Nuclear Technology Review 2005

8/7/2019 Nuclear Technology Review 2005

1/46

N U C L E A R

T E C H N O L O G YR E V I E W2 0 0 5 U P D A T E


2/46


3/46

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REV2005 UPDATE


4/46

The following States are Members of the International Atomi

AFGHANISTANALBANIAALGERIAANGOLAARGENTINAARMENIAAUSTRALIAAUSTRIA

AZERBAIJANBANGLADESHBELARUSBELGIUMBENINBOLIVIABOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINABOTSWANA

BRAZILBULGARIABURKINA FASOCAMEROONCANADACENTRAL AFRICAN

REPUBLICCHILE

CHINACOLOMBIACOSTA RICACTE DIVOIRECROATIACUBACYPRUSCZECH REPUBLIC

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLICOF THE CONGODENMARKDOMINICAN REPUBLICECUADOREGYPTEL SALVADOR

GREECEGUATEMALAHAITIHOLY SEEHONDURASHUNGARYICELANDINDIA

INDONESIAIRAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OFIRAQIRELANDISRAELITALYJAMAICAJAPAN

JORDANKAZAKHSTANKENYAKOREA, REPUBLIC OFKUWAITKYRGYZSTANLATVIALEBANON

LIBERIALIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYALIECHTENSTEINLITHUANIALUXEMBOURGMADAGASCARMALAYSIAMALI

MALTAMARSHALL ISLANDSMAURITANIAMAURITIUSMEXICOMONACOMONGOLIA

PAKPANPARPERPHIPOLPORQAT

REPROMRUSSAUSENSERSEYSIER

SINGSLOSLOSOUSPASRI SUDSWE

SWISYRTAJTHATHE

RETUNTUR

UGAUKRUNIUNI

GRNO

UNI


5/46

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY2005 Update


6/46

COPYRIGHT NOTICE

All IAEA scientific and technical publications are pof the Universal Copyright Convention as adopted in revised in 1972 (Paris). The copyright has since been exIntellectual Property Organization (Geneva) to include intellectual property. Permission to use whole or parts

IAEA publications in printed or electronic form mususually subject to royalty agreements. Proposals reproductions and translations are welcomed and willcase by case basis. Enquiries should be addressed by emSection, IAEA, at [email protected] or by post

Sales and Promotion Unit, Publishing SectionInternational Atomic Energy AgencyWagramer Strasse 5P.O. Box 100A-1400 ViennaAustriafax: +43 1 2600 29302tel.: +43 1 2600 22417http://www.iaea.org/books

IAEA, 2005

Printed by the IAEA in AustriaAugust 2005


7/46


8/46

F.1.3. Disequilibria in natural radionuclides t

sinks in the ocean interior . . . . . . . . . .F.2. Terrestrial Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

F.2.1. Radioecological studies . . . . . . . . . . . .

G. RESEARCH REACTOR UTILIZATION . . . . . .

H. ACCELERATOR UTILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . .

I. INDUSTRIAL PROCESS MONITORING . . . . .

I.1. Radiation Processing - Nanotechnology . . . . .


9/46

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The year 2004 marked the 50th anniversary of cigeneration. While the current outlook for nuclear energyis clearly a sense of rising expectations. Both the OECD Agency and the IAEA adjusted their medium-term prpower upwards. The IAEA now projects 423592 GW

installed worldwide in 2030, compared to 366 GW(e) at thdriven by nuclear powers performance record, by graround the world coupled with rising oil and naturaenvironmental constraints including entry-into-force of thconcerns about energy supply security in a number ambitious expansion plans in several key countries.

Asia accounted for 18 of the 26 reactors under consthe year, and for 20 of the last 30 reactors to have been cExcavation work began for Olkiluoto-3 in Finland, whichconstruction in Western Europe since 1991, and Electricitsite at Flamanville for a demonstration European PWexpected to begin in 2007. The US Nuclear Regulatory C

11 more licence extensions of 20 years each (for a total licfor each plant). As part of the countrys Nuclear Power US Department of Energy is sharing costs with twpreparing applications to test a new streamlined licensing

Nuclear powers share of global electricity generatioindicating nuclear generation continued for the eighteegrow at the same pace as overall global electricity use.plants connected to the grid, five, exactly balanced although the additions totaled 4785 MW(e) and the retireAdditionally, one laid-up plant was reconnected to However, there were only two new construction sta


10/46

long term enclosure. A new category of radioactive wa

waste (VLLW) has been introduced in some coradioactivity decommissioning waste that requires less straditional low level waste and thus has a much lower direpository opened at Morvilliers, in France, in 2003 rin 2004.

