OK 2006 17 - Mr. Keller's Oklahoma History Classkellersclass.com/uploads/OK_LofC_Ch17.pdf · 1966 NCAA Tournament, but the Texas team went on to win the tour-nament with five African

428 Oklahoma: Land of Contrasts

Above: The civil rights marches of the 1960s, suchas this one in Oklahoma City, were used to gettheir message of equality across to all Americans.

Terms: boycott,affirmative action, CivilRights Act of 1964, TitleIX, American IndianMovement, Organiza-tion of PetroleumExporting Countries,embargo, deregulation,price parityPeople: J. HowardEdmondson, HenryBellmon, DeweyBartlett, Lelia Foley-Davis, Clyde Warrior,LaDonna Harris, DavidHall, David BorenPlaces: Tar Creek

ChapterPreviewChapterPreview

Chapter 17: Politics, Protests, and Social Change 429

QQuestions were asked, discussions were lively,and actions were often volatile during the 1960sand 1970s. More and more, America’s leaders andtheir decisions were questioned, and people spokeup for what they believed.

People had more leisure time, more ways to com-municate, and more prosperity. America was em-

broiled in yet another war, but this time it pulled Americans apartrather than brought them together.

Television provided everyone with a front row seat for war, pro-tests, the energy crisis, space ventures, sports, music and entertain-ment. The title of a 1964 Bob Dylan song summed up the era verywell: “The Times They Are A-Changing.”

Chapter17Chapter17Politics,

Protests,and Social

Change

Politics,Protests,

and SocialChange

PPSigns of the TimesSigns of the Times

Sports

Olympic winners included Wilma Rudolph,

Muhammad Ali, and Peggy Fleming.

Baseball greats included Mickey Mantle,

Sandy Koufax, Johnnie Bench, and Willie

Mays, while Joe Namath was a star

football player. Basketball greats included

Bill Russell and Wilt Chamberlain, and

Arthur Ashe became the first black to win

a major tennis tournament. Arnold Palmer

and Jack Nicklaus dominated golf. The

Rubik’s Cube puzzle was popular.

Music

Rock-and-roll in the early 1960s with Elvis,

Bobby Darin, Paul Anka, Frankie Avalon

and others, evolved into a heavier form of

rock by groups such as Jefferson Airplane

and the Grateful Dead. Over 400,000

young people were at the Woodstock

music festival in 1969. English groups led

by the Beatles and the Rolling Stone were

hits in America. Many black artists found

fame through Motown Records, including

Smokey Robinson and the Miracles,

the Temptations, Diana Ross and the

Supremes, and Gladys Knight and the Pips.

430 Chapter 17: Politics, Protests, and Social Change

Television

Television fare included the “Mr. Rogers’

Neighborhood,” “Sesame Street,” “The

Flintstones,” “The Jetsons,” “The Andy

Griffith Show,” “The Twilight Zone,” “Rowan

and Martin’s Laugh-In,” and many others.

Theater, Film

Camelot; Hello, Dolly; Oliver; Hair; and

Funny Girl were hit musicals in the 1960s.

Some of the musicals were made into

movies, including Sound of Music and My

Fair Lady. Walt Disney continued offering

family entertainment with popular movies.

Adult moviegoers saw The Graduate,

Midnight Cowboy, and James Bond movies.

Signs of the Times 431

Entertainment

A World’s Fair opened in Seattle in 1962.

The 600-foot Space Needle was a popular

attraction. In 1964, there is a World’s Fair

in New York City.

News

The Northeast is hit with a blackout on

November 9, 1965, affecting about 30

million people. In 1969, Neil Armstrong is

the first human to walk on the moon.

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985

1954U.S. Supreme Court decisionin Brown v. Board ofEducation of Topeka

1968Office of Inter-Agency Coordination created

1970Oklahomans for Indian Opportunity founded

1964First vocational-technical school opened

1967Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commission created

1971Mining Lands Reclamation Act passed

1973Lelia Foley-Davis becamefirst black female electedmayor

1983PatienceLatting becamemayor ofOklahoma City

1973American troops left Vietnam

1972Title IX

197118-year-olds got right to vote

1968Indian Civil Rights Act enacted

1964Civil Rights Act passed

1963National Education

Improvement Act passed

1972Desegregation of schools ordered

Figure 18 Timeline: 1950 – 1985

The youth movement and socialunrest in the 1960s and 1970shelped create a turbulent time.Oklahoma’s youngest governor, J.Howard Edmondson, age 33, tookoffice in January 1959. Two yearslater, our nation’s youngest presi-dent, 43-year-old John F. Kennedy,was inaugurated. Although Ken-nedy, a Democrat, won the nationalelection, Oklahomans had sup-ported the Republican candidate,Richard M. Nixon. The state’s Re-publican support continued in the1962 election when Henry Bellmonbecame Oklahoma’s first Repub-lican governor. Bellmon wasfollowed in 1967 by another Re-publican governor, Dewey Bartlett.

President Kennedy’s agenda ofthe space race, civil rights, the PeaceCorps, and ending the Cold War

was cut short when he was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on Novem-ber 22, 1963. Americans and people around the world were shockedat the sudden, tragic loss of the young, vibrant leader. Vice PresidentLyndon B. Johnson was immediately sworn in as president. Johnsoncontinued many of Kennedy’s social and economic programs, includ-ing the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

War and Politics

As you read, look for:

• the civil rights movements in Oklahoma—for blacks,women, and American Indians,

• the upheaval resulting from the Vietnam War, and• vocabulary terms boycott, affirmative action, Civil

Rights Act of 1964, Title IX, and American IndianMovement.

Section1Section1

Below: On September 26, 1960,viewers tuned in to watchSenator John Kennedy of Massa-chusetts and Vice PresidentRichard Nixon in the first-evertelevised presidential debate.Here they are shown shakinghands before beginning thedebate.


Civil Rights MovementAfrican Americans had fought alongside whites, American

Indians, and others during World War II, and they wanted theequality to continue at home. President Harry Truman es-tablished a Commission on Civil Rights in 1946 to addressthe issue, and his administration integrated military train-ing facilities in 1948. But this was not enough, and the voicesfor civil rights grew louder.

