Upload
duongliem
View
215
Download
1
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Notes
Introduction: Exploring a New Trajectory in Interreligious Encounter
1. A. Christian van Gorder, No God But God: A Path to Muslim-Christian
Dialogue on God’s Nature (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2003),
backcover.
2. Martin Forward’s analysis of the meaning of the term “dia-logue” is
helpful here. He affirms that “dia-logue signifies worldviews being
argued through to significant and potentially transformative conclu-
sions, for one or more participants.” See his Inter-religious Dialogue:
A Short Introduction (Oxford: Oneworld, 2001), 12. Interreligious
dialogue entails a conscious effort to think and grapple with one’s reli-
gious identity and its concomitant credentials. It involves consciously
thinking through one’s own tradition. It is not a sloppy affirmation of
religious doctrines. Rather, it is an attempt to engage in deep theologi-
cal reflections.
3. Israel Selvanayagam, “Inter-Faith Dialogue: A Clarification of
Perspectives and Issues,” Current Dialogue 23 (December 1992): 20.
4. Arvind Sharma, “Towards a Theory of Dialogue,” Current Dialogue
32 (December 1998): 36.
5. For an in-depth analysis of this phenomenon, see David Daniels,
“Reterritorizing the West in World Christianity: Black North Atlantic
Christianity and the Edinburgh Conferences of 1910 and 2010,”
Journal of World Christianity 5 (2012): 102–23.
6. Diana L. Eck, A New Religious America: How a “Christian Country”
Has Become the World’s Most Religiously Diverse Nation (New York:
HarperCollins, 2001).
7. “President Addresses the Ghanaian Parliament in Accra,” July 11,
2009, Accra, Ghana, http://www.uspolicy.be/headline/obama’s-
speech-ghana.
8. Bernard Lewis, The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror (New
York: Modern Library, 2003), 5.
9. See “Hold Your Nose and Talk,” The Economist, September 29,
2012.
NOT ES184
10. Farid Esack, quoted in Union Now, 3 (Summer 2013): 24.
11. For a good study on this phenomenon, see Daniel Smith-Christopher,
ed., Subverting Hatred: The Challenges of Nonviolence in Religious
Traditions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2007).
1 Interpretations: Toward a New Approach in Christian-Muslim Encounters
1. For detailed studies of different models and voices in Christian-
Muslim relations, see Nasir Khan, Perceptions of Islam in Christendom:
A Historical Survey (Oslo: Solum Forlag, 2006); A. Hourani, Western
Attitudes Towards Islam (Southampton: University of Southampton,
1974); B. Z. Kedar, Crusade and Mission: European Approaches
Toward the Muslim (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984);
Michael Frassetto and David R. Blanks, eds., Western Views of Islam
in Medieval and Early Europe (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999);
Montgomery Watt, Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions and
Misperception (London and New York: Routledge, 1991); Yvonne
Y. Haddad and Wadi Z. Haddad, eds., Christian-Muslim Encounters
(Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995); Jean-Marie Gaudeul,
Encounters & Clashes: Islam and Christianity in History, 2 vols.
(Rome: Pontificio Instituto di Studi Arabi e Islamici, 1990); N. A.
Newman, ed., The Early Christian-Muslim Dialogue: A Collections
of Documents from the First Three Islamic Centuries (632–900
A.D.) (Pennsylvania: Interdisciplinary Biblical Research Institute,
1993) Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face to Face (London:
Oneworld, 1997); Hugh Goddard, A History of Christian-Muslim
Relations (New Amsterdam Books, 2000); O. N. Mohammed,
Muslim-Christian Relations: Past, Present, and Future (Maryknoll,
NY: Orbis Books, 1999); M. A. Anees, S. Z. Abedin, and Z. Sardar,
Christian-Muslim Relations: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow (London:
Grey Seal, 1991); and H. P. Goddard, Christians and Muslims: From
Double Standards to Mutual Understanding (London: Curzon,
1995).
2. This is the title of the two-volume compilation of the various ways
Christians and Muslims have interacted with each other since the
seventh century.
3. A good study of the demographic distribution of Muslims all over
the world is Byron L. Haines and Frank L. Cooley, eds., Christians
and Muslims Together: An Exploration by Presbyterians (Philadelphia:
Geneva Press, 1987)
4. For a good introduction to the global dimension in world religions,
see Mark Juergensmeyer, ed., Global Religions: An Introduction (New
York: Oxford University Press, 2003).
5. Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion Is Christianity? The Gospel beyond the
West (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2003), 56.
NOT ES 185
6. See Richard W. Rousseau, Christianity & Islam: The Struggling
Dialogue (Scranton: University of Scranton Press, 2005).
7. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, “Islamic-Christian Dialogue: Problems and
Obstacles to be Pondered and Overcome,” Islam and Christian-
Muslim Relations 2 (July 2000): 213.
8. Runnymede Trust (Commission on British Muslims and Islamo-
phobia), Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All (London: Runnymede
Trust, 1997).
9. Mark Juergensmeyer has theorized that warfare organizes people
into a “we” and a “they.” This way of looking at reality “organizes
social history into a storyline of persecution, conflict, and the hope
of redemption, liberation, and conquest.” See his Terror in the Mind
of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 2003), 173.
10. Wole Soyinka, “Religion against Humanity,” lecture at the 2012
Conference on the Culture of Peace and Non-Violence, United
Nations Headquarters, New York, September 21, 2012, 1.
11. Desmond Tutu, cited in www.excellentquotations.com, accessed
on March 13, 2013. Charles Kimball adds more emphasis to this
dimension. According to him, “within the religious traditions that
have stood the test of time, one finds the life-affirming faith that
has sustained and provided meaning for millions over the centu-
ries. At the same time, we can identify the corrupting influences
that lead toward evil and violence in all religious traditions.” See
Charles Kimball, When Religion Becomes Evil: Five Warning Signs
(New York: HarperCollins, 2002), 5.
12. In a terse reference to the manipulative tendency of religion, Zhara,
the heroine in the movie The Stoning of Soraya M remarked that
the Mullah can “make a snake to swallow its tail.” This comment
underscores the volatility of religion and how it can be used to
orchestrate and validate selfish and narrow motives. Set in the con-
text of post-Khomeini Iran, the movie is a gripping account of the
pernicious potential of religion. The conspiracy to publicly stone an
innocent woman accused of adultery was sanctioned by the religious
authority.
13. Gavin D’Costa has argued that religious conflicts are often tainted
by political considerations. See his Christianity and World Religions:
Disputed Questions in the Theology of Religions (Chichester: Wiley-
Blackwell, 2009), 87–91.
14. Ninian Smart, Worldviews: Crosscultural Explorations of Human
Beliefs (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2000), 5.
15. The word “encounter” captures the complexity and the dynamism of
the interaction among Christians and Muslims in Africa. The word
can be traced to the Latin contra, meaning “against,” or to the old
French encontrer, which refers to the meeting of rivals. The word
underscores the ambivalence that is involved in relationships and
NOT ES186
interactions. For a good analysis of this perspective, see Benjamin
F. Soares, “Muslim-Christian Encounters in Africa,” in Muslim-
Christian Encounters in Africa, ed. Benjamin F. Soares (Leiden:
Brill, 2006), 3.
16. For a good analysis, see Martin Buss, “The Idea of Sitz in Leben—
History and Critique,” Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche
Wissenschaft 90 (1978): 157–70.
17. Kenneth Cragg, Sandals at the Mosque: Christian Presence amid
Islam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959), 19.
18. A firm affirmation of diversity is affirmed in the Qur’an. See Surat
Al-Hujurat 49:13: “O mankind, indeed we have created you from
male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know
one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the
most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is knowing and acquainted.”
