of the Modern Middle East The Last Ottoman Generation and the … · 2017. 12. 1. · 1 Ottoman Modernity in the Long Nineteenth Century: Training State Servants and Making Citizens

Cambridge University Press978-0-521-76117-8 — The Last Ottoman Generation and the Making of the Modern Middle EastMichael Provence FrontmatterMore Information

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The Last Ottoman Generation and the Makingof the Modern Middle East

The modern Middle East emerged out of the collapse of the OttomanEmpire, when Britain and France partitioned the Ottoman Arab landsinto several new colonial states. The following period was a charged andtransformative time of unrest. Insurgent leaders, trained in Ottomanmilitary tactics and with everything to lose from the fall of the empire,challenged the mandatory powers in a number of armed revolts. This isa study of this crucial period in Middle Eastern history, tracing the per-iod through popular political movements and the experience of colonialrule. In doing so, Provence emphasizes the continuity between the lateOttoman and Colonial era, explaining how national identities emerged,and how the seeds were sown for many of the conflicts which havedefined the Middle East in the late twentieth and early twenty-first cen-turies. This is a valuable read for students of Middle Eastern historyand politics.

Michael Provence teaches Middle East history at the Department ofHistory at the University of California, San Diego. He is the author ofThe Great Syrian Revolt and the Rise of Arab Nationalism (2005).

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Advance praise for The Last Ottoman Generation and the Making

of the Modern Middle East

“A brilliant new history that captures the Ottoman foundations of the modern MiddleEast in the decades between the First and Second World Wars. The hopes and disap-pointments of the interwar years shaped the Arab world down to the present day.Engagingly written, Michael Provence brings this era to life for readers today.”

Eugene Rogan,Professor of Modern Middle Eastern History,

St. Antony’s College, University of Oxford

“This is a wonderfully original book, a merciless reconstruction of the British and Frenchmandates in the Middle East as local contemporaries would have experienced them. Theend of Ottoman rule in the eastern Arab world did not mark the end of ‘the oppression ofalien rulers’. Instead, the imposition of British and French rule in the 1920s introducedan almost permanent state of counterinsurgency, surveillance by agents of the state, andlong periods of martial law. Particularly in Syria and Palestine, the new arrangementsaroused deep resentment and outbreaks of passionate hostility.

Provence describes the manifestations of colonial rule though the eyes of the ‘lastOttoman generation’, whose early lives had in no way prepared them for the rigours ofcolonialism. He exposes the sham of the Permanent Mandates Commission, and the waysin which its structure completely excluded colonial subjects. It was a far cry from the dayswhen the subjects would petition the sultan and often gain redress for their requests. Thisis a masterly evocation of a lost world, and of a much harsher new world, and of the livesthat were bisected by the end of the Ottoman Empire.”

Peter Sluglett,Visiting Research Professor,

Middle East Institute,National University of Singapore

“This remarkable work examines how the peoples of the Middle East perceived their pre-sent and future before the cataclysm of World War I, famine and death, Ottoman col-lapse, and foreign occupation completely reshaped their region. Instead of looking at themain features that we think of when we look back on the twentieth century in the MiddleEast, The Last Ottoman Generation and the Making of the Modern Middle East rather startswith the hopes and expectations of an elite, in what became the separate Arab states andTurkey, that in many respects shared a common background, expectations, and outlook.This is an original and illuminating interpretation of events in a region that is still deeplyaffected by the transformations that Michael Provence illustrates so perceptively.”

Rashid Khalidi,Edward Said Professor of Modern Arab Studies,

Columbia University

“Michael Provence’s book is a revelation. Casting aside the old pieties of state national-ism, Provence sets the story of the Arab Middle East in the first half of the twentieth cen-tury squarely in the context of the late-Ottoman scene, bringing to life the world ofsoldiers, politicians and intellectuals struggling to cope with the loss of the Ottoman sys-tem, which they believed was a fairer dispensation than the colonial nation states imposedon the Middle East in the wake of World War I. Deeply researched and written in clear,compelling prose, this book is essential reading for anyone who wants a deeper under-standing of the history of the modern Middle East.”