Progress on disposal facilities for high level waste

Finland, Sweden and the USA. In Finland, construction underground characterization facility for the final repDetailed geological investigations, which began in Swcandidate sites, are proceeding rapidly together with pubpreparatory work in the USA for a licence application is

National research on advanced reactor designs con

categories water cooled, gas cooled, liquid metal cooleFive members of the US-initiated Generation IV Internsigned a framework agreement on international collabordevelopment on Generation IV nuclear energy systems iIAEAs International Project on Innovative Nuclear Rea(INPRO) grew to 23 members. It completed a series of c

assessment methodology and the final report on tmethodology was published in December.The realization of the International Thermon

Reactor, ITER, came closer with the announcement onITER parties China, the European Union, Japan, the RRussian Federation and the USA that it will be sited atThe aim of ITER is to demonstrate the scientific and techfusion energy by constructing a functional fusion poexpected to take about 8 years to build and will then 20 years. It will be the first device in the world wherefusion reaction will generate at least five times more pow


11/46

and water irrigation systems, including, for example, in

influence of water irrigation scheduling on fertiliser use beneficial for the provision of both food and waterbreeding for the identification of improved varieties of crefficient and adaptable to growth in harsh environmincreasing the efficiency of use of scant water resoumanagement also shows a growing focus on managem

aquifers, using isotopic tools for defining water movemdetermining sources of pollution.In human health, short-lived radionuclides are assist

metabolic processes. One of the fastest growing techniquetomography (PET), using ultra short-lived radioisotopes markers, which when fused with X-ray computed imag

more powerful tool for health monitoring and diagnosesevolving in radiotherapy with the introduction of imagetechniques, which have the capability to track and maifollowing changes in tumour and patient position.

In the marine environment, new insights into climatfrom research using isotopic studies into the El Nio

phenomenon. Increasing recognition is given to the ocecarbon dioxide, and thus to their influence on the clthorium-234, naturally derived from uranium-238 in seoceanographers to better understand the oceans Understanding of the radioecology of the terrestrial enviassisted through nuclear instrumentation, for example thin remote sensing using airborne gamma ray surveys.

Research reactors and accelerators continue to finreactor produced radioisotopes are in extensive use in mand neutron beams from research reactors are providinga variety of applications that make use of neutron scatte


12/46

A. ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR D

Atomic and nuclear data continue to provide the fplanning and designing reactors, for plant operations anwell as for facilitating decommissioning activities Significant technological developments include both

database customer services and the preparation of bettephysics databases. The links with other major data netwoUnited States National Nuclear Data Center (NNDC) anAgency (NEA), remain extremely fruitful. The printernational needs for easy, reliable, platform-independnuclear data is increasing, especially encouraged by the

Internet and information technology tools.Significant benefits were judged to result from nuclear databases and services to other communicationeffort undertaken in conjunction with the NNDC led to extensive first stage in mid-2004. Modern software and hhave been tested and installed to enable new a

modernization approaches, and have resulted in the dplatform nuclear data systems with a higher level of accesfor end users. Further improvements have been identifiedimplementation in 2005.

Continuing advances in the compilation and evalmolecular data support not only the InternatioExperimental Reactor (ITER) project, but also other respursuits for inertial fusion confinement. The scope for clreview of the data needs for supporting nuclear fusion reemphasis.

Medical applications of radiation are growing, and r


13/46

B. POWER APPLICATION

B.1. Nuclear Power Today1

Worldwide there were 440 nuclear power plants (Nend of 2004. Over the course of the year, nuclear power

worlds electricity. This percentage has been roughlindicating that nuclear power has grown at the sameelectricity for 18 years.

The global energy availability factor for NPPs clim83% in 2004, up from 81% in 2003. For comparisoavailability factor for NPPs was 76% a decade earlier, in

Table B-1 summarizes the status of nuclear power a31 December 2004.Five new NPPs were connected to the grid in 2004

one each in China, Japan and the Russian Federation), was reconnected in Canada. This compares to two new gin Canada, two reconnections) in 2003 and six new grid c

There were five NPP retirements in 2004 four 5United Kingdom and the 1185 MW(e) Ignalina-1 reactcompares to six retirements in 2003 and four in 2002.

Using the IAEAs definition that construction pouring of concrete, construction began on two NP500 MW(e) prototype fast breeder reactor and Japans PWR. In addition, active construction resumed on two Federation, Kalinin-4 and Balakovo-5, whose previous cconstruction suspended. Also site preparation began1600 MW(e) Olkiluoto-3 plant. There had been one conand seven in 2002.


14/46rsinOperationandUnderCon

structionintheWorld(asof31Dece

mber2004)a

Reactorsin

Operation

Reactorsunder

Construction

NuclearElectricity

Suppliedin200

4

TotalOperating

Experience

Noo

f

Units

Total

MW(e)

Noof

Units

Total

MW(e)

TWh

%of

Total

Years

Mon

ths

2

935

1

692

7.3

8

.2

52

7

1

376

2.2

38

.8

37

3

7

5801

44.9

55

.1

198

7

2

1901

11.5

3

.0

27

2

4

2722

15.6

41

.6

133

2

17

12113

85.3

15

.0

509

7

9

6602

2

2000

47.8

2

.2

47

1

1

6

3548

26.3

31

.2

80

1

0

4

2656

21.8

26

.6

103

4

59

63363

426.8

78

.1

1405

2

18

20679

158.4

31

.8

666

0

4

1755

11.2

33

.8

78

2

14

2550

9

4092

150

2

8

237

5


15/46

2

425

1.9

2

.4

37

1

0

1

655

1

655

5.1

10

.1

8

6

31

21743

4

3775

133.0

15

.6

791

5

6

2442

15.6

55

.2

106

6

1

656

5.2

38

.9

23

3

2

1800

14.3

6

.6

40

3

9

7585

60.9

22

.9

228

2

11

9469

75.0

51

.8

322

1

5

3220

25.4

40

.0

148

1

0

15

13107

2

1900

81.1

51

.1

293

6

23

11852

73.7

19

.4

1354

8

104

99210

788.6

20

.0

2975

8

rsinOperationandUnderCon

structionintheWorld(asof31Dece

mber2004)a (cont.)

