Nuclear Power

7/17/2019 Nuclear Power

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Nuclear power

NPCIL supplied 35 TWh of India's electricity in 2013-1 fro! 5"3 #We nuclear capacity$ %ith o&erall

capacity factor of 3( and a&aila)ility of (" *o!e 10 reactor-years of operation had )een achie&ed to

+ece!)er 201" India's fuel situation$ %ith shorta,e of fossil fuels$ is dri&in, the nuclear in&est!ent for

electricity$ and 25( nuclear contri)ution is the a!)ition for 2050$ %hen 10 #We of )ase-load capacity is

e.pected to )e re/uired" l!ost as !uch in&est!ent in the ,rid syste! as in po%er plants is necessary"

The tar,et since a)out 200 has )een for nuclear po%er to pro&ide 20 #We )y 2020$ )ut in 200 the Pri!einister referred to this as !odest and capa)le of )ein, dou)led %ith the openin, up of international

cooperation" 4o%e&er$ it is e&ident that e&en the 20 #We tar,et %ould re/uire su)stantial uraniu! i!ports"

In une 200 NPCIL said it ai!ed for 60 #We nuclear )y 2032$ includin, 0 #We of PW7 capacity and

#We of ne% P4W7 capacity$ all fuelled )y i!ported uraniu!" This 2032 tar,et %as reiterated late in 2010

and increased to 63 #We in 2011" 8ut in +ece!)er 2011 parlia!ent %as told that !ore realistic tar,ets

%ere 1$600 We )y 2020-21 and 2$500 We )y 2032$ relati&e to present 0 We and 10$00 We

%hen reactors under construction %ere on line in 201"9

9 :the ;II Plan <2012-1= proposals are )ein, finali>ed %hich en&isa,e start of %or? on ei,ht indi,enous 00

W Pressurised 4ea&y Water 7eactors @P4W7sA$ t%o 500 W Bast 8reeder 7eactors @B87sA$ one 300W d&anced 4ea&y Water 7eactor @4W7A and ei,ht Li,ht Water 7eactors of 1000 W or hi,her

capacity %ith forei,n technical cooperation" These nuclear po%er reactors are e.pected to )e co!pleted

pro,ressi&ely in the ;III and ;I Plans"D

The 16 P4W7* and LW7s are e.pected to cost E0 )illion" The ei,ht 00 We P4W7s %ould )e )uilt at

Fai,a in Farnata?a$ #ora?hpur in 4aryanaGs Bateha)ad +istrict$ 8ans%ada in 7aHasthan$ and Chut?a in

adhya Pradesh"

In uly 201 the ne% Pri!e inister ur,ed + to triple the nuclear capacity to 1 #We )y 202" 4e

praised :India's self-reliance in the nuclear fuel cycle and the co!!ercial success of the indi,enous

reactors"D 4e also e!phasi>ed the i!portance of !aintainin, the co!!ercial &ia)ility and co!petiti&enessof nuclear ener,y co!pared %ith other clean ener,y sources"

fter lia)ility le,islation started to deter forei,n reactor &endors$ early in 2102 the ,o&ern!ent said it

%anted to see coal production increase )y 150 tJyr @fro! 0 tJyrA to support 60 #We ne% coal-fired

capacity to )e )uilt )y 2015" This %ould in&ol&e 7s 56 )illion ne% in&est!ent in rail infrastructure"

Lon,er ter!$ the to!ic ner,y Co!!ission ho%e&er en&isa,es so!e 500 #We nuclear on line )y 2060$

and has since speculated that the a!ount !i,ht )e hi,her stillK 600-00 #We )y 2050$ pro&idin, half of all

electricity" nother proHection is for nuclear share to rise to ( )y 203"

ther ener,y infor!ation for IndiaK M* ner,y Infor!ation d!inistration nalysis 8rief on India

Indian nuclear power industry developmentNuclear po%er for ci&il use is %ell esta)lished in India" *ince )uildin, the t%o s!all )oilin, %ater reactors at

