NP). Though the procedurecalled agreement, other noun cycle constituents (e.g., determiners and adjectives) must demonstrateconcord using the nucleus. Furthermore, anaphoric reference towards the nucleus alsorequirements to always be marked pertaining to agreement. Thus, although gender could always beconsidered a new nominal classification system, its effects transcend the particular lexicon.

Corbett (1991) notes that all identified gender techniques have a semantic core in which manyanimates are generally assigned gender on the time frame regarding biological sex. However, thiscriterion, known as genero natural in Spanish, plays just a limited, indirect role within theassignment involving gender to nouns whose underlying referent is actually inanimate. With RegardTo instance, a few nouns may become treated as if his or her underlying referent had been animateand assigned a gender based on characteristics or qualities perceived as masculine or feminine. theChicano Anglicism plogue (mf.) 'plug' illustrates this principle; presumably the masculine refers forthe plug end with the electrical cord as the feminine refers to the receptacle or perhaps outlet. Thiskind of interpretation is reinforced through the semantic extension of plogue/ploga (f.) in order tomean 'kept woman or perhaps mistress' as well as the gender can be derived immediately comingfrom biological sex. It is also hypothesized that a few nouns are assigned gender through metonymy;indeed, Espinosa (1914: 286) claims which a few Anglicisms which consider masculine gender withinNew Mexican Spanish do this because these people denote "masculine posts regarding clothing,male occupations, or perhaps mechanical instruments as well as new machinery and alsoinventions." While is going to be demonstrated, however, gender assignment in these cases respondsin order to formal criteria in which affect almost just about all nouns together with inanimatereferents. In Which is, phonological shape determines for you to a fantastic diploma what Spanishterms genero gramatical.

Spanish nouns/nominals has to be marked as masculine or perhaps feminine (the neuter occurs justwith pronouns, e.g., esto 'this' and in constructions such as lo bueno 'the excellent thing' or perhapslo de Maria 'that enterprise regarding Mary' as well as refers both in order to unidentified productsor even a complex situation). recent studies for example those by simply Bergen (1980); Teschner(1983) as well as (1987); Teschner along with Russell (1984); Teschner as well as Alatorre (1984);along with Arias Barredo (1990) note in which each semantic along with formal (principallyphonological) criteria might figure out gender assignment in Spanish. However, particularrestrictions and also complications exist. (1) Together With regard for you to animates, the biologicalsex of the referent usually takes precedence more than the actual phonological model of the actualnoun: e.g., el camara 'the cameraman'; la modelo 'the female model' except within the case of:

Epicenes; which is, if the gender in the noun is invariable. Several examples include: angel 'angel' aswell as individuo 'individual' (both m.), and estrella 'star' or 'celebrity' and persona 'person' (both f).

The names associated with specific animals by which biological sex can be distinguished merely bythe supplement with the invariant types macho 'male' or perhaps hembra 'female': la ballena macho'the male whale' as well as el castor hembra 'the female beaver.' Such terms retain the grammaticalgender assigned for them regardless of sex.

Collective nouns which, unlike pronominals, maintainthe same gender no matter whether the group isactually mixed or perhaps comprised of people of theidentical sex; thus a large gathering of people mayend up being referred for you to despectively as lachusma or even el gentio 'mob.'

Masculine plural nouns which might reference amixed group, a new male/female pair, or maybe acollection associated with males: los padres maybeglossed as 'the parents,' 'the father along with

mother,' or perhaps 'the fathers.'

Names which originally referred to a male individual and therefore are applied metaphorically inorder to females: un Hitler con faldas 'a Hitler in skirts' and also un Franco femenino 'a femaleFranco.'

With regard to become able to inanimates, your phonological shape of the term gets to be able to bethe actual main criterion for gender assignment. Applied linguists like Bull (1965) as well as Bergen(1978) possess suggested the actual acronyms NORSEL or perhaps LONERS like a mnemonic devicefor most those endings that consistently consider masculine gender. The idea ought in order to benoted that each letter represents any word-final phoneme or grapheme. in addition, -s excludes -isand also -n excludes -ion. According towards the summary provided within Whitley (1986: 146),these endings correlate along with masculine gender in approximately 90-100% with the cases.

In the similar vein, Chastain (n.d.) has proposed A-D-ION-IS being an acronym with regard tofeminine gender. In case one stipulates which -ion become expanded to become able to -cion or even-sion and -is to -sis/-tis, Whitley suggests that these endings correspond for the feminine withinconcerning 97-100% with the cases.

While both Bull's along with Bergen's research has verified invaluable in order to beginning as wellas intermediate students (and serves as an outstanding point regarding departure for a discussioninvolving Spanish gender), many contradictions remain. Additional linguists have furthered ourknowing and possess revealed the complex group of patterns that react in order to eachphonological as well as morphological factors. Regarding example, Teschner (1983), employing areverse dictionary based about the Royal Academy's Diccionario de la /engua espanola (18th edition,printed within 1956) discovered that a amount of 60% involving words ending in -z tend to befeminine (note the acronyms offered over do not treat this ending despite the fact that it can be a notunusual one). He posits subcategorization as an crucial step: nouns ending in -ez (particularly when -ez can be a derivational morpheme denoting 'quality or even characteristic of') plus -briz/-briz/-trizare usually predominantly feminine although almost all other people (-iz, -az, -oz, -uz) arepredominantly masculine.

As the actual prior example illustrates, gender assignment may correlate merely weakly withphonological shape. Some Other complexities in which result in contradictions in gender assignmentamongst inanimates contain such factors as:

Diachronic variation: In certain cases gender assignment has changed via feminine in order tomasculine. The Particular older feminine assignment has become considered archaic (or rustic).Examples consist of puente 'bridge,' ca/or 'heat,'fin 'end,' andlisis 'analysis.'

Diatopic/diastractic variation: Gender can vary greatly relating using regional along with socialfactors. In a few cases, the actual terminal phoneme(s) involving the phrase could alter for you toreflect the actual assignment: el/la sarten 'frying pan,' el/la mar 'sea,' el bombiio, la bombilla'lightbulb,' etc.