In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board ofEducation of Topeka that separate educational facilities forblack children were not equal, but opposition by white offi-cials continued. African American Rosa Parks refused to giveup her seat on a Montgomery, Alabama, city bus in 1955,which led to a boycott of the city’s buses. (A boycott occurswhen people refuse to buy certain items or take certain ac-tions until specific conditions are met.) President DwightEisenhower ordered federal National Guard troops in to en-sure the safety of black students enrolling at Little Rock’sCentral High School in Arkansas in 1957.

Desegregating Public FacilitiesThe 1958 Oklahoma City sit-ins by the NAACP Youth Council and

Clara Luper were part of the growing national effort. After the group’ssuccess at Katz Drug Store, they moved across the street to Veazey’sDrug Store. Veazey’s had already decided to change its lunch counterpolicy to serve black customers. Another downtown store, S. H. Kress,decided to serve everyone but removed all of the counter stools andconverted to stand-up service. The sit-in at John A. Brown’s Depart-ment Store continued from August 1958 until June 1961, but the YouthCouncil prevailed. Actor Charlton Heston gave a boost to the effortsin May 1961 when he joined in a march in front of John A. Brown’s.Economics played a part in changing the stores’ policies, becausebusinesses targeted for sit-ins usually saw a loss of income as a re-sult of the disruption.

The three-year effort in Oklahoma City resulted in 117 integratedstores, and the Youth Council grew from fourteen members to overone thousand. The success of the sit-in tactic in Oklahoma City ledto its use in many other locations in the South. Emotions, however,were mixed. Most of the African American community supported thenonviolent sit-ins, but a few blacks were unhappy. While many whitepeople supported the Youth Council’s efforts, Luper also receivedhate-filled telephone calls and threats. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.,believed that the fight for equality should be nonviolent, but otherAfrican Americans thought a more militant effort was needed. Mostof the civil rights activity in Oklahoma remained nonviolent.

Marches were another way that blacks and their supportersshowed their discontent. Several marches were held in Tulsa during

Section 1: War and Politics 433

Above: Clara Luper, a school-teacher, led a group of blackyouth who staged a sit-in at thelunch counter of Katz Drug Storein Oklahoma City.

!Dr. Juanita Kidd Stout,

born in Wewoka,became the first black

woman in Americaelected to a judgeship in1959. Stout earned a law

degree and joined thedistrict attorney’s officein Philadelphia, where

she was elected judge ofthe common pleas court.

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the 1960s, sometimes resulting in arrests. Luper leda march at an amusement park in Lawton in 1966to protest the segregated swimming pool. She re-lated later in an interview, “The man who owned ithad me arrested . . . because he didn’t want blacksto swim. He said he didn’t want me swimming inhis pool and I looked at him and didn’t say anythingbecause I couldn’t swim.” Oklahoma City’s amuse-ment parks—Wedgewood and Springlake—werealso caught in the civil rights struggle. Wedgewoodwas segregated on certain days, which resulted ina protest and the arrest of more than fifty peoplein 1963. Thirty people were arrested and severalwere hurt in a racial incident at Springlake on April11, 1971.

School IntegrationRacial segregation in the Oklahoma City Public

Schools was challenged in 1961. At the time, stu-dents attended neighborhood schools, and theneighborhoods were largely segregated. In 1972,Judge Luther Bohanon ordered the school boardto desegregate the schools by busing students.Black students were transported by bus from theirneighborhoods to attend the predominantly white,

grades 1-4 elementary schools. The predominantly black elementaryschools became fifth-grade centers, and white students were busedto them. New attendance zones were drawn to integrate the middleand high schools. While the effort was somewhat successful, it alsoresulted in white flight, when some families moved outside the dis-trict to attend school in the suburbs, which were outside of the reachof the busing order.

Black athletes were not allowed to play on the varsity teams of anumber of southern universities until the late 1960s and early 1970s.In 1957, Prentice Gautt became the first of many African Americansto play football at the University of Oklahoma. In the mid-1960s, CoachAbe Lemons at Oklahoma City University recruited two African Ameri-can basketball players from Kentucky—Jerry Lee Wells and CharlieHunter. The OCU team lost to Texas Western in the first round of the1966 NCAA Tournament, but the Texas team went on to win the tour-nament with five African American starters; their story was featuredin the 2006 movie Glory Road. Oklahoman Don Haskins, who hadplayed under Henry Iba at Oklahoma A & M, was the head coach ofthe winning Texas Team. Jerry Lee Wells was selected as an All-Ameri-can and was drafted by Cincinnati in the NBA draft. His professionalbasketball career was cut short, however, when he was picked byanother draft—for the U.S. Army.

Above: A civil rights marchin front of the State Capitol inthe 1960s.


Above: Helicopters werewidely used during the VietnamWar. The men jumping from thehelicopter are from the 1stCavalry Division, which foughtin the Indian Wars.

The Vietnam WarVietnam was a French colony prior to World War II, when it was

seized by Japan. France wanted to regain control of the Asian colonyafter the war, but the Vietnamese communist leader, Ho Chi Minh,wanted independence for his country. The United States supportedFrance’s battle economically, but would not send in U.S. troops. In1954, France withdrew from Vietnam.

In the withdrawal settlement, Vietnam was temporarily divided inhalf. The communist regime of Ho Chi Minh controlled the northern

part. The United States helpedestablish a democratic, anti-com-munist government in the south,and President Eisenhower sentweapons and about 650 “militaryadvisers” to Vietnam in the late1950s. By the time of PresidentKennedy’s assassination in 1963,the number had grown to 15,000American military advisers. Un-der President Johnson, 5,000more advisors were sent to Viet-nam. By 1965, a decision had to bemade to either escalate the effort

!Although pageantofficials did not

recommend the travel,Oklahoma’s Miss

America Jayne Jayroeperformed in USO

shows for the troopsin Vietnam.

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Map 37North andSouth Vietnam

Map Skill: In what part ofthe world is Vietnamlocated?

or withdraw. Thinking that a heavy infusion oftroops would win the war, Johnson announced inJuly 1965 that the troops would fight a ground war.

By 1966, the number of Americans in Vietnammore than doubled to four hundred thousand, andmore than four thousand U.S. troops had beenkilled in the fighting. The jungles and rice paddiesof Vietnam greatly hampered American troopmovement. The terrain of the country was muchmore suited to the North Vietnamese guerrillawarfare.