Tarapur in the 160s$ its ci&il nuclear strate,y has )een directed to%ards co!plete independence in the

nuclear fuel cycle$ necessary )ecause it is e.cluded fro! the 10 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty @NPTA

due to it ac/uirin, nuclear %eapons capa)ility after 10" @Those fi&e countries doin, so )efore 10 %ere

accorded the status of Nuclear Weapons *tates under the NPT"A

s a result$ India's nuclear po%er pro,ra! has proceeded lar,ely %ithout fuel or technolo,ical assistance

fro! other countries @)ut see later sectionA" The pressurised hea&y-%ater reactor @P4W7A desi,n %as

adopted in 16$ since it re/uired less natural uraniu! than the 8W7s$ needed no enrich!ent$ and could

)e )uilt %ith the countryGs en,ineerin, capacity at that ti!e pressure tu)es rather than a hea&y pressure&essel )ein, in&ol&ed" Its po%er reactors to the !id-10s had so!e of the %orld's lo%est capacity factors$

reflectin, the technical difficulties of the country's isolation$ )ut rose i!pressi&ely fro! 60( in 15 to 5(

in 2001-02" Then in 200-10 the load factors dropped due to shorta,e of uraniu! fuel"

http://www.eia.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=IN





India's nuclear ener,y self-sufficiency e.tended fro! uraniu! e.ploration and !inin, throu,h fuel

fa)rication$ hea&y %ater production$ reactor desi,n and construction$ to reprocessin, and %aste

!ana,e!ent" It has a s!all fast )reeder reactor and is )uildin, a !uch lar,er one" It is also de&elopin,

technolo,y to utilise its a)undant resources of thoriu! as a nuclear fuel"

The to!ic ner,y sta)lish!ent %as set up at Tro!)ay$ near u!)ai$ in 15 and rena!ed as 8ha)ha

to!ic 7esearch Centre @87CA ten years later" Plans for )uildin, the first Pressurised 4ea&y Water

7eactor @P4W7A %ere finalised in 16$ and this prototype 7aHasthan 1$ %hich had Canada's +ou,lasPoint reactor as a reference unit$ %as )uilt as a colla)orati&e &enture )et%een to!ic ner,y of Canada

Ltd @CLA and NPCIL" It started up in 12 and %as duplicated *u)se/uent indi,enous P4W7

de&elop!ent has )een )ased on these units$ thou,h se&eral sta,es of e&olution can )e identifiedK P4W7s

%ith dousin, and sin,le contain!ent at 7aHasthan 1-2$ P4W7s %ith suppression pool and partial dou)le

contain!ent at adras$ and later standardi>ed P4W7s fro! Narora on%ards ha&in, dou)le contain!ent$

suppression pool$ and calandria filled %ith hea&y %ater$ housed in a %ater-filled calandria &ault"

The Nuclear Po%er Corporation of India Ltd @NPCILA is responsi)le for desi,n$ construction$ co!!issionin,

and operation of ther!al nuclear po%er plants" t the start of 2010 it said it had enou,h cash on hand for

10$000 We of ne% plant" Its fundin, !odel is 0( e/uity and 30( de)t financin," 4o%e&er$ it is ai!in, toin&ol&e other pu)lic sector and pri&ate corporations in future nuclear po%er e.pansion$ nota)ly National

Ther!al Po%er Corporation @NTPCA see su)section )elo%" NTPC is &ery !uch lar,er than NPCIL and

sees itself as the !ain po%er producer" NTPC is lar,ely ,o&ern!ent-o%ned" The 162 to!ic ner,y ct

prohi)its pri&ate control of nuclear po%er ,eneration$ thou,h it allo%s !inority in&est!ent" s of late 2010

the ,o&ern!ent had no intention of chan,in, this to allo% ,reater pri&ate e/uity in nuclear plants"Nuclear reactors deployed in India