Homophony: a few pairs that discuss the identical phonological form tend to be distinguished bysimply gender assignment: el corte 'cut,' /a cone 'court;' la manana 'morning,' el manana'(to)morrow,' etc.

Ellipsis or perhaps metonymy: an related term, generally the term designating the superordinatecategory, determines gender assignment (here your term within parentheses can be usually your onethat will determines gender): la (emisora) nzimero uno 'the primary (radio station)'; la (compania)IBM'the IBM (company)'; el (carro) Toyota 'a Toyota (car)'; el (equipo) Cruz Azul 'the (soccer team)Cruz Azul'; el (rio) Amazonas 'the Amazon River', etc.

The purpose regarding this paper is to analyze gender assignment for two corpora involving ChicanoAnglicisms. This will possibly be demonstrated that will gender assignment is governed by simplyhierarchically ordered fighting factors. A Pair Of of those factors categorically decide genderassignment for just about all nouns of their purview, namely, (1) the actual biological sex of thereferent as well as (2) the actual existence of a derivational suffix (or the sequence which may beinterpreted as such); additionally, gender assignment for these Anglicisms responds variably to afew other factors: (3) your terminal phoneme(s) in the loanword, (4) the gender of the commonSpanish synonym, and (5) your gender of the Spanish hyperonym. Furthermore, it is planning to benoted that will even even though the process of gender assignment within the Chicano communitymay be regularized and simplified, it follows monolingual norms and tendencies with couple ofsignificant deviations.

Review of the Literature

The question involving regardless of whether native speakers have got valid intuitions relating to the

gender regarding unfamiliar nouns has been studied by Natalicio (1983). Throughout the woman'sstudy, 100 native Spanish-speaking undergraduates at the College involving Texas El Paso weremotivated to assign gender in order to 44 unusual Spanish nouns. exactly one-half involving theitems corresponded to each as well as every gender. Furthermore, every pair of 22 products hasbeen once again halved into those that will followed Bull's guidelines (regarding phonological shapeas well as gender assignment) as well as these that will would not. she found that the girl subjectswere the majority of productive within assigning the actual appropriate gender to those nouns thatwill followed Bull's rules: 85% with the masculine nouns and also 76% in the feminine had beenassigned for the correct gender. However, these were a smaller amount successful when the itemunder consideration deviated in the expected gender assignment: merely 37% in the masculine aswell as 20% with the feminine had been correctly assigned. Moreover, Natalicio (1983: 53) stateswhich "they disagreed significantly [with the particular normative assignment] within the ca se oftwo endings, -d along with -sis/-itis." Although Bull found out that 97% involving nouns ending inside-d along with 98% involving those ending within -sis/-itis were feminine, Natalicio's subjectspreferred the particular masculine in 67% and 60%, respectively. The Girl concludes that will withthe exception associated with the two endings noted above, your ex topics had internalized something akin in order to Bull's generalizations.

Chaston (1996) investigated the actual largely anecdotal claim that your Chicano community is seenas an widespread gender vacillation and nonstandard gender assignment (e.g., el/la calle (f.) 'street'along with la programa (m.) 'program,' respectively). Throughout order to become able to quantifyand also contextualize your phenomena in question, sociolinguistic interviews had been conductedwith 15 Spanish-English bilinguals regarding Mexican heritage (ages 18-24) studying in the Collegeregarding Texas. He learned that simply 7.3% in the 562 article/noun combinations extracted fromthe interviews deviated from your norm along with regard to gender; just six nouns exhibited gendervacillation (defined as a primary error followed with a subsequent right assignment made within theexact same stretch of discourse by the speaker him/herself). five speakers exhibited normal usage;that will is, their own use of gender inside article/noun combinations had been judged 100%accurate. Another 10 speakers ranged coming from 97% to 75% accuracy. According to quantitativeanalyses (performed simply by GoldVarb 2), the language used by the consultants throughoutconversation using their mothers and fathers correlates significantly along with normal usage.individuals which speak only Spanish (that is, without having resorting in order to code-switching aswell as language mixing) rarely or in zero way commit errors within agreement; mistakes boostusing the amount associated with English spoken to ensure that speakers near the finish in thebilingual continuum which use English exclusively using mothers along with fathers often exhibitnonstandard (inaccurate) usage. Within regards to linguistic factors, 3 terminal phonemes (TPs)were connected most usually together with agreement errors: -l, -d, -cion. Chaston concludes thatwhilst gender vacillation as well as nonstandard gender agreement do occur, they usually tend to benot widespread among bilingual Mexican-American university students.

Garcia (1998) additionally addresses your issue associated with gender marking amongst speakersof the Southwestern assortment of Spanish. Specifically, the girl analyzed 904 NPs produced withinfree of charge conversation by 11 Spanish-English bilinguals residing in San Antonio. Although zeroformal measure associated with language proficiency has been administered, the lady describes thegirl consultants as fluent within conversational matters within Spanish. Your Ex outcomes confirmChaston's findings reviewed above: Amongst these speakers, there were few instances involvinggender vacillation (with the handful associated with nouns ending within -e as well as escuela'school') and also nonstandard gender assignment (principally using programa along using othernouns of Greek origin using ending throughout -a; there is a marked choice for that feminine asopposed to the particular standard masculine). Garcia calculates which 94% of the determinersagreed along with masculine nouns and 96% agreed with the feminine. Noun/adjective agreement

was lower; 92% of adjectives agreed with their masculine heads (as contrasted with 83% accuracywith regard to feminine agreement). The Lady rightly c oncludes which gender marking is a featureregarding Southwest Spanish along with parallels the actual norms along with tendencies ofordinary Spanish for the most part.

The problem of gender assignment with regard to loanwords provides received attention throughoutnumerous languages. Each Ibrahim (1973: 51-62) and also Corbett (1991: 70-82) provide accessiblesummaries with the elements thought to function inside a wide array of language dyads. while someinvolving the elements must be discounted in this case (e.g., assignment of the model's gender to thereplica or perhaps assignment on the foundation of morphological class), many of the elementspointed out are already observed or perhaps empirically tested inside the case considered here(loanwords into Spanish). (2)

Some linguists who have studied gender assignment regarding loanwords inside Spanish have gotconcluded, as will Prado (1982: 259), that will the operation is extremely predictable and outcomesin the huge vast majority with the replicas being assigned into a single gender. most linguists,however, would agree together with Wagner (1990: 62), whom notes instances regarding variableassignment and also suggests that the method isn't straightforward. Indeed, as will be seen, it'sbeset by multiple and potentially conflicting factors.