19. For a good analysis of this perspective, see Dale T. Irvin, Hearing
Many Voices (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).
20. Paul F. Knitter has developed four models to account for the vari-
ous Christian responses to Islam. They are: replacement, fulfillment,
mutuality, and acceptance. This first acknowledges that Christianity
is the only true religion. The second model affirms the elements of
truth and grace in other religions. The third states that there are
many true religions, without saying that one religion is superior to
the other. The last model affirms the diversity of religions with-
out the need to create a common ground among them. See Paul F.
Knitter, Introducing Theologies of Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis
Books, 2002.
21. Sulayman S. Nyang, Islam, Christianity, and African Identity
(Vermont: Amana, 1984), 84. Lamin Sanneh has however cautioned
that Sudan is the only black African country where these two pro-
cesses worked effectively. He affirms that in the rest of the continent,
one can only speak of the use of the sacred Arabic language as the
most visible sign of Islamization.
22. Lamin Sanneh, West African Christianity: The Religious Impact
(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1983), xvi.
23. Kwame Nkrumah, Conscientism (London: Heinemann, 1964),
93–94.
24. Ali Mazrui, “Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa,” in The Oxford
Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, ed. John L. Esposito (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 264.
25. See Madeleine Albright, The Mighty and the Almighty: Reflections
on America, God, and World Affairs (New York: Harper Perennial,
2007).
26. Monica Duffy Toft, Daniel Philpott, and Timothy Samuel Shah,
God’s Century: Resurgent Religion and Global Politics (New York: W.
W. Norton, 2011), 32.
27. Ibid., 56.
NOT ES 187
28. For further discussion on this issue, see Pippa Norris and Ronald
Inglehart, Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
29. On the shift in world Christianity, see Dana L. Robert, “Shifting
Southward: Global Christianity since 1945,” International Bulletin
of Missionary Research (April 2000): 50–58, Philip Jenkins, “The
Next Christianity,” The Atlantic Monthly 290.3, (October 2002):
55–68, Wilbert R. Shenk, “Recasting Theology of Mission: Impulses
from the Non-Western World,” International Bulletin of Missionary
Research (July 2001): 98–106, Peter C. Phan, “A New Christianity,
But What Kind?” Mission Studies 22.1 (2005): 59–83, Paul V.
Kollman, “After Church History: Writing the History of Christianity
from a Global Perspective,” Horizons 31.2 (2004), 322–42; Philip
Jenkins, “After The Next Christendom,” International Bulletin of
Missionary Research (January 2004): 20–22.
30. David Brook, quoted in Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion Is Christianity?
The Gospel beyond the West, 7–8.
31. Ibid., 7.
32. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, “Muslim-Christian Interrelations Histori-
cally: An Interpretation,” in his On Understanding Islam: Selected
Studies (Berlin: Walter De Gruyter., 2000), 262.
33. Ibid., 249.
34. See Peter C. Phan, Being Religious Interreligiously: Asian Perspectives
on Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004) for an excellent
analysis of multireligious belonging, especially pp. 60–78. According
to him, “if non-Christian religions contain ‘elements of truth and
grace’ and if they may be considered ways of salvation from whose
doctrinal teachings, sacred texts, moral practices, monastic traditions,
and rituals and worship Christianity can and should benefit through
dialogue, then there should be no theological objection and canoni-
cal censure against someone wishing to be a Christian and at the
same time to follow some doctrinal teachings and religious practices
of, for example, Buddhism or Confucianism or Hinduism, as long as
these are not patently contradictory to Christian faith and morals”
(65–66). See also Catherine Cornille, ed., Many Mansions? Multiple
Religious Belonging and Christian Identity (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis
Books, 2002). However, an African perspective would have added a
much-needed dimension to the case studies examined in the book.
Some of the avid practitioners of multiple religious belonging are
Swami Abhishiktananda, Charles Foucault, Thomas Merton, Bede
Griffith, Raimon Panikkar, and Aloysius Pieris.
35. Raimon Panikkar, The Intra-religious Dialogue (New York: Paulist
Press, 1978), 2.
36. For a good discussion of the historical development of Hinduism, see
A. L. Basham, The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1989). Shankara (788–820),
NOT ES188
one of India’s greatest saints and philosophers, provides a good
analysis of the philosophical underpinnings of the Advaita Vedanta
tradition. He was an embodiment of tremendous wisdom and holi-
ness that he was viewed as an incarnation of Shiva; hence the name
Shankara, which means, “he who brings/bestows blessings.”
37. Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, trans. Swami Prabhavananda
and Frederick Manchester (New York: Mentor Books, 1957), 46.
38. For his analysis of the dipolar connections between the plurality of
religions and the plurality of victims, see Aloysius Pieris, An Asian
Theology of Liberation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1988); Aloysius
Pieris, Love Meets Wisdom: A Christian Experience of Buddhism
(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1989); and Aloysius Pieris, Fire and
Water: Basic Issues in Asian Buddhism and Christianity (Maryknoll,
NY: Orbis Books, 1988).
39. This is the central argument of Samuel Huntington’s “Clash of
Civilization,” Foreign Affairs 72.3 (1993): 22–49.
40. Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians: Face to Face (Oxford: One
World, 2000), 2.
41. Paul F. Knitter, “Common Ground or Common Response? Seeking
Foundations for Interreligious Discourse,” Studies in Interreligious
Dialogue 2 (1992): 114.
42. Some observers maintain that the crux of the issue is not conflict
among religions but rather a “clash of ignorance.” Misinformation
and misconceptions promote interreligious bigotry, hatred, and
violence.
43. Samuel Huntington, quoted in Mahmood Mamdani, Good Muslim,
Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the Roots of Terror (New
York: Doubleday, 2004), 20–21.
44. Ataulalla Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth
Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997), 54.
45. Amir Hussain, “ Life as a Muslim Scholar of Islam in Post–9/11
America,” in Subverting Hatred: The Challenge of Nonviolence in
Religious Traditions, ed. Daniel L. Smith-Christopher (Maryknoll,
NY: Orbis Books, 2007), 139.
46. Charles Amjad-Ali, “Theological and Historical Rationality behind
Christian-Muslim Relations,” in Islam in Asia: Perspectives for
Christian-Muslim Encounter, ed. J. P. Rajashekar and H. S. Wilson
(Geneva, Switzerland: Lutheran World Federation, 1992), 14.
47. Ibid., 8.
48. Ibid., 6.
49. Several scholars such as Lamin Sanneh, Andrew Walls, Philip
Jenkins, Ogbu Kalu, Dale Irvin, Jehu Henciles, Kwame Bediako,
and Peter Phan have elaborated on this new radical shift in world
Christianity. In the blurb for Jenkins’s book, The Next Christendom,
Sanneh remarked, “the worldwide resurgence of Christianity is a vig-
orous movement in our day, and it coincides with the waning of the
NOT ES 189
religion in what is now a post-Christian West—the pace of develop-
ments in post-colonial societies shows no sign of slackening.”
50. Ataullah Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth
Century, 55.
51. For a good analysis on the dignity of the other, see Edward E.
Sampson, Celebrating the Other: A Dialogical Account of Human
Nature (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993).
52. It is important to point out here that the idea of Otherness is new to
African studies. Elias Bongmba used the idea of the Other, based on
the philosophy of Emmanuel Levinas, to study the ethics of witch-
craft. See Elias K. Bongmba, African Witchcraft and Otherness: A
Philosophical and Theological Analysis of Intersubjective Relations
(Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2001).