In +ece!)er 201 the 0( of nuclear capacity under safe,uards %as operatin, on i!ported uraniu! at

rated capacity" The re!ainder$ %hich relies on indi,enous uraniu!$ %as operatin, )elo% capacity$ thou,h

the supply situation %as said to )e i!pro&in,"The t%o Tarapur 150 We 8oilin, Water 7eactors @8W7sA )uilt )y # on a turn?ey contract )efore the

ad&ent of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty %ere ori,inally 200 We" They %ere do%n-rated due to

recurrent pro)le!s )ut ha&e run %ell since" They ha&e )een usin, i!ported enriched uraniu! @fro! Brance

and China in 10-0s and 7ussia since 2001A and are under International to!ic ner,y ,ency @IA

safe,uards" 4o%e&er$ late in 200 7ussia deferred to the Nuclear *uppliers' #roup and declined to supply

further uraniu! for the!" They under%ent si. !onths refur)ish!ent o&er 2005-06$ and in arch 2006

7ussia a,reed to resu!e fuel supply" In +ece!)er 200 a E00 !illion contract %ith 7osato! %as

announced for continued uraniu! supply to the!" In 2015 a further contract %as si,ned %ith TL for

pellets %hich %ill )e incorporated into fuel asse!)lies at the Nuclear Buel Co!ple. in 4ydera)ad"

The t%o s!all Canadian @CanduA P4W7s at Rajasthan nuclear po%er plant started up in 12 O 10$

and are also under safe,uards" 7aHasthan 1 %as do%n-rated early in its life and has operated &ery little

since 2002 due to on,oin, pro)le!s and has )een shut do%n since 200 as the ,o&ern!ent considers its

future" 7aHasthan 2 %as do%nrated in 10" It had !aHor refur)ish!ent 200-0 and has )een runnin, on

i!ported uraniu! at full capacity"

The 220 MWe PHWRs @202 We netA %ere indi,enously desi,ned and constructed )y NPCIL$ )ased on a

Canadian desi,n" The only accident to an Indian nuclear plant %as due to a tur)ine hall fire in 13 at

Narora$ %hich resulted in a 1-hour total station )lac?out" There %as no core da!a,e or radiolo,ical i!pact

and it %as rated 3 on the IN* scale a 'serious incident'"

The Madras @P*A reactors %ere refur)ished in 2002-03 and 200-05 and their capacity restored to 220

We ,ross @fro! 10A" uch of the core of each reactor %as replaced$ and the lifespans e.tended to

2033J36"



Karapar unit 1 %as fully refur)ished and up,raded in 200-10$ after 16 years operation$ as %as Narora 2$

%ith coolin, channel @calandria tu)eA replace!ent"

Bollo%in, the Bu?ushi!a accident in arch 2011$ four NPCIL tas?forces e&aluated the situation in India

and in an interi! report in uly !ade reco!!endations for safety i!pro&e!ents of the Tarapur 8W7s and

each P4W7 type" The report of a hi,h-le&el co!!ittee appointed )y the to!ic ner,y 7e,ulatory 8oard

@78A %as su)!itted at the end of u,ust 2011$ sayin, that the Tarapur and adras plants needed so!e

supple!entary pro&isions to cope %ith !aHor disasters" The t%o Tarapur 8W7s ha&e already )eenup,raded to recurrent pro)le!s )ut ha&e run %ell since" They ha&e )een usin, i!ported enriched uraniu!

@fro! Brance and China in 10-0s and 7ussia since 2001A and are under International to!ic ner,y

,ency @IA safe,uards" 4o%e&er$ late in 200 7ussia deferred to the Nuclear *uppliers' #roup and

declined to supply further uraniu! for the!" They under%ent si. !onths refur)ish!ent o&er 2005-06$ and

in arch 2006 7ussia a,reed to resu!e fuel supply" In +ece!)er 200 a E00 !illion contract %ith

7osato! %as announced for continued uraniu! supply to the!" In 2015 a further contract %as si,ned %ith

TL for pellets %hich %ill )e incorporated into fuel asse!)lies at the Nuclear Buel Co!ple. in 4ydera)ad"