Apart via Espinosa (1914), whom adduces each analogical factors (as cited inside the introduction)also as phonological aspects for gender assignment to always be able to English loanwords in NewMexican Spanish, Zamora (1975) represents the particular earliest attempt throughout latest yearsto end up being able to elucidate the particular problem. Although also, he examines genderassignment with regard to loanwords through 3 indigenous languages (Arahuacan, Nahuatl, alongwith Quechua), just the sections that treat gender assignment for English loanwords along withswitches will probably be reviewed here.

Thirteen educated bilingual Puerto Ricans ranging throughout grow older through twenty to be ableto 55, and also residing inside the Northeastern united States had been selected for you toparticipate in his study. Just About All but two of those had studied Spanish formally. The Particularsubjects responded in order to a pair of published surveys: the initial required which they constructSpanish sentences utilizing 10 widespread English words that won't work as loanwords inside PuertoRican Spanish (in order to look at how incipient loanwords are generally assigned gender); the 2ndconsisted of a listing of 20 Puerto Rican Anglicisms to that the respondents supplied the definitearticle in add-on for you to their reasons behind gender selected. Zamora states which inside theinitial survey the assignment has been created using 1 exception about the basis with the gender inthe translation equivalent although three elements had been adduced for your 2nd survey:phonological shape (primarily determined through the TPs), semantic association (gender of thetranslation equivalent), and also the gender originally transmitted and also learned with theloanword. (3)

While Zamora's research represents a extremely important step in researching gender assignmentregarding Anglicisms inside Spanish, it actually is subject to many criticisms. First, as in additionalstudy which in turn will most likely be reviewed herein, the actual tasks which in turn his subjectscompleted are usually highly synthetic and could even not reflect real usage in some instances.Inside particular, the validity associated with the initial process appears doubtful. Since the items inissue represent possibly core vocabulary or even high-frequency terms throughout each English andSpanish, it is unlikely that they would be borrowed. Second, even even though it is entirely feasiblethat his respondents utilized a new semantic approach to assign gender for the English terms withinquestion, this remains unproven since, within many cases, the terminal phoneme also correlates with

the gender assigned. Regarding example, four of the terms utilized, floor, pen, glass, along withpencil, take masculine gender about the schedule in the TP employed (as well as getting pairedalong with masculine translation equivalents: piso/suelo, boligrafo, vaso/vidrio, along with lapi z,respectively). Interestingly enough, he states that the term cup (also included within his list of tenterms) as well as pronounced [ko] by simply his subjects has been assigned masculine gender (whichdoes not correlate with almost all the gender of the translation equivalent taza). While he himselfstates, gender assignment follows formal criteria on this instance, and is based upon the actualpronounced form rather than its created equivalent. Therefore, your model source (written vs.spoken) and mode involving transmission (often represented through the degree of phonologicaladaptation or even integration) may in addition be important variables to be considered.

Barkin (1980) investigated gender assignment in order to Anglicisms by method of any pictorialquestionnaire as well as totally free conversation. The Girl informants consisted regarding 33Mexican American migrant workers residing in Florida. The Lady claims which phonologicalintegration plays a role inside assigning gender: unassimilated types were both not assigned agender or even the informants vacillated in selecting a single gender, whilst partiallyassimilated/wholly assimilated loanwords were assigned gender inside a more consistent fashion.These kinds of findings, however, possess certainly not been substantiated by simply various otherresearchers.

Poplack et al. (1982a) reviewed gender assignment regarding Anglicisms in Montreal French andalso Nuyorican Spanish. (4) Your Spanish corpus consisted involving some 300 hours associated withtaped speech recorded in East Harlem, New York, via 16 residents (children, parents, along withelders). Utilizing variable rule methodology (which enables just about all competing aspects to beconsidered simultaneously), these researchers discovered that gender assignment pertaining toEnglish loanwords in this assortment associated with Spanish responds primarily to three factors:physiological gender (biological sex), phonological gender (based about TPs), as well as analogicalgender (gender in the translation equivalent), in that order. Additionally they found that theparticular level of phonological integration influenced the actual assignment regarding gender inthat unintegrated types had been more likely being assigned masculine gender. Whilst effortlesslythe actual greatest executed and most comprehensive research regarding its kind, we shall possessoccasion to issue two in the conclusions reached simply by these researchers.

Utilizing visual stimuli, Banfield (1994) elicited gender assignment pertaining to 54 loanwordsamong 29 Mexican migrant farm workers (all along with minimal English skills) via San Luis ObispoCounty; California. Although several unassimilated loans received ambivalent treatment, theparticular masculine gender ended up being assigned nearly all frequently (52% in the loanwordshad been accompanied with a masculine determiner or even adjective as opposed to 35% for thatfeminine). He provides evidence in which a pair of factors, that is phonological shape as well asanalogical gender, operate with regard to these incipient bilinguals. His research is marred throughtwo flaws, however. First, he appears for you to mix up phonological integration along with lexicaladoption/assimilation. Second, it is unclear whether the oral model (provided if the informantcouldn't identify the thing pictured) has been presented with English or even Spanish phonology. Incase it absolutely was offered English phonology, your informants, because associated with therestricted English proficiency, might have failed for you to establish phonemic correspondences inbetween both langua ges (thus misidentifying the actual phonological model of the loanword).