Even though earlier wars were covered by themedia, technology had developed greatly by the1960s, and coverage was more thorough. Thehorrors of war and daily military routine werevividly replayed in living rooms across the coun-try, although reports were about five days old bythe time the film was flown to the United Statesand processed. The news bureau in Saigon, SouthVietnam, was the third largest for many years,behind only New York and Washington. Duringthe first part of the war, reporting was mostlypositive in support of the American effort. By theearly 1970s, soldiers were still portrayed posi-

tively, but journalists were growing skeptical of the war’s progress,as were Americans at home.

War ProtestsAs the fighting in Vietnam dragged on with no end in sight, more

Americans became frustrated. Costs for the war were escalating rap-idly, and inflation in the United States put many social programs at risk.People began questioning America’s involvement in Vietnam. The emo-tionally charged antiwar movement was debated on university andcollege campuses across the nation in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Oklahomans too were torn in their feelings about the war. Themajority continued with their daily routines of work or school, butseveral young people exercised their First Amendment right of freespeech on their campuses and at the State Capitol. In 1968, fearful ofcampus disorder reaching Oklahoma campuses, Governor Bartlettcreated the Office of Inter-Agency Coordination to gather informationon people suspected of “radical” activities.

Even though some American troops were being pulled out of Viet-nam in 1970, U.S. forces invaded neighboring Cambodia in April ofthat year. The action ignited thousands of protests at home. Fourstudents were killed at Kent State University in Ohio on May 4, 1970,and two died at Jackson State University in Mississippi ten days lateras demonstrators and law enforcement clashed. Saddened, shocked,


and shaken, some people feared major uprisingson campuses. Campus Army ROTC (Reserve Of-ficers’ Training Corps) units, as a perceived armof the government or the “establishment,” wereoften the target of antiwar demonstrators. Okla-homa State University’s ROTC drill field wasdeclared off limits to protesters. Although pro-testers were present, a crisis was averted at OU’sROTC awards ceremony a few days after the KentState incident.

The End of the WarAmerican troops were withdrawn from Vietnam

in 1973 when a cease-fire was signed, but the NorthVietnamese continued fighting the South Vietnam-ese. In April 1975, Saigon fell to the communist re-gime. The remaining U.S. military and diplomatswere hurriedly evacuated, and many frantic SouthVietnamese tried to escape with them. Thousandsof Vietnamese people were flown out of Vietnam,including hundreds of children in OperationBabylift. Many others fled on rafts and boats. Anestimated 132,000 Southeast Asian refugees emi-grated to the United States in 1975.

Friends and family were thrilled to have their loved ones home,but the welcome home for Vietnam veterans lacked the jubilation thatfollowed other wars. America’s longest conflict was costly in manyways, including the loss of human lives and confidence in our coun-try. Over 6 million American troops served in the Vietnam War effort,and over 58,000 died. Oklahomans who served in Vietnam numbered144,000, and at least 988 Oklahomans were killed.

The 26th AmendmentAll men over eighteen were eligible to be drafted into the army, and

the average age of the American soldier in Vietnam was nineteen.Since most states required voters to be twenty-one, the young sol-diers had no voting voice in their government. Efforts had been madesporadically since the Civil War to lower the voting age, but the un-rest of the 1960s helped propel the issue forward. A passionate move-ment began to gain the vote for young people, and Congress quicklypassed the 26th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution on March 10,1971. Three-fourths of the state legislatures had to approve the amend-ment before it could be ratified; the amendment was approved on July1 of that same year. Eleven million Americans between 18 and 20 wereeligible to vote for the first time, and in the next national election, in1972, 50 percent of 18- to 20-year-olds voted, a percentage that hasnever been equaled.

Above: Thousands of SouthVietnamese fled the countrywhen their governmentfell to the North Vietnamese.


Other Rights MovementsThe events unfolding in the 1960s inspired various other groups

to fight for their rights.

Affirmative ActionIn 1961, President Kennedy created a Committee on Equal Employ-

ment Opportunity to help achieve fair employment for all races. Thatcommittee was to “take affirmative action” to ensure that hiring andemployment practices were free of racial bias. President Johnson tookthe effort a step further in Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964,which required equal employment opportunity without regard torace, religion, and national origin.

Women’s RightsWomen sought equal rights in the workplace and

in society. In 1968, gender was added to the pro-tected categories of the Civil Rights Act. The ener-gized feminist movement eventually helped toachieve “equal pay for equal work,” to open newcareer possibilities, and to remove barriers foradvancement of women. At least two Oklahomacommunities elected female mayors in the 1970s.In 1971, Oklahoma City became the largest city withan elected female mayor, and Mayor PatienceLatting ably served until 1983. Lelia Foley-Davis be-came the first black female elected mayor inAmerica when she took the job in Taft in 1973.Hannah Atkins became the first African Americanwoman elected to the Oklahoma house of represen-tatives in 1968, a position she held until 1980. In the1980s, Atkins served in the United Nations, as aconsultant to the Oklahoma Corporation Commis-sion, assistant director of the Department of HumanServices, cabinet secretary for social services, andsecretary of state. She also held various teachingpositions.

The National Organization of Women (NOW) andThe National Women’s Political Caucus gained nationwide momentumfor the proposed Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the U.S. Consti-tution. The amendment’s text read “Equality of rights under the lawshall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any stateon account of sex.” Although polls showed that a majority of Ameri-cans were for the ERA, a very vocal group opposed it. The U.S. Con-gress approved the ERA in 1972, and it was then sent to the states forratification. Thirty-five states approved the amendment. However,three-fourths of the states, or 38, were needed for it to become a law.The Oklahoma Legislature failed to ratify the ERA by three votes.

Above: The nation’s womenmarched on Washington in1978 to show their support forthe Equal Rights Amendment.


In 1970, an amendment was added to Title VII of the Civil RightsAct to prohibit sex discrimination in education; in 1972, this amend-ment became Title IX. Any educational institution that receives fed-eral funding—elementary through college—is required to provideequal opportunities in educational programs and activities.