Laila Parsons, Associate Professor,Department of History and Classical Studies,

McGill University


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The Last Ottoman Generationand the Making of the ModernMiddle East

Michael ProvenceUniversity of California, San Diego


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www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521761178DOI: 10.1017/9781139049221

© Michael Provence 2017

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First published 2017

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Provence, Michael, 1966– author.Title: The last Ottoman generation and the making of the modern

Middle East / Michael Provence.

Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom : CambridgeUniversity Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2017006688 | ISBN 9780521761178 (hardback : alk.paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Middle East—History—20th century. | Turkey—History—20th century.

Classification: LCC DS62.8 .P76 2017 | DDC 956/.03—dc23 LC recordavailable at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017006688

ISBN 978-0-521-76117-8 HardbackISBN 978-0-521-74751-6 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy ofURLs for external or third-party Internet Websites referred to in this publication,and does not guarantee that any content on such Websites is, or will remain,accurate or appropriate.

Reprinted 2017


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Contents

List of Figures page viiiList of Maps ixList of Tables xAcknowledgements xiNotes on Transliteration xiiiList of Abbreviations xivMaps xvPolitical and Military Figures of the Last

Ottoman Generation xix

Introduction 1Saladin’s Pilgrims and the War to End Wars 1Modernity, Militarism, and Colonialism in the Makingof the Middle East 5Legacies 6

1 Ottoman Modernity in the Long Nineteenth Century:Training State Servants and Making Citizens 9Modern Education and a Late Ottoman Childhood 10Modernizing the State 11Conscription 15State Military Education and Elite Civil Education 18Military Culture and Late Ottoman Society 26The Military Academy and Staff College 28Modern Infrastructure 29Ottoman Sons Become Saviors of the Nation 32Civilian Politicians and Civil-School Graduates 46Conclusions 48

2 The Theory and Practice of Colonialism in thePost-Ottoman Middle East 56Wartime Arrangements and Proclamations 60The Paris Peace Conference and Post-War Negotiations 68

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The San Remo Conference and the Treaty of Sèvres 71The League of Nations and Anglo-French Colonialism inthe Middle East 73Mandate Governance in Practice 84The Mandate in Palestine 87The Mandate in Syria and Lebanon 89The Mandate in Iraq and Transjordan 92Conclusions 95

3 Losing the War and Fighting the Settlement: ThePost-Ottoman Middle East Takes Shape, 1918–1922 101The Battle of Nablus and the End of the OttomanEmpire 102Allenby and Faysal in Damascus 104Popular Struggle after the Armistice 108The Anatolian Model and Hope for Salvation, 1920 112San Remo and the Nabi Musa Demonstrations inJerusalem 115Iraq in Revolt 117Anatolia and Cilicia 118Syria and Maysalun 120Churchill Salvages the Settlement 123Palestine May Day Riots 1921 125Ibrahim Hananu Puts the Settlement on Trial 130Events in Anatolia 135Yasin Pasa Returns to Iraq 137The Last Sultan 140Conclusions 141

4 League of Nations Hopes and Disappointments: the Returnof Armed Struggle in the Post-Ottoman Era, 1923–1927 147The Lausanne Conference 149The League of Nations Picks up the Pieces 151The End of the Caliphate 154Military Confrontation Eclipsed 155Civilian Politicians in Damascus and Jerusalem 156Shakib Arslan in Exile 159The Rise of Yasin al-Hashimi and the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty 161Armed Insurgency in the French Mandates 163France Salvages its Mandate 168William Rappard, the League of Nations, and France 171The End of the Syrian Revolt 177Damage Control at Geneva, 1926 178

vi Contents


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Aftermath of the Syrian Revolt 181Conclusions: Colonial Anxieties and Imperial Rivalries 183

