Novice principals from Canada and South Africa share their experiences

This article was downloaded by: [Temple University Libraries]On: 17 November 2014, At: 08:59Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Education as ChangePublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/redc20

Novice principals from Canadaand South Africa share theirexperiencesKobus Mentz a , Charles F. Webber b & Johannes L. van derWalt aa North-West University , South Africab Thompson Rivers UniversityPublished online: 25 Dec 2010.

To cite this article: Kobus Mentz , Charles F. Webber & Johannes L. van der Walt (2010)Novice principals from Canada and South Africa share their experiences, Education asChange, 14:2, 155-167, DOI: 10.1080/16823206.2010.518004

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16823206.2010.518004

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information(the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor& Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warrantieswhatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purposeof the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are theopinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor& Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should beindependently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francisshall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs,expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arisingdirectly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use ofthe Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes.Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly

http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/redc20

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/16823206.2010.518004

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16823206.2010.518004

forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tem

ple

Uni

vers

ity L

ibra

ries

] at

08:

59 1

7 N

ovem

ber

2014

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

155

Education As Change, Volume 14, No. 2, December 2010, pp. 155–167

ISSN: Print 1682-3206, Online 1947-9417© 2010 The University of JohannesburgDOI: 10.1080/16823206.2010.518004

Novice principals from Canada and South Africa share their experiences

Kobus MentzNorth-West UniversityCharles F. WebberThompson Rivers UniversityJohannes L. van der WaltNorth-West University

Abstract

In this subproject of the International Study of Principal Preparation that covers the pre-appointment preparation of principals, two groups of novice and relatively inexperienced principals were involved in discussions about their own pre-appointment preparation as principals. A group of Canadian and South African principals shared their views in telephone and online discussions. It emerged that although their contexts differed considerably, they agreed on many points, including the inadequacy of their own preparation to provide them with all the skills they wanted, their appreciation of informal preparation (such as mentoring) and an understanding of the significant role of values in their work. The cross-cultural dialogue among the principals confirmed much of the standard view on principalship but showed, not surprisingly, that context is very important in the work of school leaders. That is, it is possible to speak of principals’ pre-appointment preparation in general terms, but it is a construct that depends on its setting.

Key words: principal, pre-appointment preparation, Canada, South Africa, school management, leadership

Introduction

The research reported in this article forms part of the larger International Study of the Preparation of Principals (ISPP). The ISPP is a study of the effectiveness and suitability of preparation programmes for novice principals and it is currently being conducted in 12 countries. Among these are Canada, a developed country, and South Africa, a developing country. The purpose of the ISPP is to gather information that will help and guide those involved in the preparation of principals for their very first appointments (see Cowie and Crawford 2007 for more details of the ISPP; also Slater, Garcia and Gorosave 2008). In a sense, this article is a response to a call by Onguko, Abdalla and Webber (2008:725) for ‘research which will include case studies and surveys of principals’ perceptions of the usefulness of their professional experiences prior to their appointment as principals’. This contribution can also be useful in view of Foster’s (2004) observation that there is a lack of research that documents how principals understand their participation in leadership.

We surmised that our investigations with respect to Canadian and South African novice principals would not only contribute to the aims of the ISPP, but also interrogate the literature about the preparation of novice principals, especially about the alignment of their preparation as future principals with their

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tem

ple

Uni

vers

ity L

ibra

ries

] at

08:

59 1

7 N

ovem

ber

2014

156

Kobus Mentz, Charles F. Webber and Johannes L. van der Walt

professional needs after their first appointment (Scott and Webber 2008). We also anticipated that there might be, among the participants in this study, notable deviations from views expressed in the literature, an anticipation which proved to be correct. One of the deviations was that the participants from Canada and South Africa in this particular study did not place a high value on knowledge about the organisational aspects of school management, as suggested in the literature (Morgan 1997). They seemed to attach more value to the role and value of relationships, such as those with their mentors during the different stages of their preparation and development as future principals. They also attached more value to their relationships with the various stakeholders in the school as well as to the nexus between their leadership skills and their personal and family value systems.

The purpose of this article is to present the views of a sample of relatively inexperienced Canadian and South African principals about the adequacy of their pre-appointment training. We also provide brief descriptions of the work contexts of the study participants, offer a conceptual-theoretical framework for the work, describe the research design and discuss the findings.

Some of the limitations of the research reported here include the fact that the two groups of participants could not see each other face to face via satellite feed or otherwise. Due to technical challenges only audio communication could be used. Although the number of participants is acceptable for research of this nature, a larger group of participants could have provided deeper insight into the research problem.