Girls’ basketball in Oklahoma schools has had a long history, butbefore Title IX, the opportunity for female athletes beyond high schoolwas almost nonexistent. Prior to Title IX, women were somewhat lim-ited to traditional careers, and some colleges didn’t allow females totake certain courses, stay out past midnight, or take classes if they weremarried. California swimmer Donna de Varona earned two gold med-als in the 1964 Olympics, but couldn’t compete in college because therewas no athletic program for women. Twenty-five years after passageof Title IX, significantly more women were earning college degrees, andthe number of female athletes increased greatly at all levels.

American Indian RightsAmerican Indians also made a renewed effort to make their voices

heard. Delegates from sixty-seven tribes met in 1961 at the AmericanIndian Chicago Conference tobring attention to their growing is-sues, which included health care,education, and employment.

Resolutions were adopted atthe conference, but the confer-ence also served to stimulatenew leadership. One of the newyoung leaders who emerged inChicago was Clyde Warrior, aPonca Indian and a graduate ofNortheastern State University inTahlequah. Warrior became aleader in the National IndianYouth Council and was involvedin the fishing-rights protests inthe Pacific Northwest.

LaDonna Harris, born inTemple, had married her childhood sweetheart, Fred Harris, who be-came a U.S. senator in the 1960s. Mrs. Harris, who was part ComancheIndian, used her position to work to improve the lives of AmericanIndians. In 1970, she founded the intertribal Oklahomans for IndianOpportunity and served as president of Americans for Indian Oppor-tunity for several years.

The sometimes militant American Indian Movement (AIM) wasorganized in the late 1960s to gain Indian rights. The group partici-pated in several protests, including occupying the Bureau of IndianAffairs’ office in Washington, D.C., in 1970. In 1973, to protest police

!Longtime Byng basketball

coach, Bertha FrankTeague, was one of the

first three womeninducted into the

National Basketball Hallof Fame in 1985. Shecoached at Byng High

School from 1927 to 1969,winning 1,157 games

and many awards.

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Above: For more than thirtyyears, LaDonna Harris has beena strong voice for AmericanIndian rights.


Above: In a continuing effortto expose the plight of NativeAmericans, AIM membersoccupied the historic village ofWounded Knee, South Dakota,in February 1973.

1. Why were the 1960s and 1970s a turbulent time forOklahoma?

2. What was the intent of affirmative action programs?3. What was the Equal Rights Amendment? Was it ratified?

It’s Your TurnIt’s Your Turn

brutality, AIM activists occupied the village of Wounded Knee onthe Pine Ridge reservation in South Dakota. The 71-day standoff be-tween federal authorities and the activists resulted in two peoplekilled and twelve wounded at the site of the 1890 Battle of WoundedKnee massacre.

The Legislature created an Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commissionin 1967. The OIAC’s mission was to promote unity, purpose, and un-derstanding between Indian tribes and state and federal governments.The U.S. Congress enacted the Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 to pro-tect the basic rights of Indians, and in 1975, the American Indian Self-Determination and Education Act opened even more opportunities.The 1975 act gave tribal governments the option to assume respon-sibility for tribal administration and to increase control over theirresources.


Above: David Boren servedone term as governor, from 1975to 1979.

State Affairs inthe 1970s

Section2Section2

As you read, look for:

• Oklahoma’s economy in the 1970s,• educational reforms,• noteworthy Oklahomans, and• vocabulary terms Organization of Petroleum Exporting

Countries, embargo, deregulation, and price parity.

A Democrat again won the governor’s electionin 1970, but only by 2,190 votes. The winner, Tulsaattorney David Hall, immediately abolished thecontroversial Office of Inter-Agency Coordination.State income was not keeping up with inflation, butGovernor Hall didn’t want Oklahoma to stop grow-ing. He placed top priority on improving education,including a reduced teacher-pupil ratio, kindergar-ten for every child, special education, and im-proved guidance counseling. The baby boomgeneration created a peak ADA (average dailyattendance) of 566,857 Oklahoma students in 1971.To address state needs, legislators increasedseveral taxes, and education received much of thenew money.

An investigation of wrongdoing resulted in Hallbeing indicted by a federal grand jury three daysafter leaving office in January 1975. He was con-victed in March 1975 on charges of extortion, con-spiracy, and violating anti-racketeering laws. Hallwas the first Oklahoma governor convicted ofcrimes committed while in office, and he servednineteen months in a federal penitentiary.

David L. Boren, age thirty-three, succeeded Hall as governor in1975. Boren also staunchly supported education. He initiated theOklahoma Scholar-Leadership Program, the Oklahoma Summer Arts

Section 2: State Affairs in the 1970s 441

Institute, and state funding for gifted and talented programs. ThePhysician Manpower Training Commission was established in 1975to enhance medical care in rural and underserved areas by provid-ing funding assistance for medical training.

An Oklahoma Open Meetings Act was first enacted in 1959, but anew law was written in 1977 during Boren’s term. The Open MeetingsAct and Open Records Act help keep public meetings and recordsavailable to everyone, and prevent abuse of power by elected andappointed officials.

OilAfter World War II, the demand for petroleum in America grew rap-

idly, and it soon outpaced production. In 1948, the United States be-gan to import more oil than it exported. For years, the price andproduction of oil around the world was generally controlled by agroup of American- and European-owned companies known as the“Seven Sisters.” These companies were Standard Oil of New Jersey(today’s Exxon), Royal Dutch Shell, British Petroleum, Standard Oilof New York (Mobil), Texaco, Standard Oil of California (Chevron),and Gulf Oil. The companies paid the countries where they producedpetroleum a royalty or percentage of the profits.

In 1951, a revolution in Iranresulted in the Iranian govern-ment taking control of the oilindustry in that country. TheShah of Iran contracted withcompanies to drill and operatethe wells. Other oil-rich nationssoon followed Iran’s example. In1960, the Organization of thePetroleum Exporting Coun-tries (OPEC) was organized byIran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia,and Venezuela. OPEC grew in in-ternational prominence in the1960s and 1970s, and it becamea major voice in oil productionand pricing in world markets.

In the late 1960s, environmen-talists began to oppose drilling in

certain areas because they believed it might harm wildlife and theenvironment; that debate continues today. Partly as a result of theenvironmentalists’ efforts, the U.S. government imposed stricter con-trols and regulations on drilling. The added controls and regulations,coupled with price regulations, kept many producers from lookingfor oil in the United States. American oil companies began buyingforeign oil because it cost less.

Above: This OPEC meeting tookplace in Dubai in 1978.