The t%o s!all Canadian @CanduA P4W7s at Rajasthan nuclear po%er plant started up in 12 O 10$

and are also under safe,uards" 7aHasthan 1 %as do%n-rated early in its life and has operated &ery littlesince 2002 due to on,oin, pro)le!s and has )een shut do%n since 200 as the ,o&ern!ent considers its

future" 7aHasthan 2 %as do%nrated in 10" It had !aHor refur)ish!ent 200-0 and has )een runnin, on

i!ported uraniu! at full capacity"

The 220 MWe PHWRs @202 We netA %ere indi,enously desi,ned and constructed )y NPCIL$ )ased on a

Canadian desi,n" The only accident to an Indian nuclear plant %as due to a tur)ine hall fire in 13 at

Narora$ %hich resulted in a 1-hour total station )lac?out" There %as no core da!a,e or radiolo,ical i!pact

and it %as rated 3 on the IN* scale a 'serious incident'"

The Madras @P*A reactors %ere refur)ished in 2002-03 and 200-05 and their capacity restored to 220

We ,ross @fro! 10A" uch of the core of each reactor %as replaced$ and the lifespans e.tended to

2033J36"

Karapar unit 1 %as fully refur)ished and up,raded in 200-10$ after 16 years operation$ as %as Narora 2$

%ith coolin, channel @calandria tu)eA replace!ent"

Bollo%in, the Bu?ushi!a accident in arch 2011$ four NPCIL tas?forces e&aluated the situation in India

and in an interi! report in uly !ade reco!!endations for safety i!pro&e!ents of the Tarapur 8W7s and

each P4W7 type" The report of a hi,h-le&el co!!ittee appointed )y the to!ic ner,y 7e,ulatory 8oard

@78A %as su)!itted at the end of u,ust 2011$ sayin, that the Tarapur and adras plants needed so!e

supple!entary pro&isions to cope %ith !aHor disasters" The t%o Tarapur 8W7s ha&e already )een

up,raded to ensure continuous coolin, of the reactor durin, prolon,ed station )lac?outs and to pro&ide

nitro,eninHection to contain!ent structures$ )ut further %or? is reco!!ended" adras needs enhanced

flood defences in case of tsuna!is hi,her than that in 200" The prototype fast )reeder reactor @PB7A

under construction ne.t door at Falpa??a! has defences %hich are already sufficiently hi,h$ follo%in,

so!e floodin, of the site in 200"

The Tarapur 3O reactors of 50 We ,ross @0 We netA %ere de&eloped indi,enously fro! the 220

We @,rossA !odel P4W7 and %ere )uilt )y NPCIL" The first Tarapur %as connected to the ,rid in

une 2005 and started co!!ercial operation in *epte!)er" Tarapur 's criticality ca!e fi&e years after

pourin, first concrete and se&en !onths ahead of schedule" Its t%in unit 3 %as a)out a year )ehind it

and %as connected to the ,rid in une 2006 %ith co!!ercial operation in u,ust$ fi&e !onths ahead of

schedule" Tarapur 3 O cost a)out E1200J?W$ and are co!petiti&e %ith i!ported coal"



!uture indi"enous PHWR reactors %ill )e 00 We ,ross @60 We netA" The first four are )ein, )uilt

at Karapar and Rajasthan" They are due on line )y 201 after 60 !onths construction fro! first concrete

to criticality" Cost is /uoted at a)out 7s 12$000 crore @120 )illion rupeesA each$ or E100J?W" Mp to 0( of

the fuel they use %ill )e sli,htly enriched uraniu! @*MA a)out 1"1( M-235$ to achie&e hi,her fuel )urn-

up a)out 21$000 WdJt instead of one third of this" Initially this fuel %ill )e i!ported as *M"