Reactorsin

Operation

Reactorsunder

Construction

NuclearElectricity

Suppliedin200

4

TotalOperati

ng

Experience

Noo

f

Units

Total

MW(e)

Noof

Units

Total

MW(e)

TWh

%of

Total

Years

Mon

ths


16/46

Korea, Japan or India. Twenty of the last 30 reactors to ha

the grid were in the Far East and South Asia.Within Asia, capacity is greatest in Japan, with 54 and three under construction. By the end of 2004, TEPservice 16 of the 17 reactors shut down in 2002. This booshare of Japanese electricity to 29.3% in 2004 as shown ithe 2003 value of 25%, but still below the 34% share enjo

In the Republic of Korea, with 19 reactors in opeconstruction, 38% of total electricity came from nuclear pElsewhere in Asia, nuclear powers absolute and

are smaller, but China and India in particular plan signifiwith 14 operating reactors at the end of 2004, got 2.8% nuclear power. However, nine more reactors were

including the 500 MW(e) prototype fast breeder reacKalpakkam, and Indias current goal is to supply 25% nuclear power by 2050.

China, with nine operating reactors at the end construction and 2.2% of its electricity from nuclear pow32-40 GW(e) by 2020 for 4-5% of the electricity supply. Council formally approved at least 7 GW(e) of new already under construction.

With the connection of Kalinin-3 to the grid in Deresumption of active construction on Kalinin-4 and BalFederation had 31 reactors in operation at the end of under construction. Ukraine, with the connections oRovno-4 to the grid, had 15 reactors in operation and 2 unonly other current construction in Eastern Europe is CernAs mentioned above, Ignalina-1 in Lithuania was retired

Western Europe had 137 NPPs operating at the en148 in 2001 due mainly to the retirement in the UK of te


17/46

In the United States of America, the Nuclear Re

(NRC) approved eleven more licence extensions of 20 ylicensed life of 60 years for each NPP), bringing the totallicence extensions to 30 by the end of the year. Approxiof the USAs 104 NPPs have either received, appliedintention to apply for such licence extensions. The US D(DOE) approved financial assistance to two industry

power plant licensing demonstration projects taking advnew Combined License (COL). Such assistance is part oPower 2010 programme to deploy new nuclear capacity b

In Canada, near-term expansion of nuclear generatof restarting some or all of the 8 nuclear units (out of a that have been shut in recent years. The first two such

2003. A third, at Bruce A-3, took place in 2004, and tprovince of Ontario have approved Ontario Power GenePickering A-1.

In Latin America there are two operating plants iBrazil and Mexico, and one under construction in Argent

There are two operating plants in South Africa.

B.2. The Future

B.2.1. Updated medium-term projections3

Each year the IAEA publishes updated mediumprojections. The 2004 updates are shown in Figure B-1, areference scenario from the OECD International EnerWorld Energy Outlook 2004. In the figure, the left barIAEAs low projection, which assumes that no new nucbuilt beyond what is under construction or firmly pla


18/46

beyond those already firmly in the pipeline. The bars for t

labelled with the suffix H and also show the breakdownFor comparison, the bar on the right in each triplreference scenario of the IEAs World Energy Outloreference scenario, which is updated every other year,frequently cited reference point in international delipolicies and markets. It is built on essentially the same a

low projection. The largest share of the quantitative diftwo in Figure B-1 comes from lower IEA projections for The IAEAs low projection projects nuclear ge

3379 TWh, a 34% increase in nuclear production relativethe IAEAs low projections have been revised upwards eThe 3378 TWh shown in Figure B-1 for 2020 is 60% high

that the IAEA was projecting in 2000. (The IAEA prolooked ahead as far as 2020.)The IAEAs high projection shows an 86% increase

production between 2003 and 2030. There has been leconsistent pattern of change, in the high projections fromtogether the evolution of the projections makes sense foreasonably good prospects, but is not growing dramreasonable medium-term projects at the high end is fairly

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

Wh


19/46

more and more of them get promoted from promisin

projects in the pipeline.Figure B-1 shows significant differences among dworld. As noted earlier, expansion is centred in the Far Egreatest in all projections. There is significant expansionboth the IAEAs high and low projections but very moAmerica. In Western Europe there is a contraction in

NPP retirements outpace new construction, but a signifihigh projection. Growth rates are high in the Middle Eaboth IAEA projections, although the region starts from a

Although Figure B-1 does not show the regional brreference scenario, which uses slightly different regions the underlying pattern is largely the same as in the IAE

expansion in the Far East and South Asia, contraction instability in North America.

B.2.2. Sustainable development and climate change4

In the longer term, the future of nuclear power wilhow well it helps meet growing global energy needs and rburdens associated with energy use. With respect to gneeds, there were no major international deliberations in for sustainable development. The UN CommissiDevelopment will next take up energy in its fourteenth an2006 and 2007.