!The current membersof OPEC are Algeria,Indonesia, Iran, Iraq,

Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria,Qatar, Saudi Arabia, theUnited Arab Emirates,

and Venezuela.

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Above: When war eruptedbetween Egypt and Israel in theMiddle East on October 7, 1973,OPEC embargoed oil shipmentsto the United States. The em-bargo lasted for six months, andthe U.S. supply of oil and gasdwindled quickly, causing longlines at gas stations.

The Oil EmbargoWar broke out in the Middle East in 1973 between Egypt, Syria, and

Israel. The United States and much of Western Europe supported Is-rael. Arab members of OPEC placed an embargo on oil; that is, theyrefused to ship oil to the nationsthat supported Israel. At thesame time, OPEC quadrupled oilprices. The national averageprice of gasoline at the filling sta-tion rose from 38.5 cents a gallonto over 55 cents. By the end ofthe summer of 1974, the UnitedStates experienced its first fuelshortage since World War II.Gasoline was often rationed tocustomers, and long lines andshort tempers often formed atgas stations.

The embargo was lifted inMarch 1974, but the effects of theenergy crisis lasted throughoutthe decade. Congress reducedthe speed limit nationwide to 55miles an hour to help reduce gasoline consumption. Daylight SavingsTime was initiated year-round, and everyone was asked to conserveenergy. Automakers started making smaller, more fuel-efficientvehicles. Alternative and renewable sources of energy were studied,as the United States began efforts to become energy self-sufficient.

Oklahoma WellsNatural gas was first produced in Oklahoma in the early 1900s, but

it was not until the 1940s that its value increased. Oil was the prizemost drillers searched for, and gas was “an unintended consequenceof oil exploration.” It’s estimated that 500 billion cubic feet of naturalgas was vented or burned off by oil producers. Production of gas inOklahoma doubled in the 1960s and 1970s, and was aided further byderegulation (the removal of government rules and regulations).

With many government rules and regulations removed and a highdemand, another drilling boom took place in Oklahoma. Natural gaswas abundant in the Anadarko Basin of western Oklahoma, but deepwells were needed to recover it. The Bertha Rogers No. 1 in WashitaCounty was the world’s deepest well when it was drilled to 31,441 feetin 1974. In 1979, a well near Sayre became the state’s deepest gasproducer at 24,996 feet.

The oil boom revitalized many towns and cities in the state.Woodward’s 1960 population of 7,747 was almost doubled by 1980 to13,610. New schools, post offices, hospitals, and businesses were built.


Other MineralsZinc and lead mines, which at

one time produced one-half ofthe world’s zinc supply, closedin 1970. Concerns about ground-water contamination and thecollapse of deserted zinc andlead mines continue in the farnortheastern part of Oklahomain the Tar Creek SuperfundCleanup Site.

A copper deposit in JacksonCounty was mined from 1965 to1975. Ore from the JacksonCounty mine was processed at anearby mill, and the copper wasthen shipped by rail to a smelterin El Paso, Texas.

In 1971, the Oklahoma Legis-lature passed the Mining LandsReclamation Act. In 1977, Con-gress passed the national Sur-face Mining Control and Recla-mation Act. Both pieces of legis-lation were intended to protectsociety and the environmentfrom problems resulting fromabandoned mines.

AgricultureBetter equipment, fertilizers,

and pesticides made it possiblefor fewer farmers to produce anabundance of agricultural prod-ucts in the 1960s and 1970s.Cattle and wheat were the topproducts in Oklahoma, but cot-ton, hay, peanuts, milk, eggs, and

hogs were also important products. The wheat crops were so largethat trucks lined the streets of many rural communities waiting tounload the wheat at the grain elevator during the early summer wheatharvest. The abundance of wheat created surpluses that caused themarket prices to drop.

The frustration of farmers came to a head in 1979, when the fed-eral government imposed a grain embargo against the Soviet Unionfollowing that country’s invasion of Afghanistan. Farmers felt theywere singled out to take the brunt of the impact of the embargo. Many

Between 1918 and 1945, Oklahoma led the world in zincproduction. Rich lead and zinc ore were discovered in OttawaCounty and in neighboring Kansas and Missouri, an area that wascalled the Tri-State Mining District. Some of the undergroundmines were sixty feet deep with only a thin layer of rock separat-ing the mine from the surface. Pumps ran constantly to removewater. The ore was processed at nearby mills, which accumulatedlarge piles of waste mine tailings, or chat, that contained highlevels of toxic lead. Declining world prices led to the demise ofthe market, and the mines were closed in 1970 after producing1.3 million tons of lead and 5.2 million tons of zinc.

When the mines closed, the pumps were shut off, and minewater discharge began to seep into the surface water andgroundwater. Some of the chat was used in driveways and inother areas in the nearby communities, but large piles remained.After reports of water issues and after extensive testing, theEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) declared the area oneof the worst contaminated in the country in 1983 and placed iton the federal Superfund list.

The Tar Creek Superfund Cleanup Site, as the northeasternOklahoma area is called, includes portions of the communitiesof Picher, Cardin, Quapaw, North Miami, and Commerce. Healthconcerns and the danger of mines collapsing continue to plaguethe area. The Oklahoma Department of Mines and other stateagencies are working with the EPA to clean up the area andmake it safe for the thirty-thousand residents who live there.

Environmental ChallengesEnvironmental Challenges

Tar Creek SuperfundCleanup Site

Tar Creek SuperfundCleanup Site


Above: Cattle were one of thetop agricultural products in the1960s and 1970s.

farmers joined the American AgricultureMovement to create a more unified voice.Farmers wanted price parity, which is thepoint where prices received for farm productskeeps pace with the costs of other productsand services to ensure a constant standard ofliving. Farmers from many states joined atractorcade (a procession of tractors), anddrove their farm implements across the coun-try to Washington. A number of Oklahomafarmers joined the tractorcade or donatedmoney for lodging, food, and fuel for the par-ticipants. Several hundred farmers and trac-tors were in Washington for several weekswhile they met with legislators.

Educational ReformsThe launching of the Sputnik satellite

caused Americans to take a long look at theireducational programs, especially those inscience and technology. In 1963, Congresspassed the National Education ImprovementAct, which expanded the federal role in tech-nology education.