In the girl research of English loanwords appearing within the Spanish along with Mexican press,Sanchez (1995: 134-37) catalogues different elements as determinants associated with genderassignment. Many of those are already discussed currently as well as do not merit further treatmentmethod here. The Girl does, however, help to make 3 crucial contributions to some set of possible

factors. Sanchez notes the masculine functions since the default gender--that is, if various otherformal or perhaps semantic criteria do not necessarily unequivocally identify your loanword inquestion as feminine, it truly is assigned for the masculine. Your Woman additionally observes whichnot merely can the loanword become assigned any gender on the basis involving its translationequivalent, but it may inherit your gender regarding its hyperonym. Thus, since deporte 'sport' willbe masculine, your certain sports by themselves are usually assigned masculine gender. These kindof consist of several loans which would be assigned for the masculine around the time frameregarding his or her TP: waterpolo, futbol, as well as tenis, as well as other people with regard tothat the actual masculine cannot become predicted: golf, surfing, etc. This particular aspect is a inwhich operates within monolingual varieties of Spanish (often termed elliptical or even metonymicgender as noted in the introduction) and contains not really been empirically investigated or perhapsdifferentiated coming from analogical gender (gender with the translation equivalent). Lastly, sheadditionally posits morphological adaptation as a pertinent factor. that is, the particular addition ofyour derivational suffix that is connected with a certain gender (e.g., -iza within goliza 'a number ofgoals') determines your assignment involving feminine gender to a originally masculine noun gol.Again, I'm not necessarily aware of the previous study which takes into account this factor.

Clegg (1997) reviews by making use of an experiment with 40 native Spanish speakers (20 malesalong with twenty females). Each And Also Every participant assigned a gender to become able to 20possible English non-words, selecting either your masculine or perhaps feminine definite articlefollowing studying an item (which included a definition) and also attempting a new Hispanicizedpronunciation with the term within question. Fourteen phrases represented the actual decidedlyinfrequent TPs (two inside each case): /-t/, /-b/, /-p/, /-k/, /-h/, /-g/, as well as /-m/ along with six words(two each along with every ending in /-o/, /-a/, along with /-1/) had been employed as distractors. formost TPs except /-a/, masculine gender assignment ranged from 82.5 to 92.5%. In certain instances,the attempted pronunciation (and written representations in the same) evidenced phonologicaladaptation/integration. Although the informants' grow older as well as amount associated withexperience of English (in relation to formal research as well as residence in the United States) hadbeen in addition taken into account, Clegg established that these sociolinguistic aspects didn't play arole inside the assignment involving gender.

To summarize, then, it might become assumed that native speakers of Spanish are generally ingeneral agreement regarding your gender associated with unfamiliar nouns (such as loanwords)which usually employ widespread TPs and/or have an underlying animate (human) referent.Furthermore, while gender vacillation and also nonstandard gender assignment do occur within theChicano community; your effects of these processes upon loanword gender assignment throughcompetent speakers in the variety are most likely negligible. Finally, the investigation points toseveral some other factors, the majority of variable in nature, that will apparently bias genderassignment. Upon the semantic side, your gender in the translation equivalent (synonymic gender)as well because the gender with the super-ordinate term (hyperonymic gender) happen in order tobe posited as essential variables. Along With regard in order to formal factors, both the actualgender assigned for the derivational suffix also since the strong possibility the masculine operatessince the default (when the actual TP or other semantic factors underdetermine assignment) warrantfurther conside ration.

Data along with Methodology

The information with regard to this research project derive from a couple of sources, Galvan's (1995)Diccionario del espanol chicano and also Cobos's (1983) Dictionary involving New Mexico andSouthern Colorado Spanish. (5) English loanwords, glossed as gendered nouns inside theirrespective dictionaries, had been entered into a Gold Varb two token file alongside with a coding

string consisting of the gender assigned for the term under consideration (this factor is actuallydesignated as the dependent variable); the biological sex of the underlying referent (if applicable);the particular TP; the particular gender of a typical synonym (if 1 exists); your gender with therespective hyperonym (again, if applicable); and the gender assigned to the derivational suffix (if oneended up being employed). Simon and Schuster's International Spanish Dictionary as well asSantamaria (1983) had been utilized in order to figure out each synonymic as well as hyperonymicgender in some instances. The Particular information had been entered into a pair of token files andprocessed separately since the actual Spanish involving northern New Mexico as well as southernColorado can be acknowledged as a regional variety distinct coming from that of the remainder withthe Southwest (Cobos 1983, viii-xvi). This particular resulted within a pair of corpora: Cobos yielded212 tokens although Galvan yielded 595. the information were cross-tabulated, permitting one toisolate virtually any knockout factors (those which lead to categorical application or non-application)or singleton elements (factor teams consisting of a single factor) which in turn can not serve as inputto become able to variable rule analyses. Additionally, the cross-tabs supply the descriptive analyses(raw figures as well as percentages) included inside the subsequent tables. The Actual binomial step-up/stepdown variable rule analysis ended up being performed around the remaining aspects (someTPs, synonymic too as hyperonymic gender). This particular procedure generates probabilitycoefficients (estimates involving the power of individual factors) as well as determines that aspectteams run in a statistically significant manner inside assigning gender.

While the particular information extraction along with encoding processes were usuallystraightforward as well as uneventful, numerous complications do arise. First, it had been necessaryto restrict the actual tokens for you to merely loanwords since each dictionaries included calques asHorse Farms For Sale Georgetown DC well as hybrid forms too along with these weren't oftendistinguished. (6) This particular has been completed to restrict the actual scope in the inquiry also,since gender assignment for calques and hybrids had been viewed as unproblematic. for instance,gender assignment to find a hybrid just like accento the location where the [ks] will be considered toderive in the English 'accent' does not differ from the assignment for that standard Spanish acento(m.). Similiarly, gender assignment for your calque term yarda (which below influence through U.S.English provides arrive at suggest 'the property on which usually a home sits') provides not beenaffected: it remains feminine despite the fact that its meaning can be no more restricted to be ableto 'unit regarding measurement.' Additionaly, various other terms which demonstrated variableadaptation (e.g., guaifa and huifa 'wife') however employed the same TP had been counted as one.

Second, several prospective tokens within the Galvan corpus had been glossed with no indicationassociated with gender. Thus, terms similar to bomper 'bumper', croum 'chrome', cdpsul 'capsule',and jaiscul 'high school' exactly where gender has been omitted had been simply discarded. (7)

Third, multiple entries had been created for types assigned a lot much more than 1 related meaning(bil 'statement, account, or dollar bill') along with double-gendered types [esquimo mf. 'eskimo').