With respect to environmental protection, the majoin 2004 came in November with ratification by the RussKyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework CoChange. As a result, Annex I countries5 ratifying theaccounted for more than 55% of 1990 Annex I carbon d


20/46

period, 20082012, and different countries have adopted

meet their Kyoto Protocol limits. Not all these policies bdespite its very low greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions carbon per kilowatt-hour for the full nuclear fuel chain, aand solar power. But in the longer run, the expectation isa carbon constrained economy should make nucleaattractive. In the past its advantage of minimal GHG

invisible to investors, as the lack of restrictions or taxemeant there was no economic value to their avoidance. Tcurrently the only operative route toward widespread, coon GHG emissions and thus an important step towardeconomic value to nuclear powers avoidance of GHG em

B.2.3. Current issues

Economics

Well run existing NPPs continue to be a generally csource of electricity, as evidenced by the continued pacein the USA and elsewhere, although licence extensions generally for shorter periods and more frequent, or takextensions.

For new construction, the competitiveness of nucleamong other things, the costs of alternatives with whichperspectives of investors, and the energy and electricity moperate. As presented in Table B-2, recent estimates of th

power plants and their principal competitors show rangetechnologies, national resource situations and inTable B-2s range spans two recently reported estimaexperience. Atomic Energy of Canada Limited has es


21/46

carbon dioxide emissions effective 1 January 2005, an

plans (NAPs) to set initial emission allowances for installain the course of 2004. By the end of the year, the Europehad completed assessments of 21 NAPs. It unconditionalNAPs, conditionally approved 3 more, and partially rejec

Safety6

The international exchange of NPP operating particular, the broad dissemination of lessons learned maintaining and strengthening the safe operation of nCollecting, sharing and analyzing operating experiencmanagement elements, and there is clear empirical evidenNPP operating experience has led, and continues to leadplant safety. Regular meetings of the IAEA/NEA JoinSystem are one part of this global exchange process, wherbe discussed and analysed in detail.

Because of such information exchange and analysis,the nuclear industrys overall safety record continuesAssociation of Nuclear Operators statistics for 2003 showunplanned automatic scrams at about one third the level a1990s, and a continuing decrease in the already low indus

More detailed safety information and recent develonuclear applications are presented in the IAEAs annual N

Decommissioning, spent fuel and waste7

For decommissioning, the trend towards imcontinues. In the USA one reason is to make use of avasites while they are still open and before costs increase. N


22/46

matesfromrecentstudies

Universityof

Chicagob

RoyalAcademy

ofEngineeringc

DGEMP

Franced

METI

Japane

CE

RI

Can

adaf

NEA/IE

Ag

eurocents/

kWh

eurocents/

kWh

eurocents/

kWh

eurocents/

kWh

eurocents/

kWh

eurocents

/

kWh

3.2-5.5

3.3

2.8

3.8

3.4-5.8

1.6-5.3

2.6-3.2

3.6-5.0

3.2-3.4

4.1

3.1-3.8

1.2-5.3

2.7-3.5

3.1-4.0

3.5

4.5

4.7-4.9

2.9-5.0

7.8

3.1-18.8

9.7

5.3-7.7

2.4-11.2

7.9-10.3

4.0-9.5

9.4

9.4-145.4

euros/

kW(e)

euros/

kW(e)

euros/

kW(e)

euros/

kW(e)

euros/

kW

(e)

euros/

kW(e)


23/46

euros/

kW(e)

euros/

kW(e)

euros/

kW(e)

euros/

kW(e)

euros/

kW

(e)

euros/

kW(e)

2628

1057

756-12

66

1314

1269-20

32

1999

2606-78

77

nology,TheFutureofNuclearPow

er,TheMassachusettsInstituteofTechn

ology,Cambridge,M

assa-

nomicFutureofNuclearPower,TheUniversityofChicago,Chicago,Illinois,USA(2004)

g,TheCostofGeneratingElectricity,London,UK(2004

)

dRawMaterials(DGEMP),Fren

chMinistryoftheE

conomy,FinanceandIndustry,Paris,F

rance

dustry,Tokyo,Japan(2004)

MelanieStogran,LevelisedUnitElectricityCostComparisonofAlternateT

echnologiesforBas

eload

matesfromrecentstudies(cont

.)

Universityof

Chicagob

RoyalAcademy

ofEngineeringc

DGEMP

Franced

METI

Japane

CE

RI

Canadaf

NEA/IE

Ag


24/46

of the process include Yankee Rowe and Maine

decommissioning 90% complete at the end of 2004 and planned for 2005), Big Rock Point (85% complete and unplanned for 2005), Trojan (95% complete and licence ter2005) and Connecticut Yankee (unrestricted releaseExceptions to the immediate dismantling strategy inclusites where dismantling is planned once all units have rea

operating lifetimes.Even where strategies are similar, reasons are oftenNPP situations. In Germany, for example, where immedappears to be the preferred approach, the large scale improject at the Greifswald site in eastern Germany (five operation, one nearing operation and two under facilitated the retention of key staff and the re-employoperational staff.

An important recent development is the introductiof radioactive waste in some countries very low levVLLW repository opened at Morvilliers, France in 20operation in 2004. Spain is also considering a VLLW recategory is intended to accommodate most decommdisposal cost much lower than that of traditional low leve

With respect to spent fuel, inventories continue to gfuel has been safely stored for decades at reactors and intewith some modest expansion in storage, these on-site andprovide needed storage for many years.