In 1964, Tulsa opened the state’s first areavocational-technical school with an enrollmentof 321. Oklahoma received funds initially forfive area vo-tech schools, which provided programs for high schoolstudents and adults. In addition to Tulsa, schools were opened in Okla-homa City, Ardmore, Duncan, and Enid. Other cities soon joined thegrowing list of cities with vocational-technical schools. Today, the state’stwenty-nine schools have fifty-four campuses that cover most of thestate. In 1971, skills centers for juvenile offenders and inmates werebegun, and today there are twenty-two such facilities.

Before the establishment of the area vo-tech schools, vocationaleducation within local schools included agriculture, home econom-ics, industrial arts, and business education. Today, the vo-techschools, renamed technology centers in 1999, offer a wide variety ofprograms and add new ones to meet the needs of businesses and thepublic. For example, the Mid-Del Technology Center in Midwest Citydeveloped a program to train technicians to maintain electric-pow-ered vehicles, a result of working with Tinker Air Force Base, whichuses a large number of alternative-powered vehicles. Oklahoma’snationally acclaimed technology centers are often cited by businessesas the reason they relocate to the state.

A new type of education—public school district junior college—was developed in Oklahoma in the 1920s and 1930s. The first junior

!A tractor acquired afterthe 1979 tractorcadeto Washington, D.C.,was displayed in theNational Museum of

American History for anumber of years.

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SpotlightSpotlight

In 1905, the Muskogee Commercial Club organized the Arkan-sas Navigation Company to take advantage of the Arkansas River fortransporting oil. In the 1920s, Newt Graham of Tulsa and ClarenceByrns of Fort Smith, Arkansas, became leaders in development of theriver. Their efforts were doubled after disastrous floods in 1923 and1927. Tulsa’s waterworks were destroyed, four thousand people weredriven from their homes, and many bridges and roads were washedout in 1923. In the 1927 flood, an eight-foot wall of water roareddown the Arkansas River, causing enormous damage from Kansas tothe Mississippi River. In the 1930s, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineersbegan working on flood control projects in the area, but in 1943 an-other flood left “half of Arkansas” underwater. The power of the riverhad to be controlled.

McClellan-Kerr Arkansas RiverNavigation System

McClellan-Kerr Arkansas RiverNavigation System

Above: Will Rogers was correctwhen he quipped that “pavingthe Arkansas would be cheaperthan making it navigable.”The McClellan-Kerr ArkansasRiver Navigation System cost$1.32 billion to complete.Lock and Dam #15 (above) islocated at Cowlington.


In 1946, the Arkansas Basin Development Association organized byGraham and John Dunkin of Tulsa led the effort for federal legislationfor Arkansas River navigation. The Rivers and Harbors Act authorizedthe system for hydroelectricity, flood control, recreation, and naviga-tion from Catoosa just north of Tulsa to the Mississippi River, but fund-

ing was not guaranteed. OklahomaSenator Elmer Thomas and ArkansasSenator John L. McClellan, both on theSenate Appropriations Committee,helped ensure funding. When Robert S.Kerr was elected to the Senate in 1948,he became a primary force for the wa-terway. In 1950, the waterway projectwas the largest civil works project un-dertaken by the Corps of Engineers.

Professor Hans Albert Einstein, sonof the famous scientist, devised a wayto remove the silt from the river bydeepening and narrowing parts of theriver to create a faster flow. Construc-tion of lakes Oologah, Eufaula, andKeystone and the Dardanelle lock anddam began in the 1950s. Others fol-lowed throughout the 1960s. In 1967,Tulsa and Rogers County approvedfunds to develop the Tulsa Port ofCatoosa, which is the largest port on the Arkan-sas River system. The 448-mile McClellan-KerrArkansas River Navigation System was ready foruse on December 30, 1970.

Commercial tow boats and barges can travelfrom Catoosa to the Mississippi River in five daysand to New Orleans in ten days. Five public andapproximately fifty private ports are located on

the system. Commodities shipped on the waterway include chemicalfertilizer, farm products, sand, gravel, rock, iron, steel, petroleum prod-ucts, wheat, and soybeans. Forty-two foreign countries have tradedwith the region through the system, and the Arkansas National Guardtraveled via the waterway to Michigan for training.

On May 20, 2002, a horrific accident on the navigation system re-sulted in the deaths of fourteen people. A barge traveling up thewaterway struck one of the piers supporting the I-40 bridge, causingit to collapse. Not realizing the bridge had collapsed, drivers of sev-eral vehicles traveling on I-40 drove off the bridge. Another disrup-tion to the waterway occurred in 2005 when the port at New Orleanswas heavily damaged by Hurricane Katrina. The hurricane damagestalled barge traffic for several months.

Above: On May 26, 2002, the tow-boat Robert Y. Love was pushingtwo empty barges northward onthe navigation system. It veeredoff course and rammed a pierof the I-40 bridge. Before trafficwas stopped, eight cars and threetractor-trailers had fallen intothe river. The bridge reopened totraffic sixty-five days later.


Top: The Red River TechnologyCenter is one of about fiftyvo-tech campuses in the state.Above: W. H. Braum is afamiliar sight to Oklahoma'sfast food diners.

colleges essentially added a thir-teenth and fourteenth year ofstudy to high schools. By 1939,there were 16 two-year juniorcolleges and 4 one-year collegesthroughout the state with an en-rollment of 1,600 students. A lackof students and funding causedmost of the junior colleges toclose by 1939.

However, the reexamination ofeducation in the late 1960s andearly 1970s resulted in new juniorcollege development. Tulsa Jun-ior College (now Tulsa Commu-

nity College) was established in 1968; Altus JuniorCollege was converted to Western Oklahoma StateCollege in 1969. In the early 1970s, two new facilitieswere opened—Oscar Rose Junior College (RoseState College) in Midwest City and South OklahomaCity Junior College (Oklahoma City CommunityCollege). Junior colleges from the 1930s that sur-vived and grew are at El Reno (Redlands CommunityCollege), Seminole (Seminole State College), andWarner (Connors State College). The decline of themining industry resulted in changing the state’s twoschools of mines into junior colleges. The StateSchool of Mines at Wilburton was changed to East-ern State College, and the College of Mines and Met-allurgy at Miami became Northeastern OklahomaA & M College. Sayre Junior College merged withSouthwestern Oklahoma State University, Weather-ford in 1987. By 2005, there were twenty-five publicinstitutions of higher education in Oklahoma, withan enrollment of more than 235,000.