It ought to always be able to be duly noted the benefits of utilizing these corpora way outweigh theparticular disadvantages. Getting very accessible, authentic materials that will incorporate simplyattested, set up forms, these people are a rich source of raw data. Apart from the issues discussedabove, the particular undeniable fact that simply no sociolinguistic element can be adduced in thelexical entries places a substantial limitation about this study. Pertaining To example, it's very mostlikely that will one's placement across the bilingual continuum could get repercussions about thegender assigned to some loanword just like biurichap (mf.) 'beauty shop'. I hypothesize which aSpanish-dominant speaker would assign masculine gender towards the term under considerationwhile an English-dominant speaker could vacillate (thus giving the actual visual appeal of thedouble-gendered noun). Obviously, further study in which incorporates such variables will require to

be conducted.

Results and also Discussion

As ended up being stated within the introduction, two elements categorically determine genderassignment with regard to just about all loanwords within their purview. The very first regardingthese, biological sex of the underlying referent, is summarized within table 1.

What will be the majority of noteworthy is that the minority (approximately one-tenth to slightlymore than any quarter) in the loanwords react for you to biological sex. Indeed, many in the termsextracted through Galvan exhibit either common gender or perhaps consist associated with typesderived from the typical base pertaining to both your masculine and feminine versions (cf. esquimocited higher than too as chirion/-a as well as ofendor/-a). This particular gets the general effect ofinflating the descriptive figures the for Galvan corpus. Furthermore worthy involving remark mayend up being the disparity evident in the number of masculine and also feminine tokens. muchinvolving this should be ascribed for you to standard male and also female roles; thus, as thedictionaries do not register buquipa, petrolina, as well as bos as feminine (with an underlying femalereferent), they're certainly achievable and when uttered in the proper context would be understoodas such. Additional terms, however, make inherent reference to one sex or the other: granma, guifa(both f); boi escout, guachiman (both m.).

Finally, while the DEC exhibited zero forms with epicene gender, Cobos (1983) registers 3 invariablymasculine terms (regardless of the sex in the animal referent): bole 'baldy, any horse as well as cowwith a white head', mafrico 'maverick, unbranded or stray animal', and also torque 'turkey'.

The 2nd factor, which can be categorical inside its application, the gender assigned to somederivational suffix, requires a quantity of explanation. Recall that Teschner's research involving /-z/interests morphological criteria and in which Sanchez posits morphological adaptation as asignificant variable for loanword gender assignment. Remember, too, the generalizations based onthe TPs /-n/ and also /-s/ in addition include morphological caveats: NORSEL excludes the particularderivational suffixes -cion along with -sis/-tis, which usually correlate using the feminine (A-D-I-N-IS).

In some other words, I propose the actual subsequent hierarchy: no matter phonological as well asmorphological ending, biological sex predominates being an indicator regarding gender for animates(except in the case regarding epicenes and other associated instances): the terms virgen 'virgin',modelo '(female) model' (both f.), and pianista 'pianist' (mf.) illustrate this. The Particular suffix -istamay take possibly gender; the particular TPs -n as well as -o, which usually typically correlate usingthe masculine, are usually superseded through the semantic criterion associated with biological sex.while it holds true that will formal criteria implement practically categorically in all additionalinstances, the particular gender accorded the suffix requires precedence over the terminal phoneme.Contemplate your examples summarized within table 2, where the TPs do not really decide gender,nevertheless the entire morphemic sequence does.

In other words, although many terminal phonemes are assigned to one gender or maybe the other,there are, nonetheless, widespread exceptions. Actually omitting via consideration almost allanimates, we find counterexamples to the general tendencies. Thus, /-a/ will be classed like afeminine marker, nevertheless dia (m.) 'day' is a typical counterexample. Similarly, while /-o/ can beconsidered any correlate regarding masculine gender, typical exceptions consist of mano 'hand'along with foto 'photo'. Nevertheless, if both of those TPs constitutes your terminal element of aderivational suffix, the assignment will be categorical--there aren't any exceptions. Terminal

morphemes, then, consider precedence over terminal phonemes.

Three factors should be produced relating to table 3. First, note that only a small percentage ofloanwords (only slightly a lot a lot more than 10%) respond to be able to this criterion. This couldexplain why this element has been slighted in the other studies reviewed herein. Second, as will beseen inside the subsequent section, final /-n/ and also /-o/ with regard to inanimates are categoricallyassigned masculine gender, no matter if that they constitute the terminal element of the derivationalsuffix. the TP /-a/, however, is assigned feminine gender inside a categorical fashion merely when itis an element of your terminal morpheme. Third, I hypothesize that particular terminal sequencesthat usually tend to be not morphemic may become interpreted as such. Thus, the sequence -in(colcrin, oyodin) or -ina (brillantina) cannot be classified as diminutive suffixes nevertheless verypossibly tend to be interpreted as such. Similarly, while -on is an augmentative within the caseassociated with trocon, it isn't within the case associated with creyon as well as saxofon;nonetheless, it's usually construed exactly the same throughout seventy one instances.

As expected, nearly all involving the remaining forms ending within NORSEL are assigned to themasculine. Inside fact, whilst gender assignment with regard to four of the TPs will be variablethroughout at least one of the particular corpora, no masculine TP is assigned towards the feminineinside a lot more than 4 instances.

As will be seen, these exceptions are generally accounted pertaining to through synonymic orhyperonymic gender assignment.

Regarding your feminine TPs, 1 does not appear whatsoever (-is) and also each -ion along with -dappear simply twice. only -a appears with virtually any frequency. Each loanwords which include -dstick in order to the tendency which Natalicio and also Chaston noted: they might be assigned forthe masculine. in the truth of -a, the variety of your exceptions are usually unaccounted for.particularly intriguing are the actual ones that result of [-er] and are assigned masculine gender; itis completely entirely achievable that your graphemic form (retained inside memory) influences theirassignment while the (r-colored) schwa can be assigned phonologically to /a/. This kind of argumentreceives support from your fact that numerous in the types seem as doublets: bompa and bomper'bumper', pertaining to example.