For high level waste, the most progress on dispos

made in Finland, Sweden and the USA. In Finland const2004 on the underground laboratory at Olkiluoto tcharacterize the local geology and may later be incorprepository. Construction of the repository should start in


25/46

The 2002 Canadian Nuclear Fuel Waste Act se

deadline for Canadas Nuclear Waste Management Orgarecommend an approach to managing used nuclear fuNWMO published draft recommendations for comment an adaptive phased approach with three phases. First woof spent fuel at reactors for approximately 30 years. Durincentralized repository would be chosen and an un

laboratory would be built. The second phase would also years. Depending on societal direction, used fuel cocentral site for interim storage during this phase. In pwould be placed in the repository. Future generations wthree whether and when to close the repository, and whamonitoring would be required.

Nuclear technology and the non-proliferation of nuclear

Several developments in 2003 and 2004 heigawareness of the risk of nuclear weapons proliferationsensitive parts of the nuclear fuel cycle. A number of reundeclared activities for uranium enrichment and reprocewell as the discovery of the existence of an internatiosensitive nuclear technologies underlined the need for imthese parts of the nuclear fuel cycle. In response, a serbeen developed, including those by the Director Gedesigned to enhance the nuclear non-proliferation regimrelating to strengthened safeguards, improved physical

material and facilities as well as bolstering the current syscontrols. In addition, work has continued in the framewoGeneration IV initiative with respect to the devproliferation resistant nuclear power technologies.


26/46

B.2.4. Resources9

In 2004 the dramatic uranium dollar price increas

continued, as shown in Figure B-2. Contributing factordisruptions in several uranium mines, a weakened dollarinventories and secondary supplies. The spot price mid-compared to $40/kg at the beginning of 2004. In the m

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

serutidnepx

enoitarolpxE

)$SUfo

snoillim(

Exploration expenditures Uranium spo

FIG. B-2. Uranium market price and exploration expend


27/46

somewhat from the 37 020 tU produced in 2001. In 2002

about 54% of world reactor requirements (66 815 tU)being met by secondary sources including civilian anuranium reprocessing and re-enrichment of depleted ura

The uranium production decline since the earlexclusively to low prices. More stringent regulation and ienvironmental concerns have also contributed. Lead tim

production, for example, in Canada in the 1940s and 195years. In the 1960s and 1970s, 1116 years was the norBook notes that lead times of the order of 1020 years havmany countries since the 1980s.

Historically price hikes have usually been followed exploration a year or so later, as shown in Figure B-2. Indtrends will continue, and the exploration expenditures higher in 2004, when all the data are in.

B.2.5. Advanced fission and fusion10

In response to the challenges currently facing nuclein Section B.2.3, many countries are working to improve waste management and proliferation resistance of advansystems. For advanced NPP designs, efforts are focussimpler to operate, inspect, maintain and repair. In the NPPs are likely to be evolutionary designs building on incorporating technological advances and often economlonger term, the focus is on innovative designs, severa

small-to-medium range (up to 700 MW(e)). These envisfactory-built components, including complete modular installation, creating possible economies of series preconomies of scale. Some are being designed for oper


28/46

applications. Such advances should increase their attr

developing countries and some industrialized countries.Important design efforts on large evolutionary (LWRs) are underway in China, France, Germany, JaKorea, the Russian Federation and the USA. The mainmedium-size evolutionary LWR designs are being maJapan, the Russian Federation and the USA. Innovati

those that incorporate radical conceptual changes in dsystem configuration) are being developed in Argentinaof Korea, the Russian Federation and the USA.

Both Canada and India are working on advanceddesigns, and advanced gas cooled reactor designs are beinFrance, Germany, Japan, the Russian Federation, South AUSA. For liquid metal cooled fast reactors, develounderway in China, France, India, Japan, the RepublRussian Federation. Development activities for lead allmetal cooled fast reactor systems and for gas (helium) cobeing conducted within the Generation IV Internationalthe Russian Federation. Research on fast neutron spec(e.g. accelerator driven systems) is underway in India, th

Japan, the Russian Federation, the USA and eight EU coComplementing the many initiatives above are tw

efforts to promote innovation GIF and the IAEAs InInnovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO).Argentina, Brazil, Canada, France, Japan, the Republic oSwitzerland, the UK, the USA and Euratom. GIF has rev

innovative concepts and, in 2002, selected six types ofuture bilateral and multilateral cooperation: gas cooled fliquid metal cooled reactors, molten salt reactors, sodiumreactors, supercritical water cooled reactors and very h


29/46

(INSs) by Member States using the updated INPRO m

and model INS deployment scenarios taking into accountby Member States, and to identify possible frameworksoptions for collaborative R&D for INS development whicduring the next phase.