BusinessWhen suburbs began to develop, shopping pat-

terns began changing, from large downtown storesto suburban shops and stores. Developers ofTulsa’s Utica Square worked for almost ten years

convincing financial backers that a shopping center could survive onthe edge of a town. Opened in 1952, Utica Square was Tulsa’s firstshopping center, as well as one of the first in the country. Penn Squareopened in Oklahoma City in 1960 as the city’s first multibuilding shop-ping center. Oklahoma City’s first enclosed shopping mall, ShepherdMall, was built on the Shepherd family farm in 1964.


!General Thomas Staffordwas listed in the

Guinness Book of WorldRecords for achieving the

highest speed everreached by a person,

during Apollo 10’sreentry to earth at 24,791

statute miles per hour.

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Above: Thomas P. Stafford madehis first flight on Gemini VI in1965. Ten years later, he was theApollo commander for a meetingin space with Soviet cosmonauts.

Sam Walton was born in Kingfisher in 1918. In 1943, he marriedHelen Robson of Claremore, and they bought a Ben Franklin varietystore in Arkansas in 1945. Over time, Walton bought fifteen morevariety stores. In 1962, he opened the first Wal-Mart discount store inArkansas. The eleventh Wal-Mart was opened in Claremore in 1969,and Walton went on to build an empire in the discount store business.

A number of other businesses that started in the 1960s and 1970shave had a lasting impact on our state’s economy. Tom Love opened agas station in Watonga in 1964 and soon followed with filling stationsin Minco and Sayre. The first Love’s Country Store, a combination con-venience store-filling station, opened in Guymon in 1972; the companynow has over three hundred stores in thirty states. Bill and Mary Braumsold their successful ice cream business in Kansas in 1967. In 1968, theymoved to Oklahoma and started a new chain of twenty-four storescalled Braum’s Ice Cream and Dairy Stores. The family dairy herd andprocessing plant in Emporia, Kansas, suppliedBraum’s until a new processing plant was built inOklahoma in 1971. In 1975, the Braum dairy herd wasmoved to Tuttle, and the company added a bakeryin 1978. The dairy business now includes sevenranches and farms, and almost three hundred storesin five states. David Green opened the first HobbyLobby arts and crafts store in 1972 in Oklahoma City,and the business now includes almost four hundredstores in twenty-eight states.

Great OklahomansFive Oklahomans joined Gordon Cooper and

Jerrie Cobb at NASA in the 1960s and 1970s. Tho-mas Stafford of Weatherford was selected in thesecond group of NASA astronauts in 1962. Staffordpiloted Gemini VI in 1965 and commanded the 1966Gemini IX and Apollo 10 in May 1969. GeneralStafford was also Apollo commander of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in 1975, which resulted in thefirst meeting in space between American astro-nauts and Soviet Union cosmonauts.

Owen Garriott of Enid joined NASA in 1965 as oneof the first six scientist-astronauts. Garriott con-ducted a number of experiments aboard the Skylabin 1973 and Spacelab-1 in 1983.

Two Oklahomans were in the fifth group of astronauts selected in1966—William Pogue from Okemah and Stuart Roosa of Claremore.Colonel Pogue served on astronaut support crews for three Apollomissions and piloted Skylab 4, the 84-day flight launched in Novem-ber 1973. Colonel Roosa was command module pilot on Apollo 14 in1971, the third lunar landing mission. While fellow crewmen Alan


Shepard and Edgar Mitchell landed and conductedexperiments on the moon’s surface, Roosa remainedin lunar orbit.

Dr. Shannon Lucid of Bethany, selected by NASAin 1978, became an astronaut in 1979. Lucid’s mis-sions have included Discovery in 1985, Atlantis in 1989and 1991, Columbia in 1993, and Atlantis in 1996 inwhich she traveled to the Russian Space Station Mir.Lucid set several records for duration in space.

Other Oklahomans selected as astronauts includeJohn Herrington of Wetumka, who became the firstAmerican Indian in space in 2002; and Neil Woodward,a Putnam City High School graduate, who joinedNASA in 1998.

Lasting literary works were created by OklahomansS. E. Hinton and N. Scott Momaday. Writing about the“Socs and Greasers” at her school in Tulsa, the 15-year-old Hinton created a novel for young adults, TheOutsiders, that was first published in 1967 while shewas a freshman at Tulsa University. Hinton went onto write several other young adult novels. Four of her

books were adapted into movies. At about the same time, N. ScottMomaday wrote House Made of Dawn, which was awarded the PulitzerPrize for fiction in 1969. Momaday, born in Lawton in 1934 and of Kiowa,Cherokee, and English descent, lived with his family near MountainView until his parents took teaching jobs on Indian reservations in Ari-zona and New Mexico. Momaday’s award-winning novel tells the storyof a young Indian who is torn between the two worlds he lives in. Alater book by Momaday, The Way to Rainy Mountain, traces the physi-

Right: At one point during thethree months she spent aboardthe Russian space station Mir,Shannon Lucid showed her spacesuit to viewers. Below: OwenGarriott’s first flight into spacewas the 59-day Skylab 3 mission.


1. What is OPEC?2. Why was a 55-mile-an-hour speed limit imposed?3. What is Utica Square?

It’s Your TurnIt’s Your Turn

cal and spiritual migration of the Kiowa Indians fromMontana to their lands in Oklahoma.

One of the most prolific songwriters of the erawas Jimmy Webb, who was born in Elk City in 1946.Webb is the only person to receive Grammy Awardsin all three categories—music, lyrics, and orches-tration. His song “By The Time I Get To Phoenix” isthe third-most-performed song in the last fiftyyears, with “Up, Up and Away” not far behind. Webbwas joined in music circles by such other Oklaho-mans as Mason Williams, John Denver, Roger Miller,David Gates, Roy Clark, and Jody Miller.

Other Oklahomans were making their name inacting, including James Garner, Dennis Weaver, DaleRobertson, Donna Reed, Tony Randall, and Ron andClint Howard.

Paul Harvey, Curt Gowdy, Walter Cronkite, JimHartz, Bill Moyers and Frank McGee were makingtheir mark in the journalism field.