2 Glimpses of the Terrain: The Cross, The Crescent, and the Nigerian Terrain
1. Noel Quinton King, Christians and Muslims in Africa (London:
Harper and Row, 1971); Benjamin F. Soares, ed., Muslim-Christian
Encounters in Africa (Leiden: Brill Academic Publishing, 2006); Lissi
Rasmussen, Christian and Muslim Relations in Africa: The Case of
Northern Nigeria and Tanzania (I. B. Tauris, 1993); Lamin Sanneh,
Piety and Power: Muslims and Christians in West Africa (Maryknoll,
NY: Orbis Books, 1997); Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and the Turban:
Muslims and West African Pluralism (Boulder, CO: Westview Press,
1996); Andrew Walls, “Africa as the Theatre of Christian Engagement
with Islam in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Religion in Africa 29
(1999): 155–74; Gabriel Maduka Okafor, Development of Christianity
and Islam in Modern Nigeria (Wurzburg: Echter, 1992); Cokkie
Van’t-Leven, “Africa’s Tradition of Peaceful Co-existence: Threatened
Dream or Lasting Reality,” in Muslims and Christians in Europe:
Breaking New Grounds, ed. Dirk Mulder et al. (Kampen: Uitgeverik
Kok, 1999), 15–20; and John Voll, “African Muslims and Christians
in World History: The Irrelevance of the Clash of Civilizations,”
in Muslim-Christian Encounters in Africa, ed. Benjamin F. Soares
(Leiden: Brill Academic Publishing, 2006), 17–38.
2. Lamin Sanneh, “Christian Experience of Islamic Da’wah, With
Particular Reference to Africa,” International Review of Mission, 260
(October 1979): 410.
3. It should be noted that as a religious tradition that started after the
time of Christ, Islam has always presented a formidable theological
challenge to Christianity in terms of Prophet Muhammad’s status
and the Qur’an as the Word of God. For an excellent study of the
theological differences between Islam and Christianity, see Christian
van Gorder, No God but God: A Path to Muslim-Christian Discussion
about the Nature of God (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2003).
NOT ES190
4. Chinua Achebe, The Trouble With Nigeria (Oxford: Heinemann,
1983), 12.
5. Rotberg, quoted in Nasir El-Rufai, “Nigeria: Political Dynamics and
Prospects for Reform,” www.modernghana.com/news, 1.
6. See www.refworld.org for this important report.
7. Several commentators still have serious questions about the corporate
existence of Nigeria. According to Karl Maier, “the Nigerian state
is like a battered and bruised elephant staggering toward an abyss
with the ground crumbling under its feet.” See his This House Has
Fallen: Midnight in Nigeria (Public Affairs, 2000), xx. In the words
of Adebayo Williams, “like a badly mauled elephant suffering a thou-
sand cuts, Nigeria lurches about in wild disorientation, stomping and
stamping as life drains away,” in his “Towards the Transformation
of Nigeria: A Jubilee of Elite Infamy,” http://nigeriaworld.com/
articles/2003/Oct/201.html, October 20, 2003, p. 1. In another
caustic observation, another Nigeria scholar states that the present
Nigerian state is faced with “darkness and decadence, poverty and
prostitution of power, greed and graft, incompetence and inertia.”
See Femi Ojo-Ade, “Dividends of a Nascent Democracy,” http://
nigeriaworld.com/articles/2001/jun/23/231.html, June 23, 2001,
p. 4. In the words of Tam David-West, “Nigeria is like a one-act
play, like a broken disc permanently stuck in a groove,” http://nige-
riaworld.com/feature/publication/chidi-achebe/061405.html, June
14, 2006, p. 6. Speaking on the debacle of political inertia bedevil-
ing many nations in Africa and specifically Nigeria, Chinua Achebe
remarked, “We are like the man in the Igbo proverb who does not
know where the rain began to beat him and so cannot say where he
dried his body.” See his “Nigeria’s Promise, Africa’s Hope,” New York
Times, January 15, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/16/
opinion/16achebe.html.According to Niyi Akinnaso, “the theory of
the absurd life is even more applicable today as Nigeria engages in a
freefall due to endless repetitions of the same mistakes and maladies.”
See Niyi Akinnaso, “Nigeria as the Theatre of the Absurd,” Punch,
July 3, 2012, http://www.punchng.com/viewpoint/nigeria-as-the-
theatre-of-the-absurd/. For an excellent study on the potentials and
pitfalls of Nigeria, see John Campbell, Nigeria: Dancing on the Brink
(Lanham: Rowan & Littlefield, 2011).
8. See “Persecution of Christians in Northern Nigeria,” on Anglican
Mainstream, January 20, 2012.
9. See “The Report on the Inter-religious Tensions in Nigeria,” www.
Oikoumene.org, 9.
10. U. Danfulani and S. Fwatshak, “Briefing: The September 2001
Events in Jos, Nigeria,” African Affairs 101 (2002): 243–55; M.
Last, “Muslims and Christians in Nigeria: An Economy of Political
Panic,” The Roundtable: The Commonwealth Journal of International
NOT ES 191
Affairs 392 (October 2007): 605–16; and H. Mang, “Discussions
on the Sectarian Violence of the 28th of November to the 1st of
December in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria,” unpublished paper.
11. For a good historical understanding of this complexity, see Toyin
Falola and Matthew M. Heaton, A History of Nigeria (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2010).
12. Ibid., 109.
13. See Nigeria: Violence Fuelled by Impunity, Human Rights Watch
Report, London, May 22, 2005.
14. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, “Islam,” in Our Religions, ed. Arvind Sharma
(New York: HarperCollins, 1993), 427.
15. Charlotte A. Quinn and Frederick Quinn, Pride, Faith, and Fear:
Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa (New York: Oxford University Press,
2003), 3.
16. It should be noted that the Izalatul Bidi’a wa Ikamatul Sunna, pop-
ularly known as Izala, began as an anti-Sufi movement. Its leader, the
late Alhaji Gumi, was a dominant leader in Islam in the early 1960s.
17. S. I. Cissoko, “The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century,”
in Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, ed. D. T. Niane
(London: Heinemann, 1984), 209.
18. Quoted in Peter B. Clarke, West African and Islam (London: Edward
Arnold, 1982), 260.
19. See S. U. Balogun, “Arabic Intellectualism in West Africa: The
Role of the Sokoto Caliphate,” Journal Institute of Muslim Minority
Affairs 6 (July 1985): 394–411.
20. Thomas Hodgkin, Nigerian Perspectives: An Historical Anthology
(London: Oxford University Press, 1975), 247–48.
21. Ibid.
22. Mervyn Hiskett, quoted in Lamin Sanneh, “Christian Experience of
Islamic Da‘wah, With Particular Reference to Africa,” International
Review of Mission, 65 (October 1976): 416.
23. Quoted in John Alembillah Azumah, The Legacy of Arab-Islam in
Africa: A Quest for Inter-Religious Dialogue (Oxford: Oneworld,
2001), 11–12.
24. Ibid.
25. For a good analysis of the confrontation between colonial powers and
the forces of dan Fodio, see Toyin Falola, Colonialism and Violence
in Nigeria (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), 14–16.
26. See Jonathan Reynolds, “Good and Bad Muslims: Islam and Indirect
Rule in Northern Nigeria,” International Journal of African
Historical Studies 34 (2001): 601–18.
27. F. C. Ryder, Benin and the Europeans, 1485–1897 (London:
Longmans, 1969); O. U. Kalu, The History of Christianity in West
Africa (London: Longmans, 1980); C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese
Seaborne Empire (London: Hutchinson, 1969); J. H. Parry, Europe
NOT ES192
and a Wider World (London: Hutchinson, 1966); and Richard Gray,
Black Christians White Missionaries (New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press, 1990).