Much of the current experimental and theoreticalfusion is focused on the International Thermonuclear E(ITER). ITERs engineering design activities stage hasthe realization of ITER came closer with the announcemethe ITER parties China, the European Union, Japan, tthe Russian Federation and the USA that it will be France. The aim of ITER is to demonstrate the scientifeasibility of fusion energy by constructing a functionaITER would take about 8 years to build and will then 20 years. It will be the first device in the world wherefusion reaction will generate at least five times more powITER will open new horizons for nuclear science and tapplications, with expected spin-offs in many other areas

Research also continues on other magnetic confineminertial confinement is being developed intensively by na

France and the USA. The National Ignition Facility in thecompletion in 2008. Information on IAEA sponsoredfusion and other topics can be found athttp://www-crp.iCoordinated Research Activities: Annual Report and Stati

C. NUCLEAR TECHNIQUES IN AND AGRICULTURE


30/46

conservation issues at the wider ecosystem, watershed

rather than simply at the plot and field level; yet anothcrops that are efficient at utilizing water and soil nutrieadapted to harsh environments (e.g. drought, salinity or wide range of nuclear techniques are currently being unsustainable practices and identify management practicecosystem scales. These include phosphorus-32 and tracers, variations in natural abundance of stable isotopeoxygen-18 and nitrogen-15) in soil, plants and water, and(caesium-137, lead-210 and beryllium-7). In response toabout water quantity and quality, new initiatives are beingbased on recent advances in the use of multiple stable oxygen-18, carbon-13 and nitrogen-15) to assess water-usof cropping and water irrigation systems. These will inclinfluence of water irrigation scheduling on fertiliser-use ere-use of agricultural wastewaters as a source of water aproductivity, and the relative importance of different souragricultural land in water runoff. The above-mentioned ithe use of non-isotopic tracers and soil moisture neutron pinformation that helps to develop farm management too

use efficiency and sustainable farming systems in both rland through a better understanding of soilplantwater r

C.2. Crop Improvement

Mutation induction coupled to selection remains

inexpensive way to create varieties by changing single ctouching the general phenotype. Controversies focushazards and risks of spreading and consuming genetiorganisms are causing many countries to debate whether


31/46

also for industrial, cash and food crops. This is well docum

of queries to the public FAO/IAEA Mutant Varieties Dthe FAO/IAEA Mutant Germplasm Repository (MGR) dabout the protocols used to induce mutations in differeincreasingly privileged (trade secret), and less informatorigin of varieties is publicly available (see Fig. C-1).

Predicting what may be available or important in thconsequences is difficult, but recent developments especially in understanding the structure and function confirms mutation induction as one of the most efficietools for functional genomics projects dealing with revealing gene function. The need to organize extended mthe investigation of basic developmental, biochemicmechanisms is voiced more and more urgently, culminatinof mutation grids (collections of fully characterized aarrayed for high throughput analyses) for functiothroughput technologies and functional genomic methonew angles to look at fundamental and applied aspects ofbe from the static view of genome fingerprinting to transcriptome (all the expressed genes) profiling. Nu

increasingly fostering the development of this paradigm sbasic and necessary mutant resources.

2000

2500

2000

2500 2322 Officially released v

2000

2500

2000

2500 2,322 officially releasedmutant varieties

Numbers of


32/46

C.3. Crop Protection

The interest of commercial companies in the massinsects for the integrated application of the sterile insespecially to combat fruit fly pests, and in particular the Mis increasing. The SIT was previously mainly used for thkey insect pests. This did not lead to a predictable and costerile insects. However, at least for Mediterranean fruiprogressed to where it is a cost-effective technology. approach is shifting to the routine suppression rather thapopulations, leading to a continuous demand for steriopening the door to the commercialization of the SIT fofruit fly.

This development raises a number of legal and intelissues related to the SIT technology in use and under devmostly governments were directly involved in the productsterile insects, sharing this technology freely, and henlargely absent. For example, one of the most important the introduction of genetic sexing strains (GSS), such as temperature sensitive lethal strains, into SIT programm

strains are now used in all countries where medfly SIT pimplemented, and the conditions of transferring or licencompanies still need to be defined.

The use of sterile insects, instead of insecticides, to contributes to the survival and effectiveness of the biologcontrol secondary pest problems, and thus impacts posi

for these agents. Alone for the Mediterranean basin it potential demand for sterile Mediterranean fruit flies abillion sterile males per week, close to the total numproduced worldwide. In this region, mass-rearing


33/46

characters. Their deployment, however, even as ste

considerable further risk-assessment and a regulatory frnot foreseeable in the near future.

C.4. Improving Livestock Productivity and Health

The main efforts in livestock research involve the genetic methods to understand and manipulate geincreasing use of non-radioactive methods, radioisotopesused in these efforts.

The potential for using nuclear technologies to thedeveloping countries is highlighted in the recent proceIAEA International Symposium on Applications of Genfor Improving Animal Production and Health in Develhttp://www.iaea.org/programmes/nafa/d3/mtc/final-report

C.5. Food Safety and Safety of Plant and Animal Produ

Irradiation and other nuclear techniques are incrprivate sector to ensure food safety and to minimiz

chemical, biological and physical hazards and to facinternational trade. This growing demand relates to insystems for the production, processing and hygienic contrproducts and includes the management of environmenvisioned that governments will increasingly focus onsafety hazards at their origin in the production of product

to their constituents, including fresh fruits and vegetaproducts and dairy commodities. It is also anticipatedproven safety and wholesomeness of irradiated foodsperceptions and acceptance of food irradiation will co


34/46

D. HUMAN HEALTH

D.1. Nutrition

The use of isotopic technology is increasingly recognand accurate than conventional methods for develonutrition programmes. Isotope tracers are recommentechniques for the evaluation of mineral and vitamin ufrom fortified foods. Isotope dilution techniques can changes in body composition in cases of obesity, malnutrition or in patients suffering from HIV/AIDtechniques use either deuterium or oxygen-18.