The national spotlight was turned on Oklahomain 1967 when Jayne Jayroe of Laverne was crownedMiss America. Jayroe was the second Oklahomanto receive the honor, after Norma Smallwood ofBristow in 1926.

Athletes from the state were putting their names in the recordbooks: Bobby Murcer, Darrell Porter, and Susie Maxwell Berning ofOklahoma City; Johnny Bench from Binger; Steve Owens of Miami;and the Selmon brothers and J. C. Watts of Eufaula. Barry Switzer ofthe University of Oklahoma and Jimmy Johnson of Oklahoma StateUniversity were legendary coaches.

State of the StateOklahoma’s population in the 1960 census was 2,328,284. The up-

ward trend continued in 1970 with a count of 2,559,229; by 1980, therewas almost a half a million increase to 3,025,290. Oklahoma was start-ing the decade of the 1980s on a strong, optimistic note. The wordsfrom Rodgers and Hammerstein’s song rang more true than ever,“You’re doing fine Oklahoma, Oklahoma, OK!”

Top: Jimmy Webb has writtensongs that were hits in the 1960s,1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. Above:One of television’s most popularstars, James Garner is seen here asJim Rockford in The Rockford Files.


Chapter ReviewChapter ReviewSummary

• African Americans used such protest methodsas sit-ins and nonviolent marches to gainequality. This struggle for equality led to thepassage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

• The escalation of U.S. involvement in theVietnam War led to many protests inOklahoma and the rest of the United States.

• Events of the 1960s led women to seek equalrights in the workplace and in society.

• American Indians made their voices heardthrough various protest movements in the1960s, which eventually resulted in thepassage of the Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968.

• The voting age was lowered from twenty-one to eighteen when the 26th Amendmentwas passed and ratified in 1971.

• Under the administrations of GovernorsDavid Hall and David Boren, progress wasmade in education, the arts, and medical care.

• Stricter government price controls andregulations on drilling of oil were the resultof efforts by environmentalists and a war inthe Middle East.

• Production of natural gas in Oklahomadoubled in the 1960s and 1970s, particularlyin the area of the Anadarko Basin.

• Cattle and wheat were the top agriculturalproducts in Oklahoma in the 1960s and 1970s.Price controls and a grain embargo led manyfarmers to join the American AgricultureMovement to create a more unified voicewhen approaching the government for relief.

• Vocational-technical education expanded inOklahoma through state and federal funding.Junior colleges grew in importance in thefield of higher education.

• During this era, shopping patterns beganchanging in larger cities as shopping centersappeared in suburban areas.

• Many Oklahomans made a name forthemselves as astronauts, writers, musicians,journalists, and athletes.

VocabularyDefine the following words, showing that you un-derstand how they relate to this time period.

1. affirmative action2. boycott3. deregulation4. embargo5. embroiled6. “establishment” (the government)7. feminist movement8. price parity9. price regulations

10. prosperity11. protesters12. radical13. shopping center14. skeptical15. Title IX16. tractorcade17. 26th Amendment18. white flight

Understanding the Facts1. What was the significance of the Brown v.

Board of Education of Topeka decision?2. What order did Judge Luther Bohanon give

the Oklahoma City school board in 1972?3. Who was the first African American athlete

to play football at a state university inOklahoma, and what year did he start?

4. What particular group benefited by the TitleIX amendment to the Civil Rights Act of1964?

5. What was the purpose of the OklahomaIndian Affairs Commission that was createdin 1967?


Chapter Review 453

6. Which amendment to the U.S. Constitutionlowered the voting age from twenty-one toeighteen?

7. Which two pieces of legislation weredesigned to keep public meetings andrecords available to everyone?

8. What are the two top agricultural productsin Oklahoma?

Developing Critical Thinking1. How do you think television influenced

Americans’ opinions and actions during theVietnam War?

2. Why do you think so many young Ameri-cans between the ages of eighteen andtwenty-one do not take the opportunity tovote?

3. Compare and contrast the efforts ofAmerican Indians to those of AfricanAmericans and women in their struggles forrights and equality.

Everyone has certain opinions or ideas aboutcertain topics or subjects. For this reason, writtenmaterial is not always objective (free from thewriter’s personal opinions). Even though a writermay try hard to be objective, what he or she writesor says may show bias, a highly personal and some-times unreasonable opinion about something orsomeone. Bias can be either for or against an ideaor individual.

To be a good and thoughtful citizen, you needto learn how to detect bias in both written and oralmaterials from both the past and the present. Ask-ing the following questions may help you.

1. When and why was the material written orthe statement made?

2. Did the writer or speaker use certainphrases for emotional impact or try to playon your emotions rather than present facts?

3. Did the writer or speaker tend to show onegroup as good and the other group as evil?

Read the following statements and identify anybias you believe exists.

The court had restored to the American people ameasure of the humanity that had been drainedaway in their climb to worldwide supremacy. TheCourt said, without using the words, that when youstepped on a black man, he hurt. The time had cometo stop.

—Richard Kluger, Simple Justice

This unwarranted exercise of power by the court,contrary to the Constitution, is creating chaos andconfusion in the state principally affected. It is de-stroying the amicable relations between the whiteand Negro races that have been created throughninety years of patient effort by the good peopleof both races. It has planted hatred and suspicionwhere there has been heretofore friendship andunderstanding.

—From the “Southern Manifesto”

Building Skills Detecting BiasBuilding Skills Detecting Bias

Applying Your Skills1. Imagine you are a member of one of the

groups in the chapter that was striving forequal rights. Write an “autobiographicalnarrative” that describes your beliefs,personal sacrifices, and efforts to promoterights for your group.

Exploring Technology1. Using a computer, research the history of

the Peace Corps and describe its impact onglobal understanding and efforts to bringpeace throughout the world. If possible,interview a person in your community whohas been a Peace Corps volunteer andprepare a short report for your classmates.

2. Prepare a database that lists Oklahoma statecolleges, universities, and communitycolleges, when they were founded, andwhere they are located. Include namechanges through the years.

Documents

OK 2006 17 - Mr. Keller's Oklahoma History Classkellersclass.com/uploads/OK_LofC_Ch17.pdf · 1966 NCAA Tournament, but the Texas team went on to win the tour-nament with five African