Table 6 reports upon TPs which occur infrequently within standard Spanish. While such, they willrepresent forms that are unadapted phonotactically. Merely inside the case of /-i/ (graphemically, -Ior -y) and also /-u/ could 1 expect you'll encounter a new sufficient number of nouns inside NormalSpanish on which usually for you to base a statistically significant generalization. Nonetheless,regarding most 11 less common TPs, Bull as well as Teschner and Russell statement masculineassignment.

Several researchers like Luke (1990) as well as Chaston (1996) get noted comparable trends. Lukereviews that the masculine is actually preferred regarding unadapted English nouns in code-switched discourse among Chicanos throughout New Mexico. Chaston additionally observed thistendency along together with his consultants within Texas. Within his study of gender vacillation andnonstandard agreement, 40/42 switches occurred with a form with the masculine article. He statesthe masculine tends to be assigned in order to English switches as well concerning new cognatevocabulary.

Prado (1982) delivers considerable evidence that the masculine gender is actually unmarked withinSpanish and may function as the default option inside cases by which additional circumstancesunderdetermine gender assignment. These kinds of facts contradict Poplack, et al. (1982a: 21) which

low cost the unmarked tendency "[as being] of limited explanatory value" in loanword genderassignment. Inside light of the current findings, however, it will appear that the masculine will bepreferred if simply no specific aspect biases assignment towards the feminine.

The paucity regarding more uncommon TPs encountered within Cobos (only 2 in the 11 present inGalvan) might possess to do with the undeniable fact that older, proven loanwords furthermore tendbeing a lot more integrated phonologically (particularly amongst a new population along with stronghost language dominance). Also, the actual Galvan corpus may represent an even more sociallyintegrated and also highly bilingual segment associated with society.

Tables 7 and 8 summarize what many researchers which includes Poplack, et al. (1982a) have gotconsidered to become a single factor: namely, analogical assignment. However, by utilizing adistinction advanced by Bookless (1982), we recognize each synonymic as well as distinctive loan-words. Synonymic loanwords are the ones which compete for the same semantic space with a nativelanguage term. on one other hand, unique loanwords designate a new referent/concept as well as fillwhat traditionally are already referred to always be able to as lexical gaps. in terms of genderassignment, synonymic loans might become assigned the gender with the translation equivalent oreven that of the particular superordinate category; special loans haven't any strict native languageequivalent but might derive gender from a hyperonym. Furthermore, as noted within theintroduction, hyperonymic gender features in normal Spanish: the particular term which in turndetermines your gender is frequently omitted, giving rise to end up being able to nomenclature likeelliptical gender; observe Whitley (1986: 147, 166) as well as Butt and also Benjamin (1995: 11, 15)with regard to further discussion.

While the particular Cobos corpus has been coded pertaining to synonymic gender, absolutely noclear-cut examples emerge from your analyses; some other a lot more robust factors (biological sexas well as morphological as well as phonological gender) are posited as determinants in this case.Cobos himself, within the introduction to his dictionary, provides a plausible explanation for this. Hestates:

The lack of your continuous, day-to-day contact with most the individuals associated with Mexico allthrough the particular seventeenth, eighteenth, and also nineteenth centuries, collectively using adearth regarding books, dictionaries as well as other studying material, stagnated along withimpoverished the actual Spanish with the colonists. Many occasions these people could not recallyour identify of your certain article along with had zero recourse however to always be able to coin abrand name new term. (1983: xii-xiii)

In some other words, if synonymic gender plays a role at all regarding New Mexican loanwords, it istotally feasible that regional vocabulary provides the translation equivalent. Since the corpora hadbeen coded utilizing sources which reflect general or perhaps Mexican usage, this factor may getgone undetected.

As table 7 attests, numerous types within Galvan that will derive from a model with [--er] getmasculine translation equivalents. In certain cases, this could be coincidental--some forms such asestara along with mafla most likely predate their particular respective equivalents arrancador alongwith silenciador as well as might have been recently assigned towards the masculine before the lookof the native language synonym. Nonetheless, there can be small doubt this factor operates for thatloanwords assigned feminine gender. About the basis in the TP alone, every one associated with theexamples provided would typically go ahead and also take masculine.

Both friser (from table 7) as well as jey fiver present proof dual assignment based on contending

processes: phonological assignment provides impetus for the masculine whilst semantic criteriacontradict this tendency. These types of a couple of loans offer evidence that will speakers might notat all times agree concerning which element will take precedence within the assignment process.

Both corpora contain loans that derive gender from the Spanish term galleta, which is consideredhyperonymic since it might become glossed as 'cookie or cracker' (similar for the British biscuit).while both forms in which derive from a model along with [-er] may well not react exclusively to theelement analyzed here (see above), the particular feminine forms do offer incontrovertible evidenceas towards the operation of hyperonymic gender within the a pair of corpora examined.

Tables 9 and 10 summarize the results of the GoldVarb 2 analyses performed around the data.

While the particular binomial step-up and also step-down proceeded in a regular style with regard toCobos, one product should be noted using regard in order to Galvan. Convergence didn't obtain rightafter twenty iterations (the maximum permitted on this version). According to Rand and Sankoff(1990: 24 fn. 10), "in this case, [the] estimations may not be as accurate as desired, or even therecould be a amount of non-uniqueness inside the variable rule model defined by the situation file."Nonetheless, your next observations are in order. Throughout the Cobos analysis, only threeEquestrian Property And Land For Sale Georgetown DC aspects show any bias toward the particularfeminine. two involving these, the actual TP /-a/ along with gender marking which coincides having afeminine hyperonym, are expectedly robust. Another factor, /-s/ as a TP, unexpectedly demonstratesa solid bias toward the actual feminine. Any comparable pattern occurs for the Galvan file, wherethe actual TP /-a/, gender marking which coincides together with either the feminine synonym orperhaps hyperonym is once more expectedly robust. Your TP /-u/, however, similar to /-s/,demonstrates a new similarly strong bias toward your feminine, which is very unexpected. Yourcoefficients for these two TPs are interpretable just simply by taking into account the particularintense bias in your direction of your masculine (as demonstrated through the respective inputprobabilities) and also by positing that the other elements included inside the analyses do not reallycompletely account for that feminine gender assignment for a quantity of the Anglicisms using theseTPs.