5 Colonial Constitutions and Treaties: Post-OttomanMilitarism, 1927–1936 190Constitutions and Colonial Treaties: Iraq 191Syria and Lebanon 193Transjordan 195Palestine: 1928 and 1929 196Nuri al-Sacid Delivers: The Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930 202Syrian Elections and Martial Law 203Independent Iraq 206Iraqi Independence and its Discontents 207Ibrahim Hananu and a False Start for the Franco-SyrianTreaty 211Desperation in Palestine and the Death of Musa Kazimal-Husayni 212Yasin al-Hashimi Retires and then Returns 214Fawzi al-Qawuqji in Baghdad 218Ibrahim Hananu Exits the Scene 219Conclusions 222

6 The Final Days of the Last Ottoman Generation,1936–1938 227General Strikes in Syria and Palestine 228The Palestine Revolt 231The Franco-Syrian Treaty and Syrian “Independence” 239The Fall of Yasin Pasa al-Hashimi 241Yasin Pasa in Exile among the Syrians 247The Death and Funeral of Yasin al-Hashimi 251Conclusions 254

7 Epilogue and Conclusions 261Saladin’s Companions and the Beginning of the End forAnglo-French Colonialism in the Middle East 262The Alexandretta Crisis 263The Peel Commission and the End of the PalestineMandate 265General Amnesty in Syria 266The End of the League of Nations Mandates 267The Mandate Inheritance in the Arab East 270

Select Bibliography 275Index 285

viiContents


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Figures

1.1 Ottoman-Arab School Kids, c.1900(collection of Dr. Wolf-Dieter Lemke) page 20

1.2 Beirut Rüsdiye, c.1895 (Library of Congress,Abdul-Hamid Photo Collection) 22

1.3 Rüsdiye Students, c.1895 (Library of Congress,Abdul-Hamid Photo Collection) 23

1.4 al-Maktab al-San’ic Inauguration, Beirut (LemkeCollection) 32

1.5 Hamidian Clock Tower, Jaffa (Lemke Collection) 371.6a Two Views of the Ottoman Constitutional Restoration,

1908–9 (Lemke Collection) 411.6b Two Views of the Ottoman Constitutional Restoration,

1908–9 (Lemke Collection) 422.1 Balkan War Cartoon, 1912 (Lemke Collection) 612.2 Yasin al-Hashimi and Kaiser Wilhelm, at Galician Front,

July 1917 (IWM, w/permission) 642.3 Mandates Section Staff. William Rappard at right, c.1922

(League of Nations Archive, w/permission) 752.4 Mandates Commission, c.1922 (League of Nations

Archive, w/permission) 762.5 Syrian–Palestinian Congress, August 1921, Arslan at right

(League of Nations Archive, w/permission) 803.1 Dr. Shahbandar Prison Postcard, 1922

(Lemke Collection) 1333.2 Yasin al-Hashimi, Civilian Politician, c.1920s

(Courtesy al-Daftari Family) 1387.1 Demonstration in Iskandarun, 1936, reads, “A

demonstration of the Arab Muslims, Christians, Alawites,Jews, and Armenians acclaiming the Syrian Arab flag inthe town of Iskandarun.” From al-Mussawar, November 6,1936 (author’s collection) 264

viii


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Maps

1 Ottoman Empire in 1908 page xv2 Ottoman Empire in 1914 xvi3 Wartime Partition Plans xvii4 Post-Ottoman Middle East, 1921–3 xviii