Context

Our focus in this particular study was on principal preparation in a particular Canadian city (Calgary, Alberta) and one in South Africa (Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape). Whereas in Canada principal preparation is well established and structured, the same cannot be said of the situation in South Africa, especially with respect to the less-developed areas where principal preparation has been rather informal and erratic. Because this was seen as a serious shortcoming, the South African Department of Education (2005) introduced a formal and structured programme known as the South African National Professional Qualification for Principalship (SANPQP) for the compulsory training of aspiring principals. This qualification was seen as an essential element in the professionalisation of management and leadership and the building of competence and capacity in the education system. Training in terms of this programme is currently well under way. The research reported in this article took place in 2006–7, in other words at a time when the new programme had hardly taken effect. The Department of Education has piloted the new Advanced Certificate in Education (ACE) in Leadership from 2007–2009 (Bush 2007). In this course principals undergo training in all aspects of leadership and management. The results of the pilot project are currently being reviewed with a view to implementing the programme among aspiring principals in future.

Whereas the South African context with respect to principal preparation remains challenging in terms of inadequate infrastructure and training programmes, as can be expected in a developing country (see Slater et al. 2008; Onguko et al. 2008), the Canadian context is much more formal and stable (see Sherman 2008; Onguko et al. 2008). In Alberta, Canada, where some of the participants in this subproject were located, a range of teachers’ associations, school districts, regional consortia and private consultants provide non-credit in-service courses, while faculties of education in urban and regional universities, as well as universities from other provinces and countries, deliver diplomas, master’s degrees and doctoral degrees in educational management and leadership (Cowie and Crawford 2007; Sherman 2008). Despite having all of these structures and programmes in place, the pre-appointment of future principals, according to Cowie and Crawford (2007), is still “largely an act of faith”, not only in Canada but also in many other countries. The following aims were formulated for this investigation against these background differences of the participants from the two countries:

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tem

ple

Uni

vers

ity L

ibra

ries

] at

08:

59 1

7 N

ovem

ber

2014

157


• The primary aim was to find out the views on preparation of principals who participated in a well-established principal preparation programme as well as the views of their counterparts who had enjoyed only informal preparation (training) as future principals.

• The secondary aim was to understand the contextual circumstances and conditions that both supported and hindered their effective preparation for their current positions.

Broad leadership and narrow management

The ISPP project that embraces this subproject was initiated in part by the fact that principal preparation initiatives, including graduate programmes offered by institutions of higher learning such as universities, have been questioned in recent years (Murphy 2002; Levine 2005). As a result of these criticisms, and because the principalship or headship is becoming an ever more demanding role, there is uncertainty about the kinds of experiences that prospective principals ought to encounter prior to their initial appointments as school leaders. Principals have to endure pressure in performing their duties, and this pressure is constantly intensifying. Because of the pressure, school systems find it increasingly difficult to recruit school principals with the appropriate knowledge, skills and experience (Cowie and Crawford 2007). The situation is exacerbated by the fact that the principal is also an instructional leader. Coleman (2005) holds the view that an instructional leader will focus on the core activity of the school, namely the learning and teaching of students. Graczewski, Knudson and Holtzman (2009) found evidence of a connection between practices of instructional leadership and characteristics of professional development likely to lead to improved instruction. They remarked that there is a connection between school leadership’s engagement in instructional improvement and professional development focused on content and curriculum. They came to the conclusion that within a system driven by instructional improvement, the potential effect of leadership activities on improved teacher practice is promising.

In the following brief overview of the literature regarding the preparation of future principals, we presuppose knowledge of and insight into the general(ised) theory about the duties and tasks of principals, and concentrate only on aspects relevant to the preparation of novice principals. Although the entire body of theory about the duties, tasks, responsibilities, accountabilities and skills of school principals as well as the assumptions flowing from it (as, for instance, summarised by Onguka et al. 2008) is relevant for this study, we will concentrate only on conceptual and theoretical aspects that are ad rem to the pre-appointment preparation of principals. From the literature it is clear that, especially in the South African context, the focus is still on ‘managerialism’ instead of a critical exploration of “leadership issues”. According to Mestry and Singh (2007), the five ‘key areas’ of the Advanced Certificate in Education in Leadership in South Africa are:

• Understanding school management in the South African context• Managing teaching and learning • Managing finances and physical resources • Managing people and leadership • Managing education law and policy

A somewhat different framework is used to consider school-based leadership in Alberta, Canada. That is, the department of education’s guidelines for promoting successful school leadership (Alberta Education 2009) describe seven dimensions that reflect a strong focus on people, relationships, and instructional leadership. The seven dimensions are:

• fostering effective relationships• embodying visionary leadership• building a learning community

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tem

ple

Uni

vers

ity L

ibra

ries

] at

08:

59 1

7 N

ovem

ber

2014

158


• providing instructional leadership• developing and facilitating leadership• managing school operations and resources • understanding and responding to the larger societal context

The seven dimensions are intended to guide ‘principal preparation and recruitment, principals’ self-reflection and daily practice, principals’ initial and ongoing professional growth, and principal supervision, evaluation, and practice review’ (p. 3).

Based on the two frameworks for considering the principalship, it seems that, contrary to the content of principal training in Canada, the content in South Africa consists of outdated, narrowly-focused ‘management’ skills more appropriate to the latter part of the previous century. The question posed by Evers and Katyal (2007) on the effects of principal leadership on something fundamental like student learning outcomes in school does not seem to be answered merely by taking a step back to "managerialism" as the focus of principals’ activities.

Despite the fact that school principals occupy a crucial management position in South African schools, until 2006 they were not obliged at any stage of their careers to obtain managerial qualifications (Botha 2004). Further training in educational management was undertaken on a voluntary basis. In addition to this, according to Botha, one of the most neglected aspects of all the efforts in South Africa to improve schools and transform the education system was that of in-service training opportunities for school principals in terms of the knowledge, skills and attitudes required for effective school principalship and efficient leadership. His view differs from that of Heystek and Calitz (1994), who wrote about the problem a decade earlier. According to them, most of the newly appointed principals did indeed have to rely on in-service training after starting on the job as principal. As a result, they maintained, in-service principal training received a fair amount of attention. Among others, a wide array of guidelines for this form of training was developed by universities, departments of education and other institutions. We tend to agree with Heystek and Calitz. By 2006/7, most of the preparation of future principals was confined to informal training, albeit that most of this training was offered at formal institutions such as universities.

Cowie and Crawford (2007) provide a pithy outline of the rationale for the (pre-appointment) preparation of principals. This preparation is crucial since the leadership provided by the principal has measurable effects on student learning, second only to the effects of the quality of the curriculum and teaching (ibid). In view of this, there seems to be a broad international consensus among policy makers that the capacities of those who aspire to become principals need to be developed. In planning pre-appointment preparation of principals, two sets of imperatives should be aligned, namely the needs of the system and the needs of the individuals involved, including the future principals themselves. As far as the latter is concerned, principals should be encouraged to want to do the job first, and then they should be equipped with appropriate knowledge, skills and understanding. In the pre-appointment phase, they should enjoy opportunities to practise the skills and abilities the job demands in order to be able to deal productively and confidently with the leadership and management issues they are likely to face upon appointment.

The importance of skills development has grown since 1997 in South Africa. The country has found itself in a skills revolution, launched by the Department of Labour in the form of the Skills Development Act (Republic of South Africa, Act 97 of 1998) and the Skills Development Levies Act (Republic of South Africa, Act 9 of 1999). This development in the area of education and training might impact indirectly on the preparation of future principals. In this whole process, the skills training of prospective principals cannot be evaded. They need to be equipped with skills such as setting organisational, team and individual goals, networking with outside groups, understanding and utilising decisionmaking structures and teams, organisational structures, positions and relationships, and the external environment. They also need to understand the differences between formal and informal leadership and the challenges associated

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tem

ple

Uni

vers

ity L

ibra

ries

] at

08:

59 1

7 N

ovem

ber

2014

159


with each. In the ever-changing context of South African education, they also require insight and skills to redefine the functions of their leadership as and when necessary. This is important for building truly democratic schools, in other words, schools where principals allow more people to participate in decisionmaking. Aspiring principals have to be prepared to understand democracy and to have the skills to manage and lead democratically (Botha 2004). We argued earlier that this has not been achieved in the South African context, as the ACE in Leadership neglects these aspects.

Despite the general consensus in South Africa, Canada and other countries that the role of the school principal as both a manager and a leader matters, and that preparation is important, there are considerable disagreements, often philosophical and political, about what kinds of principals are needed, what skills and attributes are needed, and how principals should be trained. As mentioned before, Levine (2005) criticised many of the current programmes offered in the United States for a lack of focus and coherence, and observed that they seem to bear little relation to the realities of managing and leading schools. The Levine report went so far as to question the presumption that pre-appointment programmes do any good and, according to Cowie and Crawford (2007), we cannot be certain that they do. Levine (2005:68) stated that:

Because traditional educational administration programmes have not prepared school leaders for their jobs, new providers have sprung up to compete with them. Because they have failed to embrace practice and practitioners, their standing has fallen, and school systems have created their own leadership programmes. All of these changes are likely to accelerate.

Further, few studies have focused specifically on whether, and how, preparation programmes influence changes in participants' leadership practices (Cowie and Crawford 2007).

The foregoing is not meant to imply that newly appointed principals without preparation will not be competent for the task. Many South African principals have in the past coped on the basis of only informal and sporadic training. In the highly specialised conditions of the early twenty-first century it is, however, not acceptable any more for principals to have to learn through trial and error. Much time and energy goes to waste when principals have to master the required skills after they start their jobs. As far back as 1974, Nell (cited in Cronje 1990) already had strong opinions about principals not being properly prepared for their task. He could not understand why, with the high standards that had been set for principals with regard to administrative and organisational tasks, pre-service preparation for principals was not a priority.

Cronje (1990) himself was curious as to why preference was given to principals of small rural schools when they applied for the headships of bigger schools, rather than to the vice-principals of these schools. He surmised that this could be ascribed to the fact that a principal first had to show his or her mettle in a smaller school, perhaps indicative of the need for principal preparation.

After having considered the above historical-theoretical background with respect to the preparation of novice principals, we found the following to be the three key concepts of this investigation: firstly, successful schools are fundamental to the building and the maintenance of a well-functioning civil democracy; secondly, the role and skill of the principal as instructional leader is central to school success; and finally, there is value in asking inexperienced school principals what experiences benefited or would have benefited them prior to being appointed to their leadership positions.

The study that we report in this article casts some light on whether the participants found their pre-appointment preparation suitable and effective, and what avenues should be explored to equip them for appointment as principals. We approached this problematic based on a paradigm called, rather provocatively, by Alexander (2006:206), ‘transcendental pragmatism’. We are pragmatic in the sense of dealing with the actual problems that novice principals find themselves confronted with. The pragmatic

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tem

ple

Uni

vers

ity L

ibra

ries

] at

08:

59 1

7 N

ovem

ber

2014

160


approach enables us to take an explicitly value-oriented stance with respect to the problem, and helps us optimally frame, examine and provide tentative answers to the research questions (Onwuegbuzie, Johnson and Collins 2009:123, 128 ).

The ‘transcendental’ stage of our investigation refers to our efforts to transcend the current situation by proposing meliorative changes in the preparation of novice principals. We see our recommendations as dynamic, not dogmatic, and as embracing ideas that represent the best available formulation of the good for novice principals, at least as we understand it for now. We are, however, aware that there might be better ways or more compelling perspectives that we would have to take into consideration (Alexander 2006:214). We also took cognisance of the difficulties surrounding the theory and practice of educational change – both top-down and bottom-up – despite the prominence of the topic of educational change in the past decades (Swanepoel 2009:472). The changes that we recommend flow from our pragmatic and outcome-oriented method of inquiry that is based on action, and that hopefully will lead to further action (Onwuegbuzie, Johnson and Collins 2009:134).

After having considered all the theoretical and practical views about the preparation of novice principals discussed above, we formulated the following conceptual-theoretical framework against which we assess the current situations in South Africa and Canada, and against which we would like to make suggestions for improving the current situation. Our conceptual-theoretical framework embraces the following philosophical assumptions and stances:

• Leadership preparation can contribute to increased success during the first years of school principals' appointments.

• Leadership preparation can be both formal and informal.• The surge in the global migration of education ideas and personnel suggests the need for greater

attention to cross-cultural analyses of leadership preparation.• The rapidly changing context of education lends credence to the philosophical perspective that

multiple realities exist for education leaders and that our understanding of what new principals should know and be able to do is tentative and changing.

Methodology

Important perspectives for the ISPP come from principals themselves as key informants, and can be used for the purpose of (internal) generalisations (Onwuegbuzie, Johnson and Collins 2009: 126). This is the rationale for tracking, since 2006, the experience of first-year principals who are graduates of the programmes offered in the ten systems covered by the ISPP (see Cowie and Crawford 2007). In the case of the study reported here, a qualitative analysis was done of conversations that took place between principals in Calgary, Alberta, Canada and others in Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Two such conversations/discussions took place, facilitated by two of the researchers (in Calgary and Port Elizabeth respectively). In the selection of participants a number of criteria were used. Only principals with one to three years of experience were requested to participate. Line managers in the respective school districts were asked to provide names of beginning principals. Participants had to reside in the vicinity of Calgary and Port Elizabeth in order to participate at the two venues without having to travel too far. The participants gathered at venues at university campuses in Calgary and Port Elizabeth. Media technicians from the two universities assisted in preparing a room suitable for this exercise. The participants in the two countries communicated through audio-link. In facilitating the discussion, the researchers wished first to establish areas of commonality among the participants, and then to proceed to areas of difference between the two groups and the systems in which they worked. The Canadian participants also guarded against the temptation to offer ‘best practice’ guidance to their South African counterparts.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tem

ple

Uni

vers

ity L

ibra

ries

] at

08:

59 1

7 N

ovem

ber

2014

161


As indicated above, the discussions centred around the problem of the alignment of novice principals’ preparation with their professional needs once they were appointed for the first time. The facilitators stimulated the discussion by posing questions such as: What should be included in a pre-appointment programme for beginning principals? How relevant is the preparation that beginning principals currently receive? What do principals find most rewarding regarding their experiences as beginning principals, and how do these experiences relate to their preparation? How do they deal with the challenges facing them, and how were they prepared to deal with such challenges? What are the differences in the experiences of the principals working in the two countries and systems?

Ten principals, five from each country, participated in the first discussion. Before the discussion, the participants were expected to keep a reflective diary of critical incidents in their daily routines. This was designed to help them see and understand the challenges they were facing, and to reflect on how they had been prepared for dealing with such critical issues. The two sets of principals (two novices from Calgary, three slightly more experienced; three novices from Port Elizabeth, two slightly more experienced) convened in comfortable settings. Two facilitators were also present, guiding the discussion on the basis of some of the literature discussed. Six participants, three with only brief experience as principals from each country, were present at the second discussion. Each discussion lasted approximately two hours.

Data analysis

All the discussions were taped and subsequently analysed by the researchers and specially trained assistants. The steps of data analyses as described by Neuman (2000) were applied. In other words, an iterative process was followed (see Foster 2004). After the first discussion, the analysts organised the raw data into conceptual categories for the purpose of creating themes and/or concepts through a process of open coding (the first pass-through of the data). These categories then were used in the second discussion as instruments or criteria for arranging and analysing the data (axial coding; the second pass-through of the data). In the second pass, the analysts focused more on the initial coded themes rather than on the data. Additional codes and new ideas were identified during this pass. This procedure freed the analysts from entanglement in the details of the raw data (the transcribed conversations) and encouraged higher level thinking about them. It also moved the analysts toward theory and generalisations. For the last pass-through of the data (selective coding), the analysts had already identified the overarching themes of the two discussions. Selective coding served to help the analysts look selectively for cases that illustrated themes and highlighted differences and contrasts.

To improve the trustworthiness of the findings, the researchers responsible for coding consulted with the other researchers who were also present during the principals’ discussions. This was to provide for coder triangulation, in other words, for a search for additional interpretations of the data (see Foster 2004).

Findings

Based on the responses of the participants, the following overarching themes about novice principal preparation were identified as aspects that they found useful in their work as newly appointed principals:

Experiencing a variety of relationships: In the school environment, all teachers had relationships with colleagues, parents, students and administrators. These relationships were especially valuable after the principals had been appointed to their posts and had to ensure that these different relationships were positively maintained. According to a South African participant, ‘we are very positive about, you know, working with the school governing body, and we do have a good relationship and working relationship with them…’. A Canadian participant concurred, ‘… in my second year in the school, we generated a

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tem

ple

Uni

vers

ity L

ibra

ries

] at

08:

59 1

7 N

ovem

ber

2014

162


great relationship and there’s a lot more trust than there had been in my first year at the school, so that’s one of the layers that I’m feeling a lot more comfortable (about) this year’.

Going beyond formal training: A master’s degree is the normal expectation for appointment to the principalship in Calgary, while formalised preparation is in the process of being implemented in South Africa. The perspectives of principals, therefore, were different as South African principals received informal preparation as opposed to their Canadian colleagues who had undergone preparation in formal programmes. A male South African principal mentioned that he had ‘gained (his) experience from (his) predecessors and also (to a limited extent) via the Department (of Education)’. Although a female principal from Canada received formal training, she mentioned three principals, two of whom had added to her formal training. One of the principals was an ‘excellent teacher’ for her, the second one ‘provided no background or support whatsoever’ and the third provided ‘a little bit of individual mentoring’.

There were clear similarities between the two groups of principals in that they wanted to go beyond formal training. Consequently, they implemented certain other strategies to prepare for the principalship, such as consulting their mentors or seeking advice elsewhere.

The value of informal networks: Participants agreed that informal networks were as important in preparing them for the principalship as formal training. A Canadian principal viewed her informal networks as ‘more helpful … than some of the formal ones’. Participants from both countries mentioned workshops presented by departments of education and/or school jurisdictions as a common type of formal preparation. A Canadian principal reported using an informal network that included those who had mentored him on his road to the principalship. According to him, ‘… they are the people that I will often (call) or send an e-mail off (to) in order to gain some clarity or some needed support’ .

A South African described the ‘very informal preparation that he had received before becoming a principal’. According to him, it was a cascading informal network that existed in schools; persons on higher post levels prepared those on lower post levels. Principals networked with the deputy principals and explained what principalship entailed.

Conflict resolution: Organising the theme of conflict resolution presented challenges to the researchers. Some issues regarding conflict were implied but not discussed openly by the new principals. In other instances, conflict was conceptualised by the participants and discussed in the context of their work, such as with the department of education or their direct supervisors. When one South African principal discussed his relationship with the school governing body, he mentioned that the latter needed more training in their responsibilities. Another principal of a South African school, this one in a violent community, experienced difficulty in mediating when conflict arose among learners. This led to negative relationships with the parents of learners.

A South African principal described how he and colleagues in his school implemented strategies to deal with conflict among learners. He was of the opinion that a clear value system, shared by the school community, was beneficial to preventing and solving conflict-related issues. A Canadian principal reported experiencing conflict with his supervisors; he regarded the pressure on accountability and data-collecting as infringing on his professional role as principal. He also mentioned the ‘legal fight(ing)’ that he had to deal with in connection with discipline in his school. A female Canadian principal mentioned that the supervisors of principals became “more political” after being promoted, indicating a possible divide between principals and senior administrators. A male Canadian principal fully agreed that principals’ supervisors often had a political agenda and issued politicised messages. This might be especially difficult for new principals to deal with, as they relied on their supervisors for clear, unbiased guidance.

Dealing with the school community: Participants viewed their environments in two ways. First of all, they felt they were dealing with the community of teachers and departmental/jurisdiction/provincial

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tem

ple

Uni

vers

ity L

ibra

ries

] at

08:

59 1

7 N

ovem

ber

2014

163


officials. The second community that the study participants mentioned consisted mainly of parents, including the parents involved in governing the school and the parent committees.

A South African male principal regarded his relationship with the parent community and the school governing body (consisting mainly of parents) in a very positive light. A Canadian participant linked the issue of in-service training of new principals to knowledge about working with parents in achieving the objectives of the school. He saw training as lacking in that field. His school was running a project with the aim of improving parent involvement. He viewed a good working relationship with parents as important. A South African counterpart, a principal of a school in a poor neighbourhood, encountered additional challenges such as illiterate parents, even as members of the school governing body.

One of a Canadian principal’s initial challenges in his first year of teaching was to establish what he called a ‘great relationship’ with parents, especially through the parent council. Another Canadian principal described her relationships with parents as forming part of the first echelon of involvement with the wider school community. The data analyses also revealed certain aspects of these novice principals’ lives and work that did not receive the same degree of emphasis in the literature.

Formal training programmes important but not sufficient: The participants from both countries saw the role of mentors as at least as important as formal training programmes. This included being mentored while still being assistant principals as well as mentoring by fellow principals once they became principals. A Canadian principal expressed his view by saying, ‘…certainly my university work around the field in the studies of leadership helped me, brought perspective to the work. I don’t think (however) it prepared me to understand all of what would be expected of me. Again my experiences as an assistant principal were a considerable help, (and I was) fortunate to work under different types of leadership. … Many of those people who helped mentor me along the way continued to be part of my informal network…’. A female Canadian principal noted that, ‘I’m not sure I have seen a really good principal preparation programme, uhm, as to who should do it, that’s a good question’.

Participants also did not value knowledge about organisational aspects of the school as much as expected. Their focus was more on the role of relationships, which included positive relations with mentors at different levels, communication with a variety of stakeholders in the school, and even leadership skills associated with their own family values. According to a South African participant a principal’s relationship with the school governing body should be positive: ‘my relationship here is a very positive one. We work closely together…’. This sentiment was echoed by most of the participants. For this reason, training in conflict resolution emerged as important to new principals. According to a female South African participant, ‘the conflict thing’ was becoming a problem in South African schools. The South African participants’ insistence on good relationships resonated well with their Canadian counterparts, one of whom responded with the following remark: ‘There’s a lot more trust than there had been in my first year at the school…’.

Value-driven leadership: This became more important to the principals after their first appointment. Values ranged from those that they experienced in their families when growing up to those values enshrined in their country’s constitutions. When one of the facilitators asked, ‘What are the values that seem to underpin those professional connections; is there a list of values or a description of values that you can bring to those professional networks’? it was as if a dam wall had broken. A South African participant responded by mentioning a catalogue of values, such as democratic values, the values associated with the African life-view of ubuntu (a focus on supportive relationships), the dignity of women, respect, accountability, responsibility and the ten values contained in the official South African school curriculum. He added ‘values’ such as “a sense of togetherness and a sense almost of cooperation”. A Canadian responded by mentioning that ‘a sense of trust’ is a value important to him. One of his Canadian colleagues added ‘openness’ and ‘a sense of collegiality’ as leadership values significant to her.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tem

ple

Uni

vers

ity L

ibra

ries

] at

08:

59 1

7 N

ovem

ber

2014

164


At this point in the conversation, a South African described the value of trust, how it can be taught and learnt, and where it originates: ‘I don’t think one can probably teach someone to trust… (trust grows) from the relationships … with your own teachers … and experiences in your early teaching career. … I think (trust) is something that is part of your make-up as a person, the values and the morals and all those things which you grow up with, the relationship with your parents, others, et cetera. … I think one can be sensitised towards certain values … in a seminar or workshop, or in a university course … but I think my point of view would be … that these (are) values that you grow up with, to a large extent’. One of his South African colleagues felt that this value could indeed be taught, but ‘unfortunately, you did not get it in our training before you become a principal…’. In his opinion, the value of trust and other values originate with the parental home: ‘I was reared by my parents, you know, to be respectful... Values can be taught. We should communicate them to others (in the school); the more, I believe, we as a staff speak about these values (derived from our own upbringing, our churches, the Constitution of the country), about where we come from and how we experience these values …’. He did not complete the sentence, but the meaning was clear: if principals continuously spoke about values, the values will be inculcated in their colleagues, parents, and learners.

Discussion

The two discussions among the participants confirmed all the perspectives flowing from standard theory and assumptions about principals’ tasks, duties, responsibilities, accountabilities and skills. They underscored the fact that leadership preparation can indeed contribute to increased success during the first years of school principals’ appointments.