28. E. A. Ayandele, “External Relations with Europeans in the Nineteenth
Century: Explorers, Missionaries and Traders,” in Groundwork of
Nigerian History, ed. Obaro Ikime (Ibadan: Heinemann Educational
Books, 1984), 367.
29. Ibid., 369.
30. Ibid., 371.
31. Turner’s definition has to be expanded in light of contemporary
experience of globalization and border-crossing. Aladura churches
now include members from all nations.
32. James Webster, African Churches among the Yoruba, 1888–1922
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1964), 190.
33. The major monographs on Aladura Christianity includes H. W.
Turner, African Independent Church, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1967); J. D. Y. Peel, Aladura: A Religious Movement among
the Yoruba (London: Oxford University Press for the International
African Institute, 1968); J. Akinyele Omoyajowo, Cherubim and
Seraphim: The History of an African Independent Church (New York
and Lagos: Nok, 1982); Deji Ayegboyin and S. Ademola Ishola,
African Indigenous Churches: An Historical Perspective (Lagos:
Greater Heights, 1997).
34. It is not appropriate to put the stamp of syncretism on Aladura
churches. They vigorously reject any element of traditional religious
beliefs and practices which they view as evil and opposed to the
Christian faith.
35. On the demonization of African Traditional Religions, see Rosalind
I. J. Hackett, “Discourses on Demonization in Africa and Beyond,”
Diogenes 50 (2003): 61–75; Ogbu U. Kalu, “Estranged Bedfellows?
The Demonization of the Aladura in African in African Pentecostal
Rhetoric,” Missionalia 28 (2000): 121–42; Kalu, “Preserving a
Worldview: Pentecostalism in the African Maps of the Universe,”
Pneuma 24 (2002): 110–37; Kalu, “Pentecostal and Charismatic
Reshaping of the African Religious Landscape,” Mission Studies 20
(2003): 84–111; and Kalu, The Embattled Gods: Christianization of
Igboland, 1841–1991 (Trenton, NJ and Asmara, Eritrea: Africa World
Press, 2003), 334.
36. See Rosalind I. J. Hackett, “Radical Christian Revivalism in
Nigeria and Ghana: Recent Patterns of Intolerance and Conflict,”
in Proselytization and Communal Self-Determination in Africa, ed.
Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1999),
246–67; Hackett, “Managing or Manipulating Religious Conflict in
the Nigerian Media,” in Mediating Religion: Conversations in Media,
Religion and Culture, ed. Jolyon Mitchell and Sophia Marriage
NOT ES 193
(London and New York: T & T Clark, 2003), 47–63; Matthews
A. Ojo, “American Pentecostalism and the Growth of Pentecostal-
Charismatic Movements in Nigeria,” in Freedom’s Distant Shores:
American Protestants and Post-Colonial Alliances with Africa, ed.
Drew Smith (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2006), 115–67; and
Ruth Marshall-Fratani, “Mediating the Global and Local in Nigerian
Pentecostalism,” in Between Babel and Pentecost: Transnational
Pentecostalism in Africa and Latin America, ed. Andre Corten and
Ruth Marshall-Fratani (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
2001), 80–105.
37. See Afis O. Oladosu and Habibah O. Uthman-Oladosu, “The
Cross, the Crescent, and the Media in Nigeria,” in Fractured
Spectrum: Perspectives on Christian-Muslim Encounters in Nigeria,
ed. Akintunde E. Akinade (New York: Peter Lang, 2013), 30–42.
38. Matthew Hassan Kukah and Kathleen McGarvey, “Christian-Muslim
Dialogue in Nigeria: Social, Political, and Theological Dimensions,”
in Fractured Spectrum: Perspectives on Christian-Muslim Encounters
in Nigeria (New York: Peter Lang, 2013), 14.
39. For a good study on the subject, see Daniel Jordan Smith, A Culture
of Corruption: Everyday Deception and Popular Discontent in Nigeria
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008).
40. Chinua Achebe, The Trouble with Nigeria (Oxford: Heinemann,
1983), 38.
41. One of the blatant attacks on Christians was the Christmas Day
bombing of St. Theresa’s Catholic Church in Maddalla, Suleja City,
Niger State. The attack on St. Theresa led to the removal of the
inspector general of Nigeria’s police, Mr. Hafiz Ringim, who had
wittingly or unwittingly allowed the prime suspect to escape police
custody. Femi Fani-Kayode, one of the ardent commentators on the
Nigerian situation has remarked that “Nigeria has become an abat-
toir of human flesh and blood under the tenure of Jonathan and
all those who support him should bury their heads in shame.” See
http://www.osundefender.org/September 30, 213.
42. See Spiraling Violence: Boko Haram Attacks and Security Force Abuses
in Nigeria, Human Rights Watch Report, 2012, 40.
43. On a positive note, the Islamic Development Bank in conjunction
with the Nigerian government has announced the setting up of a
$98 million Almajiri education fund to promote bilingual education
and improve Almajiri schooling.
44. While the Nigerian government has the responsibility to protect its
citizens from terror, it must, however, take into consideration inter-
national human rights laws connected with the use of force by its
security agents, the treatment of detainees, and the need to hold
speedy and transparent trials. These rights are part of various inter-
national treaties, including the International Covenant on Civil and
NOT ES194
Political Rights and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’
Rights.
45. Lamin Sanneh, Summoned from the Margin: Homecoming of an
African (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012), 192.
46. Ibid., 193.
47. For an excellent analysis of some of these initiatives for peace and
reconciliation, see Rosalind Hackett, “Nigeria’s Religious Leaders
in an Age of Radicalism and Neoliberalism,” in Religious Leaders,
Conflict, and Peacemaking: Between Terror and Tolerance, ed.
Timothy D. Sick (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press,
2011), 123–44.
48. See Scott Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence,
and Reconciliation (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield, 2000).
49. For a good explanation of this phenomenon, see Francis Arinze,
Meeting Other Believers: The Risks and Rewards of Interreligious
Dialogue (Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division,
1998), 17–18.
50. On the religious change in Yorubaland, see J. D. Y. Peel, “The Pastor
and the Babalawo: The Interaction of Religions in Nineteenth-
Century Yorubaland,” Africa 60 (1990): 338–69; J. D. Y. Peel,
“Religious Change in Yorubaland,” Africa, 37 (July 1967): 292–
306; H. J. Fisher, “Conversion Reconsidered: Some Historical
Aspects of Religious Conversion in Black Africa,” Africa 43 (1973):
27–40; H. J. Fisher, “The Juggernaut’s Apologia,” Africa 55 (1983):
153–73; and Matthew Hassan Kukah and Toyin Falola, Religious
Militancy and Self-Assertion (Aldershot: Avebury, 1996), especially
Chapter four on “Rumblings below the River Niger: Protest by
Yoruba Muslims,” pp. 65–97.
51. J. D. Y. Peel, “Islam and Christianity through the Prism of Yoruba
History,” a lecture for the eightieth birthday celebration of Professor
J. F. Ade Ajayi, April 28, 2009, p. 2.
52. John N. Paden, Muslim Civil Cultures and Conflict Resolution: The
Challenge of Democratic Federalism in Nigeria (Washington, DC:
Brookings Institute, 2005), 109.
53. See Adeagbo Akinjogbin, Dahomey and Its Neighbors 1708–1818
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967).
54. Jacob K. Olupona, ed. Religion and Peace in Multifaith Nigeria
(Ibadan, Nigeria: African Books Collective, 1992), 145.
55. Charles Amjad-Ali, “Theological and Historical Rationality Behind
Christian-Muslim Relations,” in Islam in Asia: Perspectives for
Christian-Muslim Encounter, ed. J. P. Rajashekar and H. S. Wilson
(Geneva: Lutheran World Federation, 1992),14.