ix


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Tables

1 Military Officers page xx2 Civilians xxi3 Non-Ottoman Figures xxiii

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Acknowledgements

This book got its start during a year spent in Beirut in 2005–6 supportedby the Fulbright Program and AUB. The year ended with a war thatcaused me, my travel and life companion Lor Wood, and our then two-year-old son, August, to flee for Damascus. That July 2006, we brieflyjoined, in far better circumstances than most, thousands of Lebanese refu-gees moving east toward Damascus, where there were already a millionIraqi refugees from the invasion and occupation of Iraq. On the streets ofDamascus, our old friend Adel Samara shouted a greeting, jumped outof a taxi, ran across six lanes of traffic, swept us up, and restored our faithin humanity and the endlessly restorative properties of Syrian cooking.We traveled on to Aleppo, Adana, and Istanbul, generously helped byeveryone we met along the way. Many old and new friends had embracedus warmly in that year. Abdul-Rahim Abu Husayn, Stefan Weber, JohnMeloy, Clare Leader, Helen Sadr, Samir Seikaly, Jamal Wakim, MarthaMundy, Max Weiss, Mary Wilson, Cyrus Schayegh, Karim Makdisi, andHala Dimechkie, Kirstin Scheid, Tariq Tell, Jocelyn De Jong, NadiaMaria el Cheikh, and Amelie Beyhum all helped make Beirut, likeDamascus before it, the home I always want to return to. I was lucky toenjoy memorable lunches with the late Kamal Salibi.Back in San Diego, at the University of California, Hasan Kayalı,

then and now, is the dear friend I turn to for every kind of counsel andencouragement. He was also the first reader of this book, and saved me(and readers!) from countless errors. The late UCSD History ChairJohn Marino was always tremendously supportive. Joseph Esherick,Frank Biess, Eric Van Young, and Pamela Radcliff have been inspiringcolleagues. A memorable graduate seminar in 2011 and the detectivework of the late and deeply missed Patrick Otis Healy, laid bare the ear-liest traces of the connection between Salah al-Din and GeneralGouraud. Ben Smuin took time from his own research at Nantes toexcavate French documents on the exile of Yasin al-Hashimi. ReemBailony and Nir Shafir helped in the final stage. Suzanne Weissman wasan early and enthusiastic reader. Comrade of two decades, Joe Logan,

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introduced me to Mesut Uyar, who knows more about the educationof late Ottoman officers than anyone alive, and always shares his knowl-edge graciously. Mary Wilson insisted I meet Laila Parsons, whobecame my accomplice in the study of post-Ottoman rebels. Mary alsointroduced me to Ziad Muna, who published my last book in Arabicdespite his initial misgivings. Talal Kamal Rizk and Gilberto Condehelped keep memories of Damascus alive for me.

This book was mostly written in Berlin, a city destroyed by the follyand wickedness of the wars of the 20th century, rebuilt, and now hometo thousands of refugees from the Middle Eastern wars of the early 21stcentury. The Zentrum Moderner Orient (ZMO), under the director-ship of Ulrike Freitag, with its amiably bustling communal kitchen,tranquility, and wonderful library, was the perfect place to work.Thomas Ripper always helped me in the library. Nora Lafi has kindlyshared her office, and leafy view, with me during two long stays.Somehow she tolerated me at an adjoining desk for at least fifteenmonths. The support of the Alexander von Humboldt foundation mademy stay possible; an experience no amount of acknowledgement canrepay. Stefan Weber, Salam Said, Astrid Meier, Jens Hannsen, and thelate Thomas Philipp, encouraged me at every turn.

Cambridge editors Marigold Acland and Maria Marsh cheerfully tol-erated my delays when I expected to be told to get lost. I suspect EugeneRogan’s good word saved me at least a few times. Matt Sweeneydesigned the book with more skill and understanding than I could hopefor. Sarah Turner improved the manuscript with endless patience.

Most of the photos came from the private archive, long collected andgenerously shared, of Wolf-Dieter Lemke. A spring 2016 invitation toAUB and a wonderful meeting with the grandson of Yasin al-Hashimi,Mazin Ali Mumtaz al-Daftari, and May Ziwar al-Daftari, helped bringthe final pieces together and provided an intimate portrait of Yasin Pasa.