Accurate information on energy requirements is valuable input for strategies on population healthcardoubly labelled water method with both deuterium and accepted standard technique used for the measurement ofrom which energy requirements of populations under dimay be calculated.

Assessment of body composition, which is importan

development, has also become more important. A promimeasurement of body composition is the Dual Energy X(DEXA) technique, which although first developed to mdensity, is now considered an accurate tool for determinifat distribution.

D.2. Nuclear Medicine

Studies using short-lived radionuclides with nuclearhelp clinicians to examine metabolic processes in p


35/46

glucose referred to as FDG (fluoro18deoxyglucose) or

and amino acid metabolism in organs can be studied. PEare then fused with X-ray computed tomography imageshealth changes in individual patients, which can hmanagement. Unlike single photon emission computed tthe most widely used in vivo imaging technique in nucleaneed time for implementation in developing countries becosts.

There are numerous radioisotopic in vitro procedurmolecular profiling applicable to clinical molecular bioloare becoming increasingly important in several clinconditions, from determining changes in cancer cells malaria parasites and tuberculosis.

In addition to the well established treatment of thyrcancer, the major development in the application therapeutics is the arrival of radiolabelled monoclradiolabelled peptides to treat diseases such as lymendocrine tumours. This will result in targeted therapeutito selected types of cancers and with significantly fewer with conventional chemotherapy. A variety of radioph

available for pain palliation in advanced cancer diseeffective improvement in quality of life of patients metastases and freeing them from the need for daily opiaother costly pharmaceutical support.

D.3. Radiotherapy

The major advance in the field of radiotherapy in rthe discovery through several high-quality clinical trialspharmaceutical agents to radiotherapy improves the pati


36/46

treatment more than five times per week (accelerate

improve the tumour control in some kinds of cancers increasing the toxicity. The IAEA is promoting research Advances in technology, such as intensity-mod

(IMRT), proton and heavy particle radiotherapy, andallows conformal treatment of a tumour and on-line imagmake it possible to increase the physical dose to the cancwithout increasing the dose to the healthy organs ouAlthough currently expensive, the costs of these technoby taking advantage of the improved physical dose distrthe treatment in fewer sessions (hypo-fractionation) thradiotherapy.

D.4. Dosimetry and Medical Radiation Physics

Quality assurance in radiation medicine helps ensurapplication. The introduction of new, complex treatmresulted in increased demand for accurate dosimetry. Evethe treatment increases, the basic need for accurate beamcrucial. The current worldwide trend in radiotherapy dos

implementation of dosimetry codes of practice based on cabsorbed dose to water, such as the IAEAs internatioAbsorbed Dose Determination in External Beam Rad

Reports Series No. 398). Although dosimetry in diagnoyet reached the same level of standardization as in radiothbe important in ensuring patient safety. The IAEA a

Commission on Radiation Units and Measurementsinternational dosimetry code of practice in this area.

The use of patient data in individualized tretherapeutic nuclear medicine is growing in importa


37/46

protecting normal tissue. IGRT takes into account changmotion, and changes in tumour size and position in thtreatment plan and monitors these changes during the coIt takes advantage of recent developments in imaging forMR-CT (magnetic resonance-computed tomography) im

image registration, as well as 4D CT and cone CT, whichthe modern treatment room. For the verification of thmultiple portal images are obtained using electronic po(EPIDs), which verify the patient position and map the d

Audits in radiotherapy constitute an importantadequate quality of the process both for traditional and n

current trend is to extend the audits dealing withcomprehensive reviews involving multidisciplinary auditime new audit methods for radiotherapy dosimetry arkeep pace with the recent progress in radiotherapy techn

FIG. D-1. Multimodality imaging (image fusion): Improved causing multimodality imaging fusion of PET (left) and CT (ce

hand picture shows the combined (fused) image, which provid

location of the tumour deposit barely visible in the CT image al

Dr. S. Fanti, Univ. of Bologna, Italy)


38/46

are increasingly used in efforts to manage groundwater sufor understanding certain aspects of the water cycle, sucwater, recharge rates, and water flows information nmanagement decisions.

Given the increased reliance on groundwater to resource needs, international organizations, includideveloping a World Groundwater Vision to be preseWater Forum in Mexico in 2006. This vision is intended tfor the effective management of groundwater, and will how to utilize appropriately science and technology, suchfor effective groundwater management.

There is a growing focus on the management of traA recent global water inventory identified over 400 such Global Environment Facility, the World Bank, t

Development Programme (UNDP), the United NProgramme (UNEP), the IAEA and others, recognizconflict over shared water resources, have begun sufacilitate effective joint management. Isotopic tools fopollution, defining the movement of water and age of wpollution sources are emerging as essential tools

groundwater management and the development of approgroundwater resources management.

F. MARINE AND TERRESTRIAL ENVI


39/46

particular toxins in shellfish will require the use of more sthe RBA.

Radiotracer techniques are also valuable to combatbased metal contaminants in the coastal environmenteffects and exposure pathways of metals from mining marine species can be achieved by using radiotracers suc57, manganese-54, cadmium-109, zinc-65 and silver-110mare also being assessed for their effectiveness as pollutifishing industries. Similarly, arsenic contaminants have bradioecology experimental facility at the Marine EnvironMonaco for their capacity to accumulate in local fisheriesarsenic-73. Future trends include the application technologies to marine organisms, and the use of experimdata on contaminants for risk-based assessments of th

fisheries and consumers.