Conclusions

It may be demonstrated which gender assignment pertaining to Chicano loanwords respondsprincipally to a pair of 5 factors. When the actual underlying referent will be human, biological sexalways determines gender assignment. With Regard To inanimates, each morphological as well asphonological criteria figure out as well as strongly bias gender assignment. Throughout a newhandful involving exceptions, some other semantic criteria play an important role. This specific studyof loanword gender assignment in Spanish plays a component in our understanding of the particularprocesses concerned regarding a minimal of three reasons. First, it truly is one of two to be able toinclude variable rule methodology, which usually permits contending elements to become looked atsimultaneously as well as subsequently ranked. Second, elements formerly postulated although notempirically tested (morphological, synonymic, and also hyperonymic gender) are alreadyinvestigated and discovered to become able to significantly influence gender assignment. Third, it isthe just real research involving its kind to be able to analyze gender assignment among NewMexicans also as individuals involving Mexican ancestry in the southwestern Uni ted States. This isanticipated which further analysis in this area will shed a lot more light on the process of genderassignment to loanwords plus particular, on the concerns raised through this study.

TABLE 1

BIOLOGICAL SEX OF REFERENT AND GENDER ASSIGNMENT

Source M Examples F Examples Totals

Cobos 21 buquipa 5 granma 26/212

'bookeeper' 'grandma' (12.2%)

charque/sharque guaina

'shark, hustler' 'wino'

petrol(ino) jaina

'highway patrol' 'girlfriend'

Galvan 99 boi escout 58 beibisira 157/595

'boy scout' 'babysitter' (26.3%)

bos guaifa/huifa

'boss' 'wife'

drama < drummer esquimo

'traveling salesman' 'eskimo' (f.)

guachiman ofendora

'night watchman' 'juvenile offender'

saico quira

'psycho, crazy' 'kiddo'

TABLE 2

TERMINAL PHONEME(S) VS. TERMINALMORPHEME

Ending Status Gender Assigned Counterexample

-n Phonemic Masc. imagen (f.) 'image'

-on (*) Phonemic Masc. razon (f.) 'reason'

-ion Phonemic Fem. (**) sarampion (m.) 'measles'

-cion Morphemic Fem. None

-e Phonemic Masc. calle (f.) 'street'

-mbre Phonemic Masc. hambre (f.) 'hunger'

-dumhre Morphemic Fem. None

-d Phonemic Fem. cesped (m.) 'grass, lawn'

-dad/-tad Morphemic Fem. None

(*)-on can in addition be an augmentative; the actual inclusion associated with types like cucharon

(m.) 'serving spoon' causes your masculine to become able to predominate.

(**)On the basis of the inclusion associated with -cion as well as words similar to region

or religion (both f.) -ion is truly a correlate regarding feminine gender.

TABLE 3

TERMINAL MORPHEME AND GENDER ASSIGNMENT

Source M Examples F Examples Totals

Cobos 12 boguecito 9 gasolinera 21/186

'baby buggy' 'gas station' (11.2%)

saxofon (*) lonchera

'saxophone' 'lunch pail'

oyodin (*) marbolina

'iodine' 'marble'

trocon requera

'semitrailer' 'wrecker, tow truck'

Galvan 34 colcrin (*) 24 brillantina (*) 58/438

'cold cream' 'hair oil' (13.2%)

creyon (*) checadita

'crayon' 'check-up'

fonazo gasofa (**)

'a blast, a gasoline

lot of fun'

picheo guachateria

'pitching' 'washateria,

laundromat'

(*)Terminal sequence identical to some derivational suffix (may be

interpreted as such).

(**)Uncommon suffix; probably represents phrase play.

TABLE 4

MASCULINE TERMINAL PHONEMES: NORSEL

TP Cobos N/(%) Galvan N/(%) Bull % (*)

-n fon 10/10 balun 27/27 96.3

'fun' 'balloon' (no -ion)

ton tochdaun

'ton' 'touchdown'

-o dipo 18/18 jaipo 32/32 99.7

'depot' 'syringe, hypo'

jando caucho

'handout, money' 'couch, sofa'

-r estiquer 4/4 quemper 23/26 99.2

'sticker' 'camper' (88.4)

treilar escurer

'(semi)trailer' 'scooter'

-s cabus 5/7 fius 15/15 92.7

'caboose' (71.4) 'fuse' (no -is)

velis rices

'valise' 'recess'

-e bonque 76/77 diche 91/95 89.2

'bunk (bed)' (98.7) 'ditch' (95.7)

dompe sinque

'dump' 'sink'

-l guinchil 11/11 guafol 23/24 96.6

'windshield' 'waffle' (95.8)

sacarol suiminpul

'sucker rod' 'swimming pool'

TP T&R % (**)

-n 48.3

(includes -ion)

-o 99.8

-r 98.5

-s 57.3

(includes -is)

-e 89.3

-l 97.8

(*)Percent masculine through Bull (1965)

(**)Percent masculine from Teschner as well as Russell (1984)

TABLE 5

FEMININE TERMINAL PHONEMES: A-D-ION-IS

TP Cobos N/(%) Galvan N/(%) Bull%(*) T&R% (**)

-a baica 39/42 laira 69/78 98.9 96.3

'bike' (92.8) 'lighter' (88.4)

cuilta boila

'quilt' 'boiler'

ploga dona

'plug' 'doughnut'

cuara (m.) (+) chahua (m.) (+)

quarter, 'shower;

twenty-five bridal or

cents' infant shower'

-d raid (m). 0/1 raund (m.) 0/2 97.0 97.5

'ride' 'round'

Note: only a pair of terms ended in -ion (both assigned feminine gender),

complexion (Cobos); taxacion (Galvan). Absolutely No term ended throughout -is, except for

an occasional plural: fonis 'funnies, comics'.

(*)Percent feminine from Bull (1965)

(**)Percent feminine through Teschner along with Russell (1984)

(+)Several pieces of both corpora the location exactly where the final /-a/ derives through -er

([[partial]] or even [[partial]]) tend to be assigned masculine gender

TABLE 6

OTHER TERMINAL PHONEMES

TP Cobos N/(%) Galvan N/(%)

-b no examples clab/clob 1/1

'club'

-k Zero examples bloc 12/14

c 'city block' (85.7)

estroc

'stroke'

t [integral] Zero examples blich 7/7

ch 'bleach'

spich

'speech'

-f Absolutely No examples blaf 1/1

'bluff'

-g no examples ring 1/1

'ring'

-i chiribi 4/4 ciodi 30/31

'shivaree' 'C.O.D' (96.7)

guini jotquey

'wienie' 'hotcake'

peni (mf.)