At the earlier stages, great teachers Peter Sluglett, Nadine Meouchy,the late Khariyya Qasimiyya, Abdallah Hanna, and Rashid Khalidiguided me patiently. Perhaps not so innocently, Philip Khoury asked,“Why don’t you write about all the revolts?” More than ten years on,every page reflects the help of these dear people along the way. I hopethey will approve but I’m surely the one to blame if they don’t.

xii Acknowledgements


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Notes on Transliteration

Transliteration of words, names, and places is a vexing problem in awork such as this, dealing as it does, with Arabic, Ottoman, and mod-ern Turkish, and a variety of states and institutions, many of whichimposed, and changed, their own names, spellings, and even alphabets.Names, titles, and places I have rendered in the fashion most commonto English speakers. Villages and towns not widely known outside theregion, I have rendered in Modern Turkish or a simplified Arabic trans-literation according to post-WWII borders. Names of individuals I haverendered into modern Turkish or Arabic transliteration based mostlyupon the place they ended up after 1918, which is to say the TurkishRepublic or various Arab countries. The names of Ottoman schools,institutions, ranks, and titles I have rendered in modern Turkish wher-ever they happened to be. I have also made some possibly quixoticchoices that may seem logical only to me. A case in point is Yasin Pasaal-Hashimi, in which I give the Arabic transliteration of his name, andthe modern Turkish rendering of his Ottoman-bestowed title. I have fol-lowed my ear in using Arabic given and family names: usually complete(Fawzi al-Qawuqji), sometimes with the definite article (al-Qawuqji) andoccasionally without (Qawuqji), or with the given name only (Fawzi).

xiii


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List of Abbreviations

AUB American University of BeirutBNA British National ArchivesCO British Colonial OfficeFO British Foreign OfficeIFEAD Institut Française d’Études Arabes de DamasIJMES International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies

MAE French Ministère des Affaires EtrangèresMWT Markaz al-Watha’iq al-Tarikhiyya (Syrian National Archives)SHAT Service Historique de l’Armée TerreLN League of Nations ArchivesIU Istanbul University Archival Collection

xiv


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Maps

Map1.

Ottom

anEmpirein

1908

xv


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Map2.

Ottom

anEmpirein

1914

xvi


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Map3.

WartimePartition

Plans

xvii


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Map4.

Post-Ottom

anMiddle

East,19

21–3

xviii


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Political and Military Figures of the LastOttoman Generation

Ottoman State education was divided between civil and military sys-tems. At the pinnacle of the military system was the staff college(Erkân-i Harbiyye Askeriyye), which accepted no more than 10 percentof military-academy (Mekteb-i Ul

_um-i Harbiyye) graduates, most of

whom had received ten or more years of intensive state schooling. TheMülkiye (Mekteb-i Mülkiye-i Sahane) was similarly the pinnacle of thecivil system, though less selective than the staff college. Both wereintended to train high civil and military functionaries. Some Mülkiyegraduates continued to the law college (Mekteb-i Hukuk-i Sahane), andsome transferred from one system to the other.

xix


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Tab

le1.