56. Ibid., 7–8.
57. Pope John Paul II, “Address to Participants in the Annual Meeting
between the Secretariat for Non-Christians and the WCC Sub-Unit
on Dialogue,” Bulletin 62 (1986): 146.
NOT ES 195
58. Paul Gifford, The New Crusaders: Christianity and the New Right in
Southern Africa (London: Pluto, 1991).
59. Peter L. Berger, “The Desecularization of the World: A Global
Overview” in The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion
and World Politics, ed. Peter L. Berger (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans,
1999), 2.
60. For an excellent study of religious violence in Nigeria, see Toyin
Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular
Ideologies (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1998).
61. The International Religious Freedom Report for 2012 issued by the
US stated that “in Nigeria, Boko Haram extremists violently mur-
dered hundreds of Christians and Muslims during the year. The
group often targeted political and ethnic rivals, religious leaders,
businesses, homes, police stations, military installations, churches,
mosques, and rural villages, using assault rif les, bombs, suicide car
bombings, and suicide vests.” http://www.this daylive.com/articles/
us-religious-freedom-report, 2.
62. Mark Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of
Religious Violence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003),
248.
63. For an excellent clarification of this terminology, see Appleby, The
Ambivalence of the Sacred, 10–15.
64. John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, God Is Back: How Global
Revival of Faith is Changing the World (New York: Penguin, 2009),
297.
65. Cited in Amos Yong, Hospitality and the Other: Pentecost, Christian
Practices, and the Neighbor (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books: 2008), 19.
66. Ibid.
67. This dimension can be classified under what Paul Hedges referred
to as “human dialogue.” See Paul Hedges, Controversies in
Interreligious Dialogue and the Theology of Religions (London: SCM
Press, 2010), 61.
68. Wole Soyinka, “ Between Nation Space and Nationhood,” www.
obafemiawolowofoundation.org, 20.
69. By 2050, Nigeria might have a population of about 300 million
people. By the end of the century, the population may increase to
half a billion. A nation of this size will definitely be a major regional
power. In 2000, the United States intelligence network mapped out
the major security risks over the next 15 years. The rise of ethno-
religious conflicts in Nigeria ranked highly among them.
70. See Simeon O. Ilesanmi, Religious Pluralism and the Nigerian State
(Athens: University of Ohio Press, 1997) for his prescription of dia-
logic politics as a viable model for grappling with religious pluralism
and the state in Nigeria.
71. When President Ibrahim Babangida set up a committee made up
of a balanced membership of Christians and Muslims known as
NOT ES196
the Advisory Council for Religious Affairs(ACRA), the committee
ended in a stalemate. It was a telling signal that interreligious issues
have deep political dimensions.
72. Afe Adogame, “Fighting for God or Fighting in God’s Name! The
Politics of Religious Violence in Contemporary Nigeria,” Religions 0
(2009): 182.
73. This idea resonates with what Paul Hedges referred to as “particu-
larities” and what David Ray Griffin described as “differential plural-
ism.” See Paul Hedges, Controversies in Interreligious Dialogue and
the Theology of Religions (London: SCM Press, 2010), 27–30 and
David Ray Griffin, “Religious Pluralism: Generic, Identist, Deep,”
in Deep Religious Pluralism, ed. David Ray Griffin (Louisville, KY:
Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 24.
3 Abiding Faith: Varieties of Christian Responses to Islam
1. Norman Daniel’s Islam and the West: The Making of an Image
(Oxford: Oneworld, 2009), documents the medieval origins and
understanding of Western Christian thinking about Islam. This clas-
sic study explores the political and religious considerations behind
skewed Western perspectives about Islam, examining Christian-
Muslim interaction from medieval times to the modern period.
2. For a good analysis of the Phenomenology of Religion, see Jason
N. Blum, “Retrieving Phenomenology of Religion as a Method for
Religious Studies,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 80
(December 2012): 1025–48.
3. Edward W. Said, Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts
Determine How We See the Rest of the World (New York: Random
House, 1997), 37.
4. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, “Islam” in Our Religions ed. Arvind Sharma
(New York: HarperOne, 1995), 435.
5. Norman Daniel, Islam and the West.
6. I should note that there were some positive appreciations of Islam even
at an early period. The opinion of the Catholicos Timothy I (728–
823) is apposite here. Asked by the Caliph al-Madhi to give his can-
did thoughts about Muhammad, Timothy responded: “Muhammad
is worthy of praise by all reasonable person, O my Sovereign. He
walked in the path of the prophets, and trod in tracks of the lovers
of God.” See Archbishop Michael L. Fitzgerald, “From Heresy to
Religion,” Pastoral Review (January 2011): 2. Timothy believed that
Muhammad must be praised for his uncompromising affirmation of
the doctrine of Tawhid, the unity of God, and for his willingness to
move his people away from all the trappings of the Jahilliyya period.
7. Quoted in Jean-Marie Gaudeaul, Encounters & Clashes: Islam and
Christianity in History II (Rome: Pontificio Istituto di Studi Arabi e
Islamici, 1990), 9.
NOT ES 197
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid., 18.
10. Ibid., 19.
11. On Al-Kindi and Aquinas, see Nasir Khan, Perceptions of Islam in the
Christendoms: A Historical Survey (Oslo: Solum Forlag, 2006).
12. Quoted in Gaudeaul, Encounters & Clashes, 130.
13. Ibid., 262.
14. David A. Kerr, “The Problem of Christianity in Muslim Perspective:
Implications for Christian Mission,” International Bulletin of
Missionary Research 5 (October 1981): 156.
15. See Walter Wink’s trilogy, Engaging the Powers, Naming the Powers,
and Unmasking the Powers for a comprehensive study of our world
from a theological perspective.
16. Bernard Lewis, Islam and the West (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1993), 6.
17. On Cragg’s theological consistency, see Christopher Lamb, The Call
to Retrieval: Kenneth Cragg’s Christian Vocation to Islam (London:
Grey Seal, 1997).
18. The work of Louis Massignon (1883–1962) represents another major
development in the Christian understanding of Islam. He maintained
that instead of looking at Islam from the outside and vociferously
attacking it, one must place oneself, by a kind of Copernican turn
around, at the very center of Islam. This approach leads to a more
objective understanding of Islam. A follower of Massignon, Giulio
Basetti-Sani, further developed Massignon’s ideas and counseled the
Church to adopt a positive approach to Islam and its tenets. For a
good study on Massignon, see Patrick Laude, Louis Massignon: The
Vow and the Oath (London: Matheson Trust, 2011).
19. David A. Kerr, “Christian Witness in Relation to Muslim Neighbors,”
Islamochristiana 10 (1984): 27.
20. Jane I. Smith, “Balancing Divergence and Convergence, or ‘Is God
the Author of Confusion?’” http://macdonald.hartsem.edu/smith-
art2.htm 2.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Knowledge and the Sacred (New York: Crossroad,
1981), 289.
24. Annemarie Schimmel, And Muhammad Is His Messenger (Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 54.
25. The Qur’an identifies the sin of takdhib as pervasive in human his-
tory—it smacks of kufr (unbelief), which causes people to utter “lies”
against God (S. 2:39) and God’s prophets (S. 23:44). This natural
rebellion against God led to the wanton persecution of God’s prophet
and to the reckless blasphemy against Muhammad (S. 6: 147).
26. See David A. Kerr, “He Walked in the Path of the Prophets:
Toward a Christian Theological Recognition of the Prophethood of
NOT ES198
Muhammed,” in Christian-Muslim Encounters, ed. Yvonne Yazbeck
Haddad and Wadi Z. Haddad (Gainesville: University Press of
Florida, 1995), 427.