The discussions also revealed that leadership preparation can be both formal and informal. This group of participants had a rather unusual take on the preparation of future principals, however. All of them, the South African participants slightly more so, perceived formal training and programmes as useful but not sufficient on their own. The subproject furthermore provided a provisional answer to a question posed by Cowie and Crawford (2007:132), namely whether pre-appointment preparation programmes ‘do any good. While programmes can give the impression of rational planning, and it seems reasonable to assume that programmes of preparation will produce better school principals, we cannot be certain that they do’. The responses of this particular group of participants seem to provisionally suggest that formal programmes had not been fully effective, in their experience, and that they benefited as much from informal mentoring and other forms of guidance, especially from their colleagues.

All of the participants also attached less value than expected to knowledge about the organisational aspects of a prospective principal’s work. They attached more value to (knowledge about) relationships, their mentors at various stages of their pre-principalship experiences, and various stakeholders in their schools. All of them, especially again the South African participants, were vocal about the connection between leadership and a value system, such as those in the families in which they grew up.

Their responses furthermore suggest that the life-view and other values that a principal needs for his or her professional work in a school do not flow necessarily from participation in formal pre-appointment preparation programmes, but can also develop as a result of the more informal relationships with a person’s parents and colleagues. This may support Cowie and Crawford’s (2007) observation, and that of Slater et al. (2008), that the social reality of principal preparation has multiple layers, that it is open to different interpretations, and dependent on many factors. This lends credence to the philosophical perspective that multiple realities exist for education leaders and that our understanding of what new principals should know and be able to do remains tentative and changing.

A question that comes to the fore is whether formal principal preparation programmes should be expected to prepare future principals for the intense emotional and social aspects of the role of the

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tem

ple

Uni

vers

ity L

ibra

ries

] at

08:

59 1

7 N

ovem

ber

2014

165


principal. In our opinion, these aspects may be better dealt with in ongoing professional development. The intensity and integration of emotional and social aspects only come to the fore in the early stages of careers, rather than during preappointment experiences. This view is consistent with Scott and Webber’s (2008) life-long learning leader (4L) framework that recognises the need for career-long learning as a mechanism for thriving during periods of rapid personal, social and technological change.

The project also supported the view that principals can be more effective in their leadership if they do not act alone, but as part of a broad system of leadership influences and tasks performed by many actors, including the school governing body, parents and students. Pre-appointment preparation programmes therefore may benefit from concentrating on developing future principals’ leadership and management skills with the particular context in which they will be working in mind. For example, the settings of the two groups of principals differed in the sense that South African participants had received only informal training from mentors, whereas their Canadian counterparts received highly structured, formal training. The former worked in the context of relatively underdeveloped and less established principal preparation programming, whereas the latter worked in highly developed and well-established principal preparation contexts. The effect of the differences in setting could be heard in their respective responses. Some of the South African participants had to deal with continual conflict and violence, and with unresponsive parents and learners, to a greater degree than their Canadian colleagues. Principalship indeed differs from setting to setting. This finding lends support to our thesis that the global migration of education-related ideas and personnel suggests the need for greater attention to cross-cultural analyses of leadership preparation.

Recommendations

The ‘transcendental’ element of the transcendental-pragmatist vantage point from which we approached this project leads us to recommend a number of changes in the pre-appointment preparation of principals. The first of these is that their preparation should be value-oriented. The participants in this study regarded this as important for their task as value-driven instructional leaders. The second change that we recommend is that their pre-appointment training be much more focused on people skills rather than on organisational knowledge. The participants in this study were quite vocal on the importance of pre-appointment exposure to a variety of relationships, in the form of informal mentoring and other networks, and of liaising with parent groups and governing bodies. The impact of informal networks on their training and preparation as future principals should not be underestimated. The third change that we recommend flows from the second. While formal training will always remain useful and important, it should be augmented by informal training. Principal preparation should consist of a balance between informal in-school training and exposure and formal training. Our final recommendation is that future principals specifically be trained for conflict resolution. This is necessary in view of the constant threat of conflict in their occupation, in some cases with their supervisors, but also with other parties. This is especially required for future principals in developing countries.

Conclusion

This study, on the one hand, is in line with perspectives evident in the standard literature on education management about the roles, tasks, functions, skills and accountabilities of novice principals. On the other hand, it demonstrates that certain local and contextual circumstances are significant influences on the work of the principal. The investigation also suggests that comparisons of theory and practices between two countries with different education systems can bring new insights to the fore. It also highlights the importance of effecting a number of changes in the pre-appointment preparation of future principals.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tem

ple

Uni

vers

ity L

ibra

ries

] at

08:

59 1

7 N

ovem

ber

2014

166


References

Alberta Education, 2009. The principal quality practice guideline: Promoting successful school leadership in Alberta. Retrieved from http://education.alberta.ca/media/949129/principal-quality-practice-guideline-english-12feb09.pdf

Alexander, H. A. 2006. A view from somewhere: Explaining the paradigms of educational research. Journal of Philosophy of Education 40 (2):205–221.

Botha, R. J. 2004. Excellence in leadership: demands on the professional principal. South African Journal of Education 24 (3):239–243.

Bush, T. 2007. Education leadership: Theory, policy and practice. South African Journal of Education 27 (3):391–406.

Coleman, M. 2005. Theories and practice of leadership: An introduction. In Leadership and management in education: Culture, change and context, ed. M. Coleman and P. Early. New York: Oxford.

Cowie, M. and Crawford, M. 2007. Principal preparation – still an act of faith? School Leadership and Management 27 (2):129–146.

Cronje, F. J. 1990. Die opleiding van aspirant-skoolhoofde – watter taak verrig die skool? (The training of future principals – what is the duty of the school?) Die Unie 86 (8):218–219.

Department of Education, 2005. Leading and managing South African schools in the 21st century. The South African Standard for Principalship. Directorate: Education Management and Governance Development. Third draft, August.

Evers, C. and K. Katyal. 2007. Paradoxes of leadership: Contingencies and critical learning. South African Journal of Education 27 (3): 377–390.

Foster, R. 2004. Leadership and secondary school improvement: Case studies of tensions and possibilities. International Journal of Leadership in Education 8 (1):35–52.

Graczewski, C., J. Knudson and D. J. Holtzman. 2009. Instructional leadership in practice: What does It look like, and what influence does It have? Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk 14:72–96.

Heystek, J. and L. P. Calitz. 1994. Die indiensopleiding van skoolhoofde in bestuursbevoegdhede. (The in-service training of principals in management skills.) Pedagogiekjoernaal 15 (1):33–50

Levine, A. E. 2005. Educating school leaders. The Education Schools Project. Washington, D.C. Available at http://www.edschools.org/reports_leaders.htm. Accessed 2 April 2009.Mestry, R. and P. Singh. 2007. Continuing professional development for principals: A South African

perspective. South African Journal of Education, 27 (3): 477–490.Morgan, G. 1997. Images of Organization. 2nd ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Murphy, J. 2002. Reculturing the profession of educational leadership: New blueprints. Educational

Administration Quarterly 38(3):176–191.Neuman, W. L. 2000. Social research methods. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Onwuegbuzie, A. J., R. B. Johnson and K. M. T. Collins. 2009. Call for mixed analysis: A philosophical

framework for combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches 3:114–139.

Onguko, B., M. Abdalla and C. F. Webber. 2008. Mapping principal preparation in Kenya and Tanzania. Journal of Educational Administration 46 (6):715–726.

Republic of South Africa, 1998. Skills Development Act 97 of 1998. Pretoria: Government Printer.Republic of South Africa, 1999. Skills Development Levies Act 9 of 1999. Pretoria: Government Printer.Scott, S. and C. F. Webber. 2008. Evidence-based leadership development: The 4L framework. Journal of

Educational Administration 46 (6):762–776.Sherman, A. 2008. Using case studies to visualize success with first year principals. Journal of Educational

Administration 46 (6):752–761.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tem

ple

Uni

vers

ity L

ibra

ries

] at

08:

59 1

7 N

ovem

ber

2014

167


Slater, C. L., J. M. Garcia and G. L. Gorosave. 2008. Challenges of a successful first-year principal in Mexico. Journal of Educational Administration 46 (6):702–714.

Swanepoel, C. 2009. A comparison between the views of teachers in South Africa and six other countries on involvement in school change. South African Journal of Education 29:461–474.

Authors

Kobus Mentz is professor in Educational Management and Leadership in the Faculty of Education Sciences, Potchefstroom Campus, North-West University, South Africa. He specialises in principal preparation, organisational issues regarding the school and diversity in schools.

Charles F. Webber is Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Human, Social and Educational Development at Thompson Rivers University in British Columbia, Canada. His current research focuses on cross-cultural leadership development, including technology-mediated leadership development, and also on student assessment policies and practices. During his career as an educator he has served as a classroom teacher, curriculum consultant, principal, associate dean and professor. His work appears in national and international journals and he has served as an invited presenter in conferences, seminars, and workshops in North America, Europe, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, New Zealand and Australia.

Johannes L. van der Walt, who was until the end of 2000 Dean of the Faculty of Education at the former Potchefstroom University for CHE, is a specialist researcher in the School of Education at the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University, South Africa. Although specialising in Philosophy of Education, in the last 10 years his collaboration with researchers from a variety of institutions, both in South Africa and abroad, has led him to do research and provide research guidance in a variety of disciplines.

Corresponding author

Kobus MentzNorth-West UniversityPrivate Bag X6001Potchefstroom, 2520 South AfricaE-mail: kobus.mentzQnwu.ac.za

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tem

ple

Uni

vers

ity L

ibra

ries

] at

08:

59 1

7 N

ovem

ber

2014

Documents

Novice principals from Canada and South Africa share their experiences