Military

Officers

Nam

ePlace

and

birth

date

Education

Position,Nov

.19

18Post-war

vocation

Death

Sacid

al-cAs

Ham

a,18

89StaffCollege,Istanbu

lJaile

dmiddle-ran

kOttom

anstaff

officer

Insurgen

tlead

er,

policem

anIn

battle,

Palestine,

1936

Yusufal-cAzm

aDam

ascu

s,18


l;Kriegsakadem

ie,Berlin

Sen

iorOttom

anstaffofficer

Politician

Inbattle,

Syria,19

20

BakrSidqi

Kirku

k,18


l;Britain,India

Middle-ran

kOttom

anstaff

officer

Sen

iorofficer,

politician

Assassinated

,Mosul,

1937

Jac far

al-cAskari

1885

,Mosul

Military

acad

emy,

Istanbu

l;Kriegsakadem

ie,Berlin

Cap

turedmiddle-ran

kOttom

anofficer

Politician

Assassinated

,Baghdad

,19

36Yasin

al-H

ashim

iBaghdad

,18


lSen

iorOttom

anstaffofficer

Politician

Alle

gedheartattack,

1937

Tah

aal-H

ashim

iBaghdad

,18


lSen

iorOttom

anstaffofficer

Sen

iorofficer,

politician

Lon

don

,19

61

Ram

adan

Shallash

Zurprovince,

1879

Tribal

Sch

ool;military

acad

emy,

Istanbu

lMiddle-ran

kOttom

anofficer

Insurgen

tlead

erAliv

ein

1950

MustafaKem

alSalon

ika,

1881

StaffCollege,Istanbu

lSen

iorOttom

anstaffofficer

Politician

Istanbul,19

38Mustafa

: Ismet

(: Inön

ü)

Izmir/M

alatya,

1888

StaffCollege,Istanbu

lMiddle-ran

kOttom

anstaff

officer

Politician

Ankara,19

73

Faw

zial-Q

awuqji

Tripoli,18

90Military

acad

emy,

Istanbu

l;StCyr,France

Middle-ran

kOttom

anofficer

Insurgen

tBeirut,19

77

Nurial-Sacid

Baghdad

,18

88Military

acad

emy,

Istanbu

lCap

turedmiddle-ran

kOttom

anofficer

Politician

Assassinated

,Baghdad

,19

58Mah

mud

SevketPasa,

Baghdad

,18

56Staffco

llege,Istanbul;

Kriegsakadem

ie,Berlin

Assassinated

asGrandVizir

Istanbu

l19

13Deadin

1913

Assassinated

,Istanbu

l,19

13

xx


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Tab

le2.

Civilians

Nam

ePlace

and

birth

date

Education

Position,Nov

.19

18Post-war

vocation

Death

(Muham

mad

)Amin

al-

Husayn

i

Jerusalem,18

95Al-Azhar,Cairo,

Mülkiye,

Istanbu

lOttom

anreserveofficer

Politician,Mufti

1974

,Beirut

Ibrahim

Han

anu

NearAleppo

,18

69Mülkiye;

Mekteb-i

Huku

k,Istanbul

Sen

iorOttom

ango

vernor

and

administrator.Aleppomunicipal

council

Politician,lawyer,

insurgen

tTube

rculosis,

Aleppo

,19

35

Musa

Kazim

al-

Husayn

iJerusalem,18

53Mülkiye,

Istanbu

lRetired

Ottom

ango

vernor

and

administrator

Politician

Policebeating/old

age,

Jerusalem,

1934

Shakib

Arslan

Mou

ntLeb

anon

,18

69BeirutSultan

iMem

ber

ofOttom

anparlia

men

t,en

voyto

Berlin

Journalist,activist

Beirut,19

46

Ihsanal-Jab

iri

Rashid

c Alial-

Kaylani

Baghdad

,18

92MülkiyeMekteb-i

Huku

k,Istanbul

Law

yeran

djudge,Baghdad

Politician,lawyer

Beirut,19

65

Muham

mad

Kurd

c Ali

Dam

ascu

s,18

76Idad

iyeDam

ascu

s(M

aktab

c Anbar)

Journalistan

dpublisher

Literaryscholar,

journalist

Dam

ascu

s,19

53

JamilMardam

Bey

Dam

ascu

s,18

94Sorbon

ne,

Paris

Spen

twar

yearsin

France

Politician

Cairo,19

60

c Abdal-

Rah

man

Shah

ban

dar

Dam

ascu

s,18

80SyrianProtestan

tCollege

(AUB)

Physician,exile

dex-O

ttom

anpolitician.Joined

andleftUnionist

Party.FledDam

ascu

sduring

World

War

I.

Politician,

physician,exile

d19

25–37

Assassinated

,Dam

ascu

s,19

40

(Muham

mad

)Rashid

Rida

Tripoli(Q

alam

un),

1865

Tripolian

dal-A

zhar,

Cairo

withMuham

mad

c Abduh

Dam

ascu

safter19

08.Returned

toCairo

before19

14,an

dreturned

toDam

ascu

sin

1918

.

Sch

olar,cleric,

journalist/

publisher

Cairo,19

35 (continued)

xxi


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Tab

le2.

(cont.)

Nam

ePlace

and

birth

date

Education

Position,Nov

.19

18Post-war

vocation

Death

Shukrial-

Quwatli

Dam

ascu

s,18

91Mülkiye,

Istanbul

Prisonin

Dam

ascu

sPolitician,prime

minister

Beirut,19

67

Rustum

Haydar

Baalbak,18

89Mülkiye,

Istanbul

Sorbon

ne,

Paris

FledOttom

anDam

ascu

sto

join

Faysal,Augu

st19

18.

Politician,lawyer

Assassinated

,Baghdad

,19

40Sacid

Haydar

Baalbak,18

90Mekteb-iHuku

k,Istanbu

lLaw

yer,professor

oflaw,

Dam

ascu

sUniversity

Law

yer,politician,

exile

d19

25–37

Dam

ascu

s,19

57

Hashim

al-A

tasi

Hom

s,18

75Mülkiye,

Istanbul

ServingOttom

ango

vernor

and

administrator

Politician,prime

minister

Hom

s,19

60

Jamal

al-

Husayn

iJerusalem,18

94SyrianProtestan

tCollege

(AUB)

Ottom

anreserve(con

script)

officer

Activist,politician

Sau

diArabia,19

82

xxii


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Tab

le3.

Non-O

ttomanFigures

Nam

ePlace

and

birth

date

Education

Position,Nov

.19

18Post-war

vocation

Death

Edmund

Alle

nby

Englan

d,18

61StaffCollege,Cam

berley

Sen

iorstaffofficer,

Occupied

Enem

yTerritory

Administration(O

ETA)

1917

–20

Lon

don

,19

36

Léo

nBlum

France,18

72Éco

lenormalesupérieure,

Sorbon

ne,

Paris

Official

oftheFrench

Soc

ialistParty

PrimeMinister,19

36–7,

briefl

y19

38Paris,19

50

Rob

ertdeCaix

France,18

69Éco

leLibre

des

Scien

ces

Politiques,Paris

Journalistan

ded

itor,

lead

erparticolonial

Man

date19

20–3.

PMC

1924

–39

Paris,19

70

Kinah

anCornwallis

USA,18

83Oxford

1916

–20

Director,Arab

Bureau

Advisor,Iraq

iInterior

Ministry

Ham

pshire,

Englan

d,19

59David

Lloyd

Geo

rge

Englan

d,18

63Loc

alch

urchan

dhom

eschoo

lBritish

primeminister,

1916

–22

Politician,retired

Wales,19

45

Hen

riGou

raud

France,18

67Military

acad

emy,

St.Cyr

Sen

iorstaffofficer,4th

Arm

yFirst

French

Man

date

HC,19

20–3

Paris,19

46

Geo

rges

Clemen

ceau

France,18

41Lycée,Nan

tes

French

primeminister,

1917

–20

retired

Paris,19

29

Hen

ryde

Jouvenel

France,18

76Collège

StanislasdeParis

Journalist,reserveofficer,

western

fron

tHighCom

mission

erSyria,19

25–6

Paris,19

35

T.E.Law

rence

Wales,18

88Oxford

Middle-ran

kreserveofficer

Various

Englan

d,19

35William

Rap

pard

New

York,

1883

Harvard,Vienna

Professor,University

ofGen

eva

Leagu

eof

NationsPMC

Director

Gen

eva,

1958

Mau

rice

Sarrail

France,18

56Military

acad

emy,

St.Cyr

Sen

iorstaffofficer,

dismissed

Man

dateHC

1924

–5

Paris,19

29

Herbert

Sam

uel

Englan

d,18

70Oxford

Politician

First

British

Palestine

Man

dateHC

1920

–5

Lon

don

,19

63

xxiii


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