'penny; penitentiary'

-u champu 1/1 chou 2/4

'shampoo' 'show' (50)

glu (f.)

'glue'

flu (mf.)

'influenza'

-m no examples coicrim 4/4

'cold cream'

chuingom

'chewing gum

-p Simply No examples teip 6/7

'tape' (85.7)

picap

'pick-up tr'

biurichap (mf.)

'beauty shop'

-t Zero examples bloaut 19/19

'flat tire'

yet

'jet (plane'

-ks no examples clorox 4/4

x 'bleach'

incomtax

'income tax'

TP Bull N/(%) (*) T & R N/(%) (+)

-b 6/6 12/12

-k 18/19 23/24

c (94.7) (95.8)

t [integral] 3/3 3/3

ch

-f 4/5 4/4

(80)

-g 4/4 3/3

-i 222/236 398/427

(94) -i/-y (93.2) -i/-y

-u 56/58 97/102

(96.5) (95.1)

-m 32/33 30/30

(96.9)

-p 4/4 5/5

-t 35/37 39/42

(94.5) (92.8)

-ks 29/29 30/33

x (90.9)

(*)Percent masculine from Bull (1965) (including number of tokens)

(+)Percent Masculine through Teschner and also Russell (1984) (including number

of tokens)

TABLE 7

SYNONYMIC GENDER IN GALVAN

Synonym (m.) Examples Synonym (f.) Examples

calenton jira congeladora friser (mf.)

'heater' 'freezer'

arrancador estara bicicleta baic

'starter motor' 'bike'

silenciador mofla coca cola couc

'muffler' 'coke, coca cola'

jardin de ninos quinda leche milque

'kindergarten' 'milk'

TABLE 8

HYPERONYMIC GENDER

Hyperonym Cobos Hyperonym Galvan

galleta craques (f. pl.) galleta cuque (f.)

'cracker' 'soda crackers' 'cookie' 'cookie'

polvo bequenpaura (m.) pelota sofbol (f.)

'powder' 'baking powder' 'ball' 'softball'

camion treila (m.) alergias/fiebre jey fiver (mf.)

'truck' 'semi(trailer)' 'allergies/fever' 'hay fever'

TABLE 9

THE GOLDVARB two ANALYSIS FOR COBOS

Factor ProbC (*)

Input (**) .912

Terminal Phoneme: /a/ .006

Terminal Phoneme: /e/ .939

Terminal Phoneme: /s/ .222

Hyperonymic Gen: masc. .812

Hyperonymic Gen: fem. .159

p = .016

(*)Probability coefficient (above .500 progressively favors the

masculine; beneath .500 progressively favors the actual feminine).

(**)Input probability reflects the general tendency for that masculine to

occur regardless of or even unaccounted for by the factors specified.

TABLE 10

THE GOLDVARB 2 ANALYSIS FOR GALVAN

Factor ProbC (*)

Input (**) .870

Terminal Phoneme: /a/ .022

Terminal Phoneme: /c/ .537

Terminal Phoneme: /e/ .848

Terminal Phoneme: /i/ .905

Terminal Phoneme: /l/ .858

Terminal Phoneme: /p/ .593

Terminal Phoneme: /r/ .683

Terminal Phoneme: /u/ .201

Synonymic Gen.: masc. .666

Synonymic Gen.: fem. .293

Hyperonymic Gen: masc. .673

Hyperonymic Gen: fem. .254

p = .018

(*)Probability coefficient (above .500 progressively favors the

masculine; below .500 progressively favors the feminine).

(**)Input probability reflects the typical tendency for the masculine to

occur regardless of or unaccounted with regard to from the aspects specified.

(*.) I acknowledge the actual tireless and invaluable aid of Jens Clegg, my analysis assistant, with outwhom this project wouldn't normally have been completed. I also thank the Spanish along withPortuguese Department as well as School of Humanities pertaining to their monetary support.

Notes

(1.) The next two sections rely heavily (but not really exclusively) on Butt as well as Benjamin (1994:1-16).

(2.) Lexical innovation thanks in order to linguistic make contact with involves each a model fromyour donor language (English, within this instance) along with a replica inside the host language(Spanish). Since nouns aren't assigned grammatical gender inside English, gender with regard toEnglish loanwords within Spanish can't derive in the gender in the English model. Similarly, sinceSpanish nouns are not declined, morphological class can't be the basis for assigning gender.

(3.) Zamora Munne along with Bejar (1987) further this range associated with research along withanalyze gender assignment to always be able to French loanwords in Spanish where eachphonological shape along with gender of the model tend to be posited as principal determinants.

(4.) Poplack et al. (1982b) will end up being the Spanish language version of the article.

(5.) The Actual preliminary variation regarding this article, shown at the Sixteenth Conference onSpanish in the united States along with held in conjunction with just about all the Seventh UniversityOr College involving New Mexico Conference on Ibero-American Culture and also Society: Spanishand also Portuguese throughout Get Within Touch With with Various Other Languages about 12-14February 1997 within Albuquerque was based merely about data from Galvan (1995). Pursuant forthe suggestion regarding one of the actual conference individuals we incorporated Cobos (1983) asrepresentative in the New Mexican and also Southern Colorado region. This wasn't possible,however, for you to incorporate the actual English loanwords via Espinosa (1914: 304-11) becausehe failed to indicate gender upon his word list.

(6.) With Regard To a more in-depth therapy regarding the overall naturel regarding calques as wellas loanwords inside Chicano Spanish, discover Smead and Clegg (1996) as well as Smead (1998).

(7.) Capsul could have provided a fascinating case inside point due for the alternation in TP: TheParticular regular form can be capsula (f.) while the form cited in the DEC could be assignedmasculine gender. Within the actual lack of virtually any distinct indication, however, the particularform ended up being discarded.

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