27. Ibid.
28. Kenneth Cragg, quoted in Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face
to Face (Oxford: Oneworld, 1997), 197.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid., 198.
33. Lamin Sanneh, Summoned from the Margin: Homecoming of an
African (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012), 193.
34. Hamidullah, quoted in Christopher Lamb, The Call to Retrieval:
Kenneth Cragg’s Christian Vocation to Islam (London: Grey Seal,
1997), 123.
35. See Lamb, The Call to Retrieval, 124.
36. Ibid., 125.
37. Ibid., 124.
38. For an excellent study of Christian responses to other religions, see
Jacques Dupuis, Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism
(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2002); Paul F. Knitter, No Other
Name? A Critical Survey of Christian Attitudes Toward the World
Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1985); Paul F. Knitter,
Theology of Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2002); and Paul
Hedges, Controversies in Interreligious Dialogue and Theology of
Religions (London: SMC Press, 2010).
39. On the connections between theology and contextualization, see
Steven R. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology (Maryknoll, NY:
Orbis Books, 1992).
40. The Second Vatican Council alluded to the importance of con-
textualization in theological reflections. The principle of contex-
tualization is evident in the missionary decree, Ad gentes, where
contextualization deals with the incarnation of the message of Christ
in non-Christian cultures. The Churches in other contexts belong
within the whole “economy of the incarnation.” Ad gentes speaks
of the adaptation of the cultural riches of nations into the life of the
Church. For instance, a Christian in a missionary situation should
strive to know “the riches which the generous God has distributed
among nation.” (AG 11.2).
41. Ukpong, quoted in David A. Kerr, “New Models in Christian-
Muslim Relations,” Unpublished paper, 12.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. Paul Ricouer, quoted in Emmanuel Martey, African Theology:
Inculturation and Liberation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books,
1997), 54.
NOT ES 199
45. Stephen B. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology (Maryknoll, NY:
Orbis Books, 1992), 5.
46. Ibid.
47. Ibid.
48. Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Theology Brewed in an African Pot
(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008), 152–3.
49. For excellent studies of Vatican II, see W. Abbott, The Documents
of Vatican II: Introductions and Commentaries (London: Geoffrey
Chapman, 1966); Miikka Ruokanen, The Catholic Doctrine of Non-
Christian Religions According to the Second Vatican Council (Leiden:
Brill, 1992); Michael L. Fitzgerald, “From Heresy to Religion,”
Pastoral Review (January 2004): 1–7; and Robert B. Sheard,
Interreligious Dialogue in the Catholic Church Since Vatican II: A
Historical and Theological Study (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press,
1987).
50. See Ataullah Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth
Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997), 36–38, for a good
explanation of the Lumen Gentium.
51. Quoted in Peter C. Phan, Being Religious Interreligiously: Asian
Perspectives on Interfaith Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books,
2004), xxii.
52. Ibid.
53. Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue, 425.
54. Ibid., 425–6.
55. See Phan, Being Religious Interreligiously, xxiii.
56. Knitter, No Other Name, 124.
57. Ibid.
58. See Jacques Dupuis, Jesus Christ at the Encounter of World Religions
(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991).
59. H. Maurier, quoted in Jacques Dupuis, Toward a Christian Theology
of Religious Pluralism (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1997), 169.
60. “Guidelines for Dialogue between Muslims and Christians,” Rome,
1971, 17.
61. For a good account of the responses of the Catholic Church to
interreligious dialogue, see Michael L. Fitzgerald and John Borelli,
Interfaith Dialogue: A Catholic View (Maryknoll, NY; and London:
Orbis Books and SPCK, 2006).
62. Ibid., 30.
63. In the post-conciliar period, the work of Pope John Paul II gave
more clarification and guidance for interreligious dialogue within
the Catholic church. Through his writings and visits, he was able
to give concrete affirmation to the willingness of the church to
embrace other religious traditions. During his visit to West Africa,
he acknowledged the peaceful interreligious coexistence in many
African communities. In his 1990 encyclical on mission, he affirms
that the Holy Spirit is present “not only in individuals but also in
NOT ES200
society and history, peoples, cultures, and religions (Redemptoris
missio, no. 28). He also affirmed that there is the abiding presence
and action of the Spirit of God among followers of other religions.
Jacques Dupuis remarked that he “laid the theological basis for the
significance of interreligious dialogue in the mission of the church.”
See Dupuis, Toward a Christian Theology, 360. For further articula-
tion of Pope John Paul II on interreligious dialogue, see Byron L.
Sherwin and Harold Kasimow, eds., Pope Paul II and Interreligious
Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1999).
64. For a good study on the World Council of Churches, see Dirk C.
Mulder, “A History of the Sub-Unit on Dialogue of the World
Council of Churches,” Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 2 (1992):
136–51.
65. On the inner dynamics of the WCC, see S. Wesley Ariarajah, “Power,
Politics, and Plurality: The Struggles of the World Council of
Churches to Deal with Religious Plurality,” in The Myth of Religious
Superiority: A Multifaith Exploration, ed. Paul F. Knitter (Maryknoll,
NY: Orbis Books, 2005), 176–93.
66. See Kenneth Cracknell, In Good and Generous Faith: Christian
Responses to Religious Pluralism (Cleveland: Pilgrims Press, 2006),
106.
67. Guidelines on Dialogue with People of Living Faiths and Ideologies,
Geneva, WCC, 1979, 111.4.
68. Stuart E. Brown, Twenty Years of Christian-Muslim Conversations
Sponsored by the World Council of Churches (Geneva: World Council
of Churches, 1989), 3–5. The unit on dialogue was disbanded in
1991 and a new office on Inter-Religious Relations was created
within the General Secretariat. See also J. B. Taylor, ed., WCC Papers
on 10 Years of Christian-Muslim Dialogue (Geneva: World Council of
Churches, 1977).
69. Quoted in Cracknell, In Good and Generous Faith, 106.
70. Stanley Samartha, “Dialogue as a Continuing Christian Concern,”
in Christianity and Other Religions, ed. John Hick and Brian
Hebblethwaite (London: Collins, 1980), 151.
71. Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century, 30.
72. Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face to Face, 37.
73. One important meeting was held in Broumana in July 1972. Stanley
Samartha and John Taylor edited a book on some of the papers that
were presented at the conference. Some of the participants at the
conference were: Kenneth Cragg, Lamin Sanneh, George Anawati,
Michael Fitzgerald, George Khodr, Marston Speight, Willem
Bijlefeld, Mahmoud Ayoub, Wadi Haddad, Anwar Harjono, Hasan
Askari, Mahmoud Husain, and Hassan Saab. It was an initiative that
led to other meetings on Christian-Muslim dialogue all over the
world.
NOT ES 201
74. Isma’il R. Al-Faruqi, “Islam and Other Faiths,” in The Challenge of
Islam, ed. Altaf Gauhar (London: Islamic Council of Europe, 1978),
175.
75. Quoted in Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth
Century, 73.
76. Kenneth Cragg, “In the Name of God . . . ” in Christian-Muslim
Dialogue, ed. S. J. Samartha and J. B. Taylor (Geneva: World Council
of Churches, 1973), 154.
4 Cross Meets Crescent: Forms of Christian Responses to Islam
1. On PROCMURA, see Stuart E. Brown, “A Christian Approach
to Islam in Africa,” in A Great Commission: Christian Hope and
Religious Diversity, ed. Martin Forward, Stephen Plant, and Susan
White (New York: Peter Lang, 2000), 187–200.
2. Johann Haafkens, “The Direction of Christian-Muslim Relations in
Sub-Saharan Africa,” in Christian-Muslim Encounters, ed. Yvonne
Yazbeck Haddad et. al. (Gainesville: University of Florida Press,
1995), 306.
3. J. Haafkens, “PROCMURA and the Churches in Africa,” Project for
Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa, vol. 3, no. 3, May/June 1994,
p. 8.
4. For a good study on James Johnson, see E. A. Ayandele, Holy Johnson:
Pioneer of African Nationalism, 1836–1917 (New York: Routledge,
1970).
5. G. O. Gbadamosi, The Growth of Islam among the Yoruba 1841–1908
(New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1987), 134.
6. Ibid., 143.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid., 144.
9. Ibid., 143.
10. Lamin Sanneh, Piety and Power: Muslims and Christians in West
Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1996), 1.
11. Quoted in Lamin Sanneh, West African Christianity: The Religious
Impact (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1983), 221.
12. P. R. McKenzie, Inter-religious Encounters in West Africa: Samuel
Ajayi Crowther’s Attitude to African Traditional Religion and Islam
(London: Blackfriars Press, 1979), 13.
13. Lamin Sanneh’s work, Translating the Message: The Missionary
Impact on Culture (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008) offers an
insightful analysis of the role of translation in the missionary expan-
sion in Africa.
14. Andrew F. Walls, “Samuel Ajayi Crowther 1807–1891: Foremost
African Christian of the Nineteenth Century,” in Mission Legacies:
Biographical Studies of Leaders of the Modern Missionary Movement,
NOT ES202
ed. Gerald H. Anderson et. al (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994),
136.
15. Quoted in P. R. McKenzie, “Crowther’s Attitude to Other Faith—
During the Early Period,” Orita: Ibadan Journal of Religious Studies
5 (June 1971): 4.
16. Ibid., 9
17. Ibid.
18. Andrew F. Walls, “Africa as the Theatre of Christian Engagement
with Islam in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Religion in Africa
29 (May 1991): 161.
19. Ibid., 162.
20. Ibid., 163.
21. Ibid.
22. Quoted in McKenzie, “Crowther’s Attitude to other Faith,” 10.
23. Ibid.
24. McKenzie, Inter-religious Encounters in West Africa, 63.
25. Ibid.
26. Sanneh, West African Christianity, 224.
27. Ibid.
28. J. D. Y. Peel, Aladura: A Religious Movement among the Yoruba
(London: Oxford University Press for the International African
Institute, 1968), 164.
29. Ibid.
30. Joseph Kenny, “Christian-Muslim Relations in Nigeria,”
Islamochristiana 5 (1979): 178.
31. Lamin Sanneh, “Christian Experience of Islamic Da’wah, with
Particular Reference to Africa,” International Review of Mission 260
(October 1976): 410.
32. Allan Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global
Charismatic Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2004), 4.
33. On the Pentecostal and Charismatic phenomenon in Nigeria,
see John A. Farounbi, A Brief History of Pentecostal Movement in
Nigeria (Mushin, Nigeria: Lemuel, 1997); Emmanuel Onuh,
Pentecostalism: Selling Jesus at a Discount (Nsukka, Nigeria:
Goodwell of God Apostolate, 1999); Jerome N. Okafor, ed., The
Challenge of Pentecostalism (Awka, Nigeria: Mercury Bright Press,
2004); Matthews A. Ojo, The End-Time Army: Charismatic
Movements in Modern Nigeria (Trenton, NJ: and Asmara, Eritrea:
Africa World Press, 2006); Ogbu U. Kalu, African Pentecostalism:
An Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); and
Azohzeh Ukah, A New Paradigm of Pentecostal Power: A Study of
the Redeemed Christian Church of God in Nigeria (Trenton, NJ and
Asmara, Eritrea: Africa World Press, 2008).
34. See Gerrie ter Harr, Halfway to Paradise: African Christians in
Europe (Cardiff, Great Britain: Cardiff Academic Press, 1998), 52.
NOT ES 203
35. H. W. Turner, African Independent Church, vol. II (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1967), 317.
36. G. J. O. Moshay, Who Is This Allah? (Ibadan: Fireliners International,
1990), 87.
37. Miller, quoted in Asonzeh Ukah, “Born-Again Muslims: The
Ambivalence of Pentecostal Response to Islam in Nigeria,” in
Fractured Spectrum: Perspectives on Christian-Muslim Encounters in
Nigeria (New York: Peter Lang, 2012), 51.
38. Ethel Miller, The Truth About Muhammed (Minner: CMS Niger
Press, 1929), 14–18.
39. Colin Chapman, quoted in Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face
to Face (Oxford: Oneworld, 1997), 98. The works of Henry Martyn,
Temple Gairdner, Constance Padwick, and Lewis Bevans Jones offer
a more sympathetic understanding of Islam.
40. See Ogbu U. Kalu, “Sharia and Islam in Nigerian Pentecostal
Rhetoric, 1970–2003,” Pneuma 26, (2004): 242–61; and Timothy
O. Olonade, ed., Battle Cry for the Nations: Rekindling the Flames of
World Evangelization (Jos, Nigeria: CAPRO Media, 1995).
41. Matthews A. Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam and the Contest
for Public Space in Northern Nigeria,” Islam and Christian-Muslim
Relations 2 (2007): 175.
42. Ruth Marshall, “The Sovereignty of Miracles: Pentecostal Political
Thought in Nigeria,” Constellations 2 (2010): 204.
43. Ukah, “Born-Again Muslims,” 42–62.
44. Ibid., 55.
45. Ibid.
46. See Toyin Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics
and Secular Ideologies (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press,
1998) for a comprehensive analysis of interreligious conflicts in con-
temporary Nigeria.
47. Ogbu U. Kalu, Power, Poverty and Prayer, (New York: Peter Lang,
2000), 157.
48. On the shari’a in Nigeria, see Philip Ostien, Jamila M. Nasir, and
Franz Kogelmann, eds. Comparative Perspectives on the Shari’ah in
Nigeria (Ibadan: Spectrum Books, 2005); Lamin Sanneh, “Shari’ah
Sanctions as Secular Grace? A Nigerian Islamic Debate and an
Intellectual Response,” Transformation 20 (2003): 232–44; Philip
Ostein, “Islamic Criminal Law: What It Means in Zamfara and
Niger States,” Journal of Public & Private Law 14 (2000): 1–18;
Frieder Ludwig, “Christian-Muslim Relations in Northern Nigeria
since the Introduction of Shari’ah in 1999,” Journal of the American
Academy of Religion 76 (2008): 602–37; Yusuf Turaki, The British
Colonial Legacy in Northern Nigeria (Jos, Nigeria: Jos University
Press, 1993); C. Ubah, “Problems of Christian Missionaries in the
Muslim Emirates of Nigeria, 1900–1928,” Journal of African Studies
3 (1976): 351–71; Matthew Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam
NOT ES204
and the Contest for Public Sphere in Northern Nigeria,” Islam &
Christian-Muslim Relations 18 (2007): 175–88; Abdulmalik Bappa
Mahmud, A Brief History of Shari’a in the Defunct Northern Nigeria
(Jos, Nigeria: Jos University Press, 1986.
49. www.tribune.com.ng/news2013, 1.
50. Boko Haram: Oritsejafor Addresses US Congress, http://www.edo-
nation.net.
51. I should point out that the US government has put a $7 million
bounty on Abubakar Shekau’s head. He is the leader of the Boko
Haram movement in Nigeria. This bounty is $2 million more than
the one on Mullah Omar, the leader of Afghanistan’s Taliban.
52. For a good study on this issue, see Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and
the Turban: Muslims and West African Pluralism (Denver: Westview
Press, 1997).
53. It should be noted that prior to the rise of the modern secular state in
the West, Muslims in Africa have been engaged in discussions regarding
the relationship religious order and political power. From the twelfth
century, Muslims in the Sudanic city of Jenne, Mali, and Songhay have
debated the role of religion vis-à-vis the limitations of state power.
54. A number of Nigerian Muslims are questioning the “silent majority
syndrome.” Their stance affirms the pluralistic and secular nature of
Nigeria. In this context, all the religious traditions must develop new
models of living together.
55. For a good analysis of the debate on the shari’a in Egypt, Saudi
Arabia, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, Indonesia, and Afghanistan, see The
Review of Faith & International Affairs, 10 (2012): 1–16.
56. From the Muslim standpoint, shari’a law is a divinely given injunc-
tion from God. It stipulates the various ways to humbly submit to
Allah. Muslim apologists crave for an ideal context that will guar-
antee the rights of Muslims. Liberals, on the other hand, see the
shari’a as an ideal way to resist Western impositions and worldview.
In a multireligious setting like Nigeria, safeguarding Christian rights
remains a contentious issue.
57. It must be noted that a full implementation of the shari’a entailed
a broad range of legal system pertaining to matters such as alcohol,
gambling, prostitution, land reform, banking system, and educa-
tional reform.
58. It is also possible to see the rumblings in northern Nigeria as an
aftermath of the colonial arrangement. At the beginning of colonial
rule in Nigeria, the British inaugurated a system of “indirect rule”
in the northern region by allowing the existing Muslim emirates
to retain their political power. By the time the drumbeats of inde-
pendence starting getting louder, these leaders became irrelevant or
became more or less putative heads. They became ceremonial figures
who could only perform civic responsibilities. Igbo Christians who
migrated from the South also started acquiring land in the northern
NOT ES 205
region of the country. They also started assuming leadership posi-
tions in this region. This may have led to a feeling of resentment by
the Hausa-Fulani populace.
59. Amos Yong, Hospitality & Other: Pentecost, Christian Practices, and
the Neighbor (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008), 21.
60. Hassan Kukah, Religion, Politics and Power in Northern Nigeria
(Ibadan: Spectrum Books, 1994), 199–200.
61. On the response of the Roman Catholic Church of Nigeria (RCC) to
Islam in Nigeria, see Casimir Chinedu Nzeh, From Clash to Dialogue
of Religions: A Socio-Ethical Analysis of the Christian-Islamic Tension
in a Pluralistic Nigeria (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2002). With the
influence of Vatican II, the RCC has maintained a program of cau-
tious dialogue with Islam in Nigeria. It is however clear that one
of the major concerns of the Church is the high rate of its mem-
bers joining the Pentecostal churches. On this trend, see Evaristus
Bassey, Pentecostalism and the Catholic Church in Nigeria (Calabar,
Nigeria: Mariana, 1993) and Hilary C. Achunike, The Influence
of Pentecostalism on Catholic Priests and Seminarians in Nigeria
(Onitsha, Nigeria: Africana First, 2004).
62. The Gallup poll conducted by John Esposito and Dalia Mogahed
confirmed that there is tremendous support among Muslims for
both shari’a and democracy. See John Esposito and Dalia Mogahed,
Who Speaks for Islam? What a Billion Muslims Really Think (New
York: Gallup Press, 2007).
63. Balewa was an ardent advocate of the rights of northern Nigeria, and
with Ahmadu Bello, who held the hereditary title of Sardauna of
Sokoto, he established the Northern People’s Congress (NPC).
64. Many of these social critics felt that the main reason for agitating
for the shari’a at this point was to undermine the administration
of Olusegun Obasanjo, a Yoruba and a self-proclaimed born-again
Christian. It was a calculated move by several northern states to flex
their political muscle.
65. For further discussion on the historical development and applica-
tion of the shari’a in Nigeria, see Joseph Kenny, “Shari’a in Nigeria:
A Historical Survey,” Bulletin on Islam and Christian-Muslim
Relations in Africa 1.1 (1986): 1–21; John Onaiyekan, “The Shariah
in Nigeria: A Christian View,” Bulletin on Islam and Christian-
Muslim Relations in Africa 5.3 (1987): 1–17; David Laitin, “The
Shari’a Debate and the Origins of the Nigeria’s Second Republic,”
Journal of Modern African Studies 20.3 (1982): 411–30; Jonathan
T. Reynolds, “Nigeria and Shari’a: Religion and Politics in a West
African Nation,” in History Behind the Headlines: The Origins of
Conflicts Worldwide, ed. Meghan O’Meara (Farmington Hills, MI:
Gale Group, 2001), 214–20; and John Hunwick, “An African Case
Study of Political Islam: Nigeria,” Annals of the American Academy
of Political and Social Science 524 (November 1992): 149–55.
NOT ES206
66. Abdullahi An-Na’im, “Reforming Islam,” Harvard International
Review 19 (1997): 26.
67. Abdullahi An-Na’im, “Political Islam in National Politics and
International Relations,” in The Desecularization of the World:
Resurgent Religion and World Politics, ed. Peter Berger (Grand
Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), 117.
68. Ibid., 116.
69. Ibid., 117.
70. Ibid.
71. See Franz Rosenthal, Al-Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History,
vol. 1 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), 427.
72. Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and the Turban: Muslims and West
African Pluralism (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), 180–81.
73. See Simeon Ilesanmi, Religious Pluralism and the Nigerian State
(Athens, OH: Center for International Studies, 1997), 186.
74. In a lecture at the Royal Courts of Justice in February in 2008, the
Rt. Reverend Rowan Williams, Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury,
caused a considerable stir by remarking that it was desirable and
unavoidable that certain aspects of the shari’a be recognized in Britain
for reasons of equal rights and treatment. See Robert W. Hefner,
“Global Politics and the Question of Shari’a: An Introduction to the
Winter Issue,” Review of Faith & International Affairs 10 (2012): 1.
75. See Miroslav Volf, Exclusion & Embrace: A Theological Exploration
of Identity, Otherness, and Reconciliation (Nashville, TN: Abingdon
Press, 1996) for a good exposition of this idea.
76. Ibid, 124.
77. Miroslav Volf, “Living with the ‘Other,’” Journal of Ecumenical
Studies 39 (2006): 16.
78. Ibid., 18, 19.
79. The Guardian, quoted in http://odili.net/news/source/2009/
may/15/36.html, Friday, May 15, 2009, 1.
80. Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion Is Christianity? The Gospel Beyond the
West (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003), 6.
81. Chinua Achebe, “The Crossroads in Our Cultures,” Sunday Times,
November 12, 1989, 18.
82. Ibid.
83. See Kenneth Cracknell, In Good and Generous Faith: Christian Responses
to Religious Pluralism (Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press, 2006).
5 On Faithful Presence: Religion and Human Wholeness in Nigeria
1. Ogbu U. Kalu, “African Traditional Religion and Its Modern Fate,”
in The World’s Religions: Continuities and Transformations, ed. Peter
B. Clarke and Peter Beyer (London and New York: Routledge, 2009),
11–12.
NOT ES 207
2. Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa,
a report by the Pew Charitable Trusts and the John Templeton
Foundation.
3. Kenneth Cragg, Sandals at the Mosque: Christian Presence Amid
Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959), 68.
4. See Ebenezer Obadare, “Pentecostal Presidency? The Lagos-Ibadan
‘Theocratic Class’ & the Muslim ‘Other,’” Review of African Political
Economy 33 (2006): 665–78.
5. Ibid., 673.
6. This perspective is at the core of the narrative on the praxis of inter-
religious engagement.
7. Jean-Marc Ela, African Cry (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1986),
84–85.
8. Ibid., 85.
9. See Farid Esack, Qur’an, Liