Nutrient A chemical compound (such as protein, fat,
carbohydrate, vitamins, or minerals) that make up foods. These
compounds are used by the body to function and grow. Nutrient can
be classified as Macronutrients There are three macronutrients
defined as being the classes of chemical compounds humans consume
in the largest quantities and which provide bulk energy.These are
organic nutrients like PROTEIN, FAT and CARBOHYDRATES.
Micronutrients These are inorganic nutrients such as minerals and
vitamins which are required by body in very small quantities.
Nutrient Interaction It can be defined as the physical chemical
interaction between nutrients, or between nutrients and other
components of the diet or other compounds, including desirable or
undesirable results.
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Carbohydrate carbohydrate interaction Carbohydrates are
important nutrient which provide energy to our body.It is an
organic compound made up by carbon,hydrogen and oxygen. 1. Inter-
relation between Fructose and Sucrose When fructose is ingested as
a part of the dissaccharide sucrose,absorption capacity is much
higher because fructose exists in a 1 : 1 ratio with glucose. In
addition,serum galactose levels following galactose ingestion are
reduced when accompanied by glucose. 2. Inter relation between
Carbohydrate Fiber FIBER is a type of polysaccharides which found
in plants and it gives structure to plants. There is a 2 type of
fibers like soluble and insoluble fiber. Soluble fiber such as
pectin etc mixes with water to form gummy substances that coats the
insides of the intestinal tract
Slide 4
During digestion, wave-like currents caused by contractions of
the intestinal muscles bring nutrients to the surface of the
intestinal wall for absorption. After soluble fiber dissolves in
water, however, it traps nutrients inside its gummy gel and slows
down considerably while moving through the digestive tract. Inside
the gel, nutrients are shielded from digestive enzymes and less
likely to reach the wall of the intestines. Dietary sugars like
carbohydrates and starch are among the nutrients trapped inside
this gel. Consequently, sugar is absorbed into the bloodstream more
slowly, blunting the sharp spike in blood glucose typically
experienced by diabetic patients after a meal. Fewer spikes in
blood glucose lead to greater sensitivity to the action of insulin.
Avoiding high peaks and low valleys in blood glucose places less
stress on the pancreas and is important not only to diabetics but
also to those who want to prevent the development of type 2
diabetes
Slide 5
Glycemic Index The glycemic index is a measure of the effects
of carbohydrates in food on blood sugar levels. It estimates how
much each gram of available carbohydrate (total carbohydrate minus
fiber) in a food raises a person's blood glucose level following
consumption of the food, relative to consumption of glucose. Plasma
glucose level rise 5-45 min after any meal that contains sugars or
digestible starch and return to fasting levels 2-hours later.White
bread has a glycemic index of 100 and other foods have a lower
glycemic index. Foods with a high glycemic index, such as processed
starches and the sugar in soft drinks, break down into glucose and
enter the bloodstream relatively quickly. Unrefined, complex
carbohydrates, on the other hand, have a low glycemic index and
digest more slowly. Diabetic patients should consume food with a
low glycemic index because rapid increases in blood glucose
exacerbate overproduction of insulin by the pancreas and insulin
resistance.
Slide 6
The glycemic index depends on: 1.Composition and size of starch
particles Smaller the particle size more is the glycemic effect.Raw
foods with large particles therefore have a lower effect on
glycemic index. 2.Their digestibility Presence of amylopectin that
gets rapidly digested also has a greater glycemic effect whereas
the amount of amylose which is digested slowly has low gycemic
index. 3.Cooking methods employed Foods cooked by boiling and long
cooking process makes it easy to digest and reduces the particle
size thus increasing the glycemic index.
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Carbohydrate Protein Inter-relations 1. Carbohydrate and
Hormones Glucagon, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, raises blood
glucose levels. Its effect is opposite that of insulin, which
lowers blood glucose levels. The pancreas releases glucagon when
blood sugar (glucose) levels fall too low. Glucagon causes the
liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose, which is released
into the bloodstream and also from non CHO substances like amino
acids etc.blood sugarliverglycogenglucose High blood glucose levels
stimulate the release of insulin. Insulin allows glucose to be
taken up and used by insulin-dependent tissues. Thus, glucagon and
insulin are part of a feedback system that keeps blood glucose
levels at a stable level. So, Glucagon is responsible for
gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis.
Slide 8
Cortisol It is a hormone produced by adrenal gland. Its
function is to increase blood sugar through gluconeogenesis ;
suppress the immune system; and aid in fat, protein and
carbohydrate metabolism so, it is an overall catabolic
hormone,which decreases lean body mass and muscle mass and may
increase energy expenditure. Cortisol withdrawal increase insulin
sensitivity interms of increased glucose oxidation and decrease
glucose production. This may include hypoglycemia in adrenocortical
failure. 2.Protein sparing action During fasting or starvation or
insufficient carbohydrates and fats for fuel,body stores of
glycogen are exhausted.Body adapts to use of muscle protein to meet
most of the need of glucose production,mainly needed for brain,
RBCs etc, and this is done by gluconeogenesis. But to use protein
instead of carbohydrates to give energy is not a wise contribution
as the urinary nitrogen excretion increases during starvation. If
carbohydreates are sufficient, then protein can be spared of tissue
building process.
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3.Glucose and Alanine Alanine plays a key role in
glucosealanine cycle between tissues and liver. In muscle and other
tissues that degrade amino acids for fuel, amino groups are
collected in the form of glutamate by transamination. Glutamate can
then transfer its amino group through the action of alanine
aminotransferase to pyruvate forming alanine and -ketoglutarate.
The alanine formed is passed into the blood and transported to the
liver.glutamate transaminationalanine aminotransferase A reverse of
the alanine aminotransferase reaction takes place in liver.
Pyruvate regenerated forms glucose through gluconeogenesis, which
returns to muscle through the circulation system. Glutamate in the
liver enters mitochondria and degrades into ammonium ion through
the action of glutamate dehydrogenase, which in turn participate in
the urea cycle to form urea.gluconeogenesismitochondriaammonium
ionglutamate dehydrogenaseurea cycleurea The glucosealanine cycle
enables pyruvate and glutamate to be removed from the muscle and
find their way to the liver. Glucose is regenerated from pyruvate
and then returned to muscle: the energetic burden of
gluconeogenesis is thus imposed on the liver instead of the muscle.
All available ATP in muscle is devoted to muscle
contractionATP
Slide 10
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4.Fiber and Trypsin Fiber i.e. cellulose has also been shown to
reduce the actvitiy of human pancreatic trypsin in protein
digestion.This is shown as slightly increased faecal loses of
nitrogen on increased fiber diet. In addition amylase and lipase
activity is also depressed. 5. Maillard reaction When a reducing
sugar is heated with protein, a maillard reaction occurs that
reduces the availability of some amino acids, like lysine. The
monosaccharide in intestinal lumen may influence rate of uptake of
certain amino acids,fructose seeming to accelerate this reaction
e.g. During milk processing or heat treatment,milk sugar lactose
react with free side chains of lysine residues to render it
unavailable. Under sever heating conditions,in presence of
sugar,food protein becomes resistant to digestion so that
availability of amino acid is reduced.
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6.Enzymes and carbohydrate hydrolysis When enzymes concerned
with hydrolysis of carbohydrate are missing or inadequate, common
symptom is osmotic diarrhea.This condition may arise because of
congenital absence of appropriate enzyme required for digestion of
lactose,sucrose or maltose. Inadequancies of these enzyme may also
be secondary to gut mucosal damage due to such condition as celiac
disoder or protein deficiency. 7. Glucose and tryptophan Amino acid
uptake across the blood brain barrrier is influenced indirectly by
serum glucose in that the insulin concentration is directly related
to movement of tryptophan into brain. The disorders fructose
malabsorption and lactose intolerance cause improper absorption of
tryptophan in the intestine, reduced levels of tryptophan in the
blood and depression. 8.Glucosamine and Collagen Glucosamine (an
amino monosaccharide found in chitin,glycoproteins and
glycosaminoglycans such as hyaluronic acid and heparin sulfate)
provides the primary substrate for both collagen and proteoglycan
synthesis.
Slide 13
9.Genetic errors Genetic errors may also occur in conversion of
fructose and galactose.Absence of enzyme fructokinase in liver
prevents fructose breakdown and is excreted in urine i.e.
fructosuria. Diminished activity of fructose -1-phosphate aldose in
liver results in hypoglycemia and hypophosphatemia with associated
vomiting. Clinical forms of glactosemia occur as inborn errors of
metabolism and result of enzyme deficincies.Deficient enzyme is
galactokinase in which galactose is not phosphorylated.This may
lead to cataract in otherwise normal subject.Also
glucose-6-phosphate dehdrogenase deficiency result in inability to
maintain glutathione in reduced form during exposure to drugs such
as sulfonamides or some antimalarials,leading to haemolysis or
anemia.
Slide 14
Carbohydrate Fat Inter-relation 1.Conversion into fat Glucose
is a six-carbon sugar molecule and body first converts this
molecule into two three-carbon pyruvate molecules through the
process of glycolysis and then into acetyl CoA. When body requires
immediate energy, acetyl CoA enters the Citric Acid Cycle creating
energy molecules in the form of ATP. But when glucose intake
exceeds then acetyl CoA begins the process of fatty acid synthesis
becoming triglycerides that are stored in the fat tissues of body.
These triglycerides are stored energy molecules which can be broken
down later to give energy when need, for example, get up off the
couch and go for a bike ride. Regulation of Fatty Acid Synthesis
Fatty acid synthesis is influenced by foods which we eat and
hormones we release. When blood glucose levels are high, such as
after eating a sugary meal, body releases insulin. Insulin
stimulates the formation of Fatty Acid Synthase, an enzyme that
increases fat storage.
Slide 15
On the other hand, polyunsaturated fatty acids decrease the
formation of the Fatty Acid Synthase enzyme, implying that eating
foods containing polyunsaturated fats may not lead to as much
increased fat storage as eating sugary foods. In addition, when fat
cells increase their fat storage, a molecule called leptin is
produced. Leptin leads to decreased food intake, increased energy
expenditure, as well as inhibition of fatty acid synthesis.
Slide 16
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2.Prevent ketosis The primary function of CHO is to provide
energy.However during low CHO intake,fats are mobilized to meet the
energy requirement of body. This result in increased plasma free
fatty acids and ketone bodies.Hence, sufficient amount of CHO
spares fats from being broken down. 3.Chitin and Cholesterol Chitin
(a polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of some invertebrates
e.g. Insects,crustaceans0 and chitosan, have hypocholestrolemic
effect. The strong positive charge on chitosan binds negatively
charged lipids blocking their absorption. 4.Fiber and Lipid Serum
lipid concentration can be modified by insoluble fibers such as
cellulose,lignin,chitin and more soluble fibers because Fibers bind
faecal bile acid and increases excretion of bile acid- derived
cholesterol. Fiber prevents dietary fat and cholesterol absorption
by binding bile acids or fats and lipids.
Slide 18
Fermentable oligosaccharides and dietary fiber are converted by
intestinal bacteria to short chain fatty acids, which lower blood
lipids by mechanisms that are currently unclear. So Fiber decreases
the absorption of dietary cholesterol from the intestine.
Further,fiber binds with bile salts and reduces their enterohepatic
circulation.This cause increased degradation of cholesterol to bile
salts and its disposal from the body. Carbohydrate-Mineral inter-
relations Carbohydrate and Zinc Highe fiber diet is associated with
zinc deficiency.Zinc absorption may be enhanced by glucose and
lactose intake.
Slide 19
Carbohydrate and Calcium It is seen that lactose improves the
absorption of calcium from the gut. Even in adults with lactose
intolerance,lactose probably improves Ca absorption. Sugars and
organic acids produced by microbial fermentation of sugars in the
gut increases the solubility of calcium salts and increases their
absorption. Fiber may decrease calcium absorption,this process
occurs if calcium intake is more than 30gm per day. 3. Carbohydrate
and Iron Wheat bran includes low serum iron levels as they contains
phytate which inhibits iron absorption. In this regard iron
absorption from unpolished rice is significantly worse then from
polished rice.
Slide 20
4.Phosphorus and Carbohydrates Phosphorus plays an essential
part in carbohydrate metabolism in phoshoryalation of
glycogen.Phosphorus is an essential constituent of coenzyme I and
co- carboxylase enzyme system in the oxidation of carbohydrate, fat
and protein..5.Copper and Fiber Dietary fiber do not inhibits
copper absorption. 6.Chromium and Carbohydrates The high sugar diet
enhanced urinary chromium losses 7.Magnesium and carbohydrates
Magnesium deficiency has been linked to insulin resistance and
metabolic syndrome because magnisium is required for CHO
metabolism. Increased intakes of dietary fiber have been reported
to decrease magnesium utilization in humans presumably by
decreasing absorption.
Slide 21
Vitamin- Carbohydrates inter-relations 1. Vitamin C and
Carbohydrate Vitamin C has been found to affect the regulating CHO
metabolism either at the level of rate of absorption of CHO from
intestine,or of glycogen level alteration of liver and other
tissues. It has been found that in scorbutic animals,there is a
diminution of glutathione levels with simultaneously depression in
insulin secretion. This is due to the reason as there is an
increase in dehydro ascorbic level in tissues which may combine
with sulfydral groups of glutathione making it unavailable for the
protective role in beta cells of pancreas and causes diminished
insulin secretion.
Slide 22
There is a severe depression in hexokinase activity and in the
turnover rate of phosphorylated intermediates of CHO metabolism in
scorbutic conditions. A depression in phosphoglucomutase and
phosphohexoseisomerase activity with stimulation in glucose
-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity were noted. The depression in
glycogen synthesis in scurvy was mostly due to the limiting
availability of uridine triphosphate and the diminished activities
of hexokinase and phosphoglucomutase under vitamin-C deprivation.
In scorbutic conditions, there is also a depression in the TCA
cycle and electron transport chain whee V-C act as electron
acceptor and its function is highly specific.
Slide 23
2.Biotin and Carbohydrate Replacing glucose in the diet with
other carbohydrates of low molecular weight like sorbitol and
fructose elevates the severity of biotin deficiency.Since glucose
utilization is impaired,it is likely that provision of other CHO,
improves the energy supply.
Slide 24
LIPID-LIPID INTER-RELATIONSHIPS Lipids may be regarded as
organic substances relatively insoluble in water,soluble in organic
solvents (alcohol,ether etc ),actually or potentially related to
fatty acids and utilized by the living cells. Lipids are the
concentrated form of energy. Lipid lipid interaction is that in
which TRANS FATTY acids inhibit the desaturation and elongation of
linoleic acid and alpha linolenic acid to form long chain essential
fatty acids. Trans fatty acid -----Linoleic acid --------- alpha
linolenic acid--- - Essential fatty acid Essential fatty acid Trans
fatty acids The food industry incorporates fats and oils into
margarines, biscuits,cake,chocolates and other manufactures
products.Food manufactures use fats and oils that have been
Slide 25
altered by the process of hydrogenation,i.e. adding hydrogen
atoms to the double bonds in monounsaturated fatty acids and
polyunsaturated fatty acids in order to increase the degree of
saturation of fatty acids in the oils. Hydrogenation changes the
configuration of some monounsaturated fatty acids and
polyunsaturated fatty acids. Cis fatty acids have two hydrogen
atoms attached to the carbon on the same side of the double bond
and molecule bends at the double bond.In trans fatty acids, the
hydrogen atoms are placed on the opposite sides of the double bond
and the molecule stays straight at the double bond. Trans fatty
acids behave biologically as saturated fats rather than like cis
unsaturated fatty acids.The bulk of trans fatty acids in
hydrogenated fats are monounsaturated fatty acid Eladic acid which
is trans equivalent to oleic acid.
Slide 26
Most of the dietary intake of fatty acids is derived from
margarine, dalda and other foods manufactures from hydrogenated
fats. Saturated and short chain fatty acids Stearic acid is a
saturated fatty acid with no double bond. It lowers the HDL but
does not raise serum cholesterol reducing both total and saturated
fat. Short chain fatty acids are organic anoins predominantly
acetate, butyrate and propionate. In the caecum, these exist in the
production of 70%, 20% and 10% respectively. Short chain fatty
acids are produced by the colonic bacteria from unabsorbed
carbohygrates. They are utilized as a source of energy by large
intestine and stimulate its mucosal growth. The fatty acids
hydrolyzed from short chain fatty acids are transported to the
liver as free acids via the portal vein. They enter the
mitochondria of the liver cells and are oxidised rapidly. Short
chain fatty acids Carbohydrates Large intestine
Slide 27
Protein- Lipids inter- relationships 1. Starvation Conditions
If gluconeogenesis were to contiue at accelerated rate during early
starvation,skeletal muscles would soon be exhausted. An adaptation
in lipid metabolism occurs in long term starvation so that ketone
bodies (acetoacetate, beta hydroxybutyrate) are formed. Ketone
bodies cross blood barrier to provide energy to brain and thereby
spare body protein from degradation.Production and utilization of
these ketone bodies result in reduction in protein degradation and
oxidation of amino acids. These adaptations help conserve both
energy and amino acids and is reflected in output of nitrogen in
urine, which is decreased from 12gms in early starvation to 3gms
nitrogen per day by several weeks of starvation.
Slide 28
When body fats stores are exhausted, body protein is again
mobilized for energy by means of an increase in muscle protein
degradation.This final increase in degradation of body protein
cannot be sustained for long if feeding does not occur and death
ensues. 2.Methionine and choline The most abundant phospholipids in
eukaryotic cells are phosphatidylcholine and
phosphatidylethanolamine. Both can be synthesized from
phosphatidylserine or through alternative pathways that start with
free choline or ethanolamine respectively. 3 methyl groups of
choline are derived from amino acid methionine. Choline
Phosphoatidycholine/ phosphatidyethanolamine Choline
Phosphoatidycholine/ phosphatidyethanolamine
Slide 29
3. Glucagon and Lipid Glucagon promotes fatty acid oxidation
resulting in energy production and ketone body synthesis. Fatty
acid ATP + ketone bodies Fatty acid ___oxidation_______ ATP +
ketone bodies Fat Mineral inter-relation 1. Fats and Calcium An
individual suffering from fat malabsorption shows decreased calcium
absorption due to the formation of fatty acid soaps which are not
absorbed and are excreted in faeces as ca soaps. Fat intake has a
negative impact on ca balance only during steaorrhoea. Ca forms
insoluble soaps with fatty acids in the gut.
Slide 30
2.Lipids and Phosphorus Phosphorus is bound with lipids to form
phospholipids,like lecithin and cephlain, which are present in
every cell membrane in the body These are the integral part of cell
structure and also act as an intermediate in fat transport and
absorption. 3.Iron and Fats Poor fat digestion leads to steaorrhoea
which also leads to a decrease in iron absorption. 4.Fats and
Sodium Bacterial action on CHO and fibers in large bowel generates
short chain fatty acids: acetate, propionate and butyrate. These
are widely absorbed and stimulates sodium absorption.
Slide 31
Fat Vitamin inter-relation 1.Vitamin -c and Cholesterol a)
Ascorbic acid participates in hydroxylation of certain steroid
hormones synthesis in adrenal tissues.V- C con. decreases in
periods of stress when adrenal cortical hormone activity is high.
V-Cwhen Adernal cortical hormone V-C when Adernal cortical hormone
During periods of emotional, psychological stress, urinary
excretion of V C inreacses. b) The rate limiting step of bile acid
synthesis in liver involves the Cholesterol 7- alpha-hydroxylase
hypercholesterolemia. The activity of this pathway is reduced in V
C deficient animals and is associated with elevated plasma
cholesterol con. This leads to hypercholesterolemia.
Slide 32
3. Vitamin A and Fat Retinoids Cartenoids chylomicrons lymph
blood stream liver tissues Retinoids and Cartenoids are
incorporated into micelles along with other lipids for passive
absorption into mucosal cells of small intestines. These then are
incorporated chylomicrons for transport lymph and eventually blood
stream which then finally pass to liver and tissues. The absorption
of alpha,beta, gamma,carotene (provitamin A ) requires fat. In the
absence of fat in diet, they are not absorbed. vitamin A beta
carotene Rancid fats destroy the vitamin A and beta carotene
present in the diet.
Slide 33
2.V- D and Cholesterol 2 sterols. 7-dehydrocholesterol
ergosterolprecursor of V- D 2 sterols one in lipids of animals i.e.
7-dehydrocholesterol and one in plants i.e ergosterol- serve as
precursor of V- D 7-dehydrocholesterol cholecalciferol(vitamin-D3).
And 7-dehydrocholesterol under UV rays cholecalciferol(vitamin-D3).
ErgosterolErgocalciferol(Vitamin D2) Ergosterol
Ergocalciferol(Vitamin D2) Then these D2 and D3 require further
metabolism to yield metabolically active form of 1,25 dehydroxy
vitamin D or cacitriol. Dietary vitamin D is incorporated into
other lipids into micells and absorbed with lipids in intestine.
Inside absorptive cells, vitamin is incorporated into chylomicrons,
enters lymphatic system and subsequently enters plasma,where it
delivered to cells.
Slide 34
4. Vitamin E and Fat Tocopherols act as antioxidant i.e. they
can prevent the oxidation of various other oxidized substances such
as fats and vitamin A. It is located in the lipid portion of cell
membranes it protects unsaturated phospholipids of the membrane
from oxidative degradation from highly reactive oxygen species and
other free radicals.Vitamin E perform this function through its
ability to reduce such radicls into harmless metabolites by
donating a hydrogen to them. This process is called free radicals
scavenging
Slide 35
Slide 36
SOD(superoxide dismutases), glutathione peroxidases(GPxs), GR (
glutathione reductase, catalase and GSHxs, and TR depend on on
slenium status As a membrane free radicals scavenger, V E is an
important component of the cellular antioxidant defence system
which involves other enzymes such as SOD(superoxide dismutases),
glutathione peroxidases(GPxs), GR ( glutathione reductase, catalase
and also non enzyme factors many of which depends on other
essential nutrients. For eg GSHxs, and TR depend on on slenium
status etc. So, the antioxidant function of vitamin E can be
affected by the levels of many other nutrients. Fatty acids with 2
or more double bonds i.e. polyunsaturated fatty acids are abundant
in cell membrane and have important infulence on membrane fluidity
and function. However, their double bonds make them susceptible to
oxidation by free radicals. most V E in body is found in cell
membrane where it functions to protect polyunsaturated fatty acids
from free radical attack Fortunately, most V E in body is found in
cell membrane where it functions to protect polyunsaturated fatty
acids from free radical attack.V- E stabilizes free radicals and
prevent it from reacting with adjacent polyunsaturated
Slide 37
fatty acids. Also plasma lipoproteins, like cell membrane,
contain an abundance of lipid including proportions of
polyunsaturated fatty acids. They also contain fat soluble V- E
which plays an essential role in protecting lipoproteins from
oxidative damage. This is particularly important in low density
lipoproteins (LDL) because lipid peroxides can oxidize
apolipoprotein B resulting in formation of oxidatively modified
LDL. apolipoprotein BLDL apolipoprotein B LDL artherosclerotic
plaques This oxidized LDL accumulates in walls of arteries at
greater rate than normal LDL which is non oxidised, thus
accelerating development of artherosclerotic plaques.
Slide 38
Morover, V E is absorbed in manner similar to most other
dietary lipids and requires fat digestion to be functioning
normally. The presence of fat in small intestine enhances V E
absorption because the products of triglyceride breakdown into gut
promote the formation of mixed micells, the vehicle from which V E
is absorbed into the mucosal cell lining of the small intestine.
chylomicrons which will decrease V E absorption Lack of the bile
acids or fat digestive enzymes damage to gastrointestinal wall or
inability to synthesize chylomicrons which will decrease V E
absorption. Disease in which V E absorption is reduced includes
pancreatic diseases and sometime other genetic inability to make
chylomicrons.
Slide 39
5. Vitamin K and Fat Like other fat soluble vitamin absorption
of V - K is also depends upon on minimum amount of dietary fat and
on bile salts and pancreatic juices. The absorbed V K is
incorporated to chylomicrons in lymph and taken to liver, where are
incorporated VLDL and subsequently delivered to to peripheral
tissues by LDL. V- K Chylomicrons(lymph --- liver ) VLDL Tissues
(LDL) VLDL Tissues (LDL) 6. Fat and Choline Choline is a methyl
rich essential component of animal tissues, where it is a
structural unit of lecithin (i.e. phosphatidylcholine or
phospholipids containing choline which is a part of bile where it
emulsifies fats and is a part of lipoprotein also) and
neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Thus choline is widely distributed
in fats, existing predominantly in form of lecithin in eggs, liver,
soyabeans, beef, milk and peanuts. Choline has several
functions:
Slide 40
1. As phosphatidycholine, it is a structural element of
membrane. 2. A precursor to spingolipids ( lipids esters attached
to spingosine base rather than glycerol and present in nervous
system of animals and membrane of plants and lower eukaryotes such
as yeast) 3. A promoter to lipid transport 4. As acetylcholine, it
is a neurotransmitter. 5. It functions as emulsifier in bile, thues
helping with absorption of fat i.e. lipotropic factor and prevents
accumulation of fat in liver i.e. it prevents fatty liver.