F.1.2. Isotopic tracing of the El Nio Southern Oscillat

phenomenon

ENSOs impact on both the marine environment an

has been regarded as a most important environmental pthe climate of the Pacific region, as well as the whole Econsequences for fish populations and rainfall, includcyclones. New isotopic studies of the ENSO phenomenoan El Nio event sea-surface temperature increases anlarger evaporation losses and isotopic fractionation, re

hydrogen-2, carbon-13, carbon-14 and oxygen-18 isotoseawater. It has been recognized that corals archive isoannual growth bands and therefore may be used for the rocean temperature records, after the establishment of an


40/46

F.1.3. Disequilibria in natural radionuclides track carb

interior

Up to 50% of fossil fuel-derived CO2 in the atmosinto the interior of the ocean by physico-chemical dissoand by biological uptake and sedimentation of dead orgthis vertical carbon flux of particles to the seabed hascientists for many years until the recent discovery that thby natural uranium-238 in seawater) is scavenged sedimenting particles. Its half-life of 24 days serves as atrack the age and fate of sedimenting particles in the ocea234 technique, oceanographers have discovered a hundocean carbon sinks in different seas, which is strongly relaabundance of microscopic plants or phytoplankton. Th

pump of carbon is now recognized as crucial in regulatingocean will continue to absorb CO2 and other greenhouse the atmosphere.

F.2. Terrestrial Environment

F.2.1. Radioecological studies

Radioecological studies were originally develoinvestigations of the effects of nuclear weapons testinreactors and reprocessing operations or accidents. Recincreased interest from Member States in a variety

radiological impact, such as depleted uranium remoperations; mining and milling operations and naturally materials (NORMs). In addition, the use of nuclearapplication of derived models and parameters in eco-tox


41/46

exploration but recent improvements in spatial resolutionuse in environmental and other resource manag

FIG. F-1. Example of the use of GIS in support of an environ

system: 137Cs deposition map for Chile. Produced using contou

with data for rainfall and 137Cs ground measurements11.


42/46

G. RESEARCH REACTOR UTILIZ

Research reactors continue to engage interest in tesustained utilization and issues of safety and security. Ththe 2004 session of the General Conference concludedreactors will continue to play a crucial role in nuclear scieis important to ensure operational ability in terms of teresources, meeting the current standards of nuclear andand other aspects related to physical security, puenvironmental responsibility. The technical aspects that include the capability for safe spent fuel management refurbishment when required and the eventual ddecommissioning of the facility.

The replacement of high enriched uranium targ

uranium targets for large-scale production of molybdenuto identify areas requiring support and international coop

A variety of other radioisotopes (more than 150continue to be in extensive use in medicine and indsuitable for therapeutic applications and easily produciblsuch as 177Lu, are being intensively evaluated f

radiopharmaceuticals.Neutron beams from research reactors provide a

variety of applications that make use of neutron scattetechniques. The special advantage of neutrons is theelements (unlike X-rays which are sensitive to Consequently, superior resolution is achieved by neu

industrially important test materials, including for exampfuel elements. Advances in material characterization and neutron scattering aid in the development of novel mtechniques are already in use in some countries, the g


43/46

of smaller and more compact accelerators for applied scrather than for basic science is increasing. Recent technicnow made possible the operation of small acceleratorlaboratories for in-situ applications.

New accelerator-based spallation neutron sourconstruction in Japan and the USA will become the exploiting neutrons in science and technology. These faciaccelerator driven neutron sources based on high-energy

operating at energies over 1 GeV. Their advantages oversources are derived partly through the use of pulsed opeefficient, and a mode not available from reactor-based stheir pulsed operation can be combined with suitable inneutrons with up to three orders of magnitude more effic

The scope for applying accelerator-based nuclear t

material science studies, development of novel menvironmental studies is promising. There is also considuse of ion beam analysis and accelerator mass spectromcarbon-14 dating, drug research and environmental moni

I. INDUSTRIAL PROCESS MONIT

Computed tomography imaging technology is industrial multiphase process units. Multiphase reactor t

of petroleum refining, synthesis gas conversion to fuelscommodity chemicals production, manufacture of sppolymers, and conversion of undesired products into reprocess engineering, both gamma transmission an


44/46

I.1. Radiation Processing - Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is one of the fastest growing aengineering, and of considerable economic value. Thprecision structures with nanometric dimensions afundamental importance to the full utilization of the tecan effective tool in this regard, for example for surface moNew trends for precision treatment have emerged, for e

membranes and controlled release drug-delivery systetechnologies using X-rays, electron beams and ion beavariety of approaches to nanopatterning (the creation while electron beam aided lithography is gaining Radiation synthesis of metallic nanoparticles (e.g. coppeand zeolites is being studied for application in photolumin

and solar cells. The solution of metal salts is exposed toreactive species generated by the radiation reduce the mvalent state. Metal sulphide semiconductors of nanometusing gamma irradiation of a suitable solution of monomsources.


45/46

BLAN

K


46/46

www.iaea.org

International Atomic Energy Agency

P.O. Box 100, Wagramer Strasse 5A-1400 Vienna, Austria

Telephone: (+43-1) 2600-0

Fax : (+43-1) 26007

E-Mail: [email protected]

Documents

Nuclear Technology Review 2005