Kudanulam #$2% 7ussia's to!stroye.port is supplyin, the country's first lar,e nuclear po%er plant$

co!prisin, t%o 7-1000 @-12A reactors$ under a 7ussian-financed M*E 3 )illion contract @reported as7s 1$20 crore - E2"1 )illion - cost in !id 2015A" lon,-ter! credit facility co&ers a)out half the cost of

the plant" The *-2 units at Fudan?ula! in Ta!il Nadu state ha&e )een )uilt )y NPCIL and also

co!!issioned and operated )y NPCIL under I safe,uards" The tur)ines %ere !ade )y *il!ash in *t

Peters)ur, and ha&e e&idently ,i&en so!e trou)le durin, co!!issionin," Mnli?e other to!stroye.port

proHects such as in Iran$ there ha&e )een only a)out 0 7ussian super&isory staff on the Ho)" Construction

started in arch 2002"

7ussia is supplyin, all the enriched fuel throu,h the life of the plant$ thou,h India %ill reprocess it and ?eep

the plutoniu!9" The first unit %as due to start supplyin, po%er in arch 200 and ,o into co!!ercial

operation late in 200$ )ut this schedule slipped )y si. years" In the latter part of 2011 and into 2012co!pletion and fuel loadin, %as delayed )y pu)lic protests$ )ut in arch 2012 the state ,o&ern!ent

appro&ed the plant's co!!issionin, and said it %ould deal %ith any o)struction" Mnit 1 started up in !id-

uly 2013$ %as connected to the ,rid in cto)er 2013 and entered co!!ercial operation at the end of

+ece!)er 201" It had reached full po%er in !id-year )ut then re/uired tur)ine repairs$ thou,h it ,enerated

2" TWh in its first year" Mnit 2 construction %as declared co!plete in uly 2015 and it is e.pected to start

up in late 2015" ach is 1 We net"

9 The ori,inal a,ree!ent in 1 specified return of used fuel to 7ussia$ )ut a 1 supple!ental

a,ree!ent allo%ed India to retain and reprocess it"

While the first core load of fuel %as deli&ered early in 200 there ha&e )een delays in supply of so!e

e/uip!ent and docu!entation" Control syste! docu!entation %as deli&ered late$ and %hen re&ie%ed )y

NPCIL it sho%ed up the need for si,nificant refinin, and e&en re%or?in, so!e aspects" The desi,n )asis

flood le&el is 5"!$ and the tur)ine hall floor is "1! a)o&e !ean sea le&el" The 200 tsuna!i %as under

3!"

s!all desalination plant is associated %ith the Fudan?ula! plant to produce 26 !3Jhr for it usin, four-

sta,e !ulti-&acuu! co!pression @CA technolo,y" nother re&erse os!osis @7A plant is in operation to

supply local to%nship needs"

Kai"a 3 started up in Be)ruary$ %as connected to the ,rid in pril and %ent into co!!ercial operation in

ay 200" Mnit started up in No&e!)er 2010 and %as ,rid-connected in anuary 2011$ )ut is a)out 30

!onths )ehind ori,inal schedule due to shorta,e of uraniu!" The Fai,a units are not under MN safe,uards$

so cannot use i!ported uraniu!"

Rajasthan 5 started up in No&e!)er 200$ usin, i!ported 7ussian fuel$ and in +ece!)er it %as

connected to the northern ,rid" 7PP 6 started up in anuary 2010 and %as ,rid connected at the end of

arch" 8oth are no% in co!!ercial operation"

P&W'RP()NT IN*TR+M'NT)TI&N

Instru!entation and control is an inte,ral part of a coalfired po%er station" !odern$ ad&anced IOC syste!plays a !aHor role in the profita)le operation of a plant )y achie&in, !a.i!u! a&aila)ility$ relia)ility$fle.i)ility$ !aintaina)ility and efficiency" These syste!s can also assist in !aintainin, e!issions



co!pliance" The IOC chain )e,ins %ith sensors that detect !easured &alues" Controllers recei&e these&alues$ upon %hich a control strate,y is acti&ated"The response$ %here and %hen re/uired$ !o&es in final actuatin, control ele!ents to !odify the affectprocess" This loop repeats o&er and o&er durin, plant operation throu,h a co!ple. and !ultile&elco!!unications sche!es"*!art field de&ices$ includin, sensors and actuators$ continued to )ede&eloped in order to si!plify and i!pro&e the control syste! process" The t%o !ain control platfor!s thatare used in coalfired po%er stations are the distri)uted control syste! @+C*A and the pro,ra!!a)le lo,iccontrol @PLCA" Personal co!puter @PCA )ased hard%are and soft%are has only recently )een

introduced in po%er plant control" With the fast de&elop!ent$ increasin, po%er and reduced cost of personal co!puters$ PC)ased control is e.pected to )eco!e a further platfor! for future de&elop!ent and,ro%th" Today ne% coalfired po%er plants are$ in ,eneral$ )uilt %ith !odern$ ad&anced +C*JPLC and alar,e nu!)er of e.istin, coalfired po%er stations ha&e )een retrofitted %ith ad&anced di,ital syste!s in!any countries$ throu,hout the %orld" Ne% coalfired po%er plants are )uilt %ith !odern$ ad&ancedsyste!s" !odern$ ad&anced IOC syste! plays a !aHor role in the profita)le and safe operation of a plant)y achie&in, !a.i!u! a&aila)ility$ relia)ility$ fle.i)ility$ !aintaina)ility and efficiency"7ecent ad&ances incontrol technolo,y$ onlinetestin,$ and perfor!ance !onitorin, can help a po%er plant i!pro&e efficiency$ !aintain a hi,h a&aila)ilityfactor$ and ,enerally i!pro&e plant operations" lar,e nu!)er of e.istin, facilities ha&e also )eenretrofitted %ith ad&anced di,ital syste!s in !any countries$ throu,hout the %orld" Mp,radedinstru!entation and control syste!s$ used in conHunction %ith ne% sophisticated soft%are pro,ra!s$ allo%

plant operators to identify factors affectin, e/uip!ent perfor!ance !ore /uic?ly and accurately" Mp,radin,the instru!entation and control syste!s of an older po%er plant can ha&e the follo%in, )enefitsK

I!pro&ed operatin, fle.i)ility$ i"e"$ the a)ility to !eet a %ider ran,e of operatin, conditions !oreeffecti&ely 7educed !aintenance costs throu,h )etter !onitorin, of plant e/uip!ent condition and anenhanced a)ility to detect e/uip!ent !alfunctions

7educed e!issions of ,reenhouse ,ases and air pollutants throu,h )etter control of the co!)ustionprocess and of en&iron!entalcontrol e/uip!ent

.tended e/uip!ent life throu,h the reduction of e.cessi&e e/uip!ent operatin, stress

TH'RM&,&+P('

ther!ocouple is a de&ice used e.tensi&ely for !easurin, te!perature" Learn ho% the de&ice %or?s here"

• ther!ocouple is co!prised of at least t%o !etals Hoined to,ether to for! t%o Hunctions" ne is connectedto the )ody %hose te!perature is to )e !easured this is the hot or !easurin, Hunction" The other Hunctionis connected to a )ody of ?no%n te!perature this is the cold or reference Hunction" Therefore thether!ocouple !easures un?no%n te!perature of the )ody %ith reference to the ?no%n te!perature of theother )ody"

Worin" Principle

The %or?in, principle of ther!ocouple is )ased on three effects$ disco&ered )y *ee)ec?$ Peltier and

Tho!son" They are as follo%sK

#- *ee.ec e//ect% The *ee)ec? effect states that %hen t%o different or unli?e !etals are Hoined to,ether at t%o Hunctions$ an electro!oti&e force @e!fA is ,enerated at the t%o Hunctions" The a!ount of e!f ,enerated is different for different co!)inations of the !etals"2- Peltier e//ect% s per the Peltier effect$ %hen t%o dissi!ilar !etals are Hoined to,ether to for! t%o Hunctions$ e!f is ,enerated %ithin the circuit due to the different te!peratures of the t%o Hunctions of thecircuit"- Thomson e//ect% s per the Tho!son effect$ %hen t%o unli?e !etals are Hoined to,ether for!in, t%o Hunctions$ the potential e.ists %ithin the circuit due to te!perature ,radient alon, the entire len,th of theconductors %ithin the circuit"In !ost of the cases the e!f su,,ested )y the Tho!son effect is &ery s!all and it can )e ne,lected )y

!a?in, proper selection of the !etals" The Peltier effect plays a pro!inent role in the %or?in, principle of the ther!ocouple"

1ia"rams



How it Wors

The ,eneral circuit for the %or?in, of ther!ocouple is sho%n in the fi,ure 1 a)o&e" It co!prises of t%o

dissi!ilar !etals$ and 8" These are Hoined to,ether to for! t%o Hunctions$ p and /$ %hich are !aintainedat the te!peratures T1 and T2 respecti&ely" 7e!e!)er that the ther!ocouple cannot )e for!ed if there arenot t%o Hunctions" *ince the t%o Hunctions are !aintained at different te!peratures the Peltier e!f is,enerated %ithin the circuit and it is the function of the te!peratures of t%o Hunctions"If the te!perature of )oth the Hunctions is sa!e$ e/ual and opposite e!f %ill )e ,enerated at )oth Hunctionsand the net current flo%in, throu,h the Hunction is >ero" If the Hunctions are !aintained at differentte!peratures$ the e!fGs %ill not )eco!e >ero and there %ill )e a net current flo%in, throu,h the circuit" Thetotal e!f flo%in, throu,h this circuit depends on the !etals used %ithin the circuit as %ell as thete!perature of the t%o Hunctions" The total e!f or the current flo%in, throu,h the circuit can )e !easuredeasily )y the suita)le de&ice"

The de&ice for !easurin, the current or e!f is connected %ithin the circuit of the ther!ocouple" It!easures the a!ount of e!f flo%in, throu,h the circuit due to the t%o Hunctions of the t%o dissi!ilar !etals!aintained at different te!peratures" In fi,ure 2 the t%o Hunctions of the ther!ocouple and the de&ice usedfor !easure!ent of e!f @potentio!eterA are sho%n"

No%$ the te!perature of the reference Hunctions is already ?no%n$ %hile the te!perature of !easurin, Hunction is un?no%n" The output o)tained fro! the ther!ocouple circuit is cali)rated directly a,ainst theun?no%n te!perature" Thus the &olta,e or current output o)tained fro! ther!ocouple circuit ,i&es the&alue of un?no%n te!perature directly"

1evices +sed /or Measurin" 'M!

The a!ount of e!f de&eloped %ithin the ther!ocouple circuit is &ery s!all$ usually in !illi&olts$ thereforehi,hly sensiti&e instru!ents should )e used for !easurin, the e!f ,enerated in the ther!ocouple circuit"T%o de&ices used co!!only are the ordinary ,al&ano!eter and &olta,e )alancin, potentio!eter" f thoset%o$ a !anually or auto!atically )alancin, potentio!eter is used !ost often"

Bi,ure 2 sho%s the potentio!eter connected in the ther!ocouple circuit" The Hunction p is connected to the)ody %hose te!perature is to )e !easured" The Hunction / is the reference Hunction$ %hose te!peraturecan )e !easured )y the ther!o!eter" In so!e cases the reference Hunctions can also )e !aintained at theice te!perature )y connectin, it to the ice )ath @see fi,ure 3A" This de&ice can )e cali)rated in ter!s of theinput te!perature so that its scale can ,i&e the &alue directly in ter!s of te!perature"



8A

Load factor @electricalA is the a&era,e po%er di&ided )y the pea? po%er o&er a period of ti!e"n the

electricity industry$ load factor is a !easure of the output of a po%er plant co!pared to the !a.i!u! output

it could produce"

The t%o co!!onest definitions areK

Q" the ratio of a&era,e load to capacity

9 the ratio of a&era,e load to pea? load in a period"

ssu!in, the first definition$ a hi,her load factor is )etterK

9 po%er plant !ay )e less efficient at lo% load factors"

9 hi,h load factor !eans fi.ed costs are spread o&er !ore ?Wh of output"

9 hi,h load factor !eans ,reater total output"

Therefore a hi,her load factor usually !eans !ore output and a lo%er cost per unit$ %hich !eans an

electricity ,enerator can sell !ore electricity at a hi,her spar? spread"

+i&ersity factorK The ratio of su! of the indi&idual non-coincident !a.i!u! de!ands of &arious

su)di&isions of the syste! to the !a.i!u! de!and of the co!plete syste!" The di&ersity factor is al%aysless than or e/ual to 1" The @unofficialA ter! di&ersity$ as distin,uished fro! di&ersity factor refers to the

percent of ti!e a&aila)le that a !achine$ piece of e/uip!ent$ or facility has its !a.i!u! or no!inal load or

de!and @i"e"$ a 0( di&ersity !eans that the de&ice in /uestion operates at its no!inal or !a.i!u! load

le&el 0( of the ti!e that it is connected and turned onA"

a.i!u! +e!andKis the po%er consu!ed o&er a predeter!ined period of ti!e$ %hich is usually )et%een

30 !inutes" The !ost co!!on period of ti!e$ in the !aHority of countries$ is 15 !inutes" This po%er is

calculated and )illed )y a ?W de!and !eter$ %hich records the hi,hest ?W &alue in one 15 !inute period$

o&er a !onthGs ti!e"

8A

Power plants and heat rate thermal e//iciency capacity /actor load /actor economic e//iciencyoperational e//iciency ener"y e//iciency

The perfor!ance of a po%er plant can )e e.pressed throu,h so!e co!!on perfor!ance factors as

• heat rate @ener,y efficiencyA

• ther!al efficiency

• capacity factor

• load factor

• econo!ic efficiency



• operational efficiency

Heat Rate 3'ner"y '//iciency-

&erall ther!al perfor!ance or ener,y efficiency for a po%er plant for a period can )e defined as

φhr = H / E (1)

where

φhr = heat rate (Btu/kWh, kJ/kWh)

H = heat supplied to the power plant for a period (Btu, kJ)

E = energy output fro the power plant in the period (kWh)

Thermal '//iciency

Ther!al efficiency of a po%er plant can )e e.pressed as

! te = (1"") (#$1%&' Btu/kWh) / φ (%)

where

! te = theral effiieny (*)

• 1 kWh = #$1%&' Btu

,apacity !actor

The capacity factor for a po%er plant is the ratio )et%een a&era,e load and rated load for a period of ti!eand can )e e.pressed as

! f = (1"") + al / + rl (#)

where

! f = apaity fator (*)

+ al = aerage load for the power plant for a period (kW)

+ rl = rated apaity for the power plant (kW)

(oad !actor

Load factor for a po%er plant is the ratio )et%een a&era,e load and pea? load and can )e e.pressed as

! lf = (1"") + al / + pl ($)

where

! lf = load fator (*)

+ pl = peak load for the power plant in the period (kW)

'conomic '//iciency

cono!ic efficiency is the ratio )et%een production costs$ includin, fuel$ la)or$ !aterials and ser&ices$ andener,y output fro! the po%er plant for a period of ti!e" cono!ic efficiency can )e e.pressed as

φee = - / E ()



where

φee = eonoi effiieny (ents/kW, euro/kW, &&&)

- = prodution osts for a period (ents, euro, &&)


&perational '//iciencyperational efficiency is the ratio of the total electricity produced )y the plant durin, a period of ti!eco!pared to the total potential electricity that could ha&e )een produced if the plant operated at 100percent in the period"

perational efficiency can )e e.pressed as

! oe = (1"") E / E 1""* (.)

where

! eo = operational effiieny (*)


E 1""* = potential energy output fro the power plant operated at 1""* in the period (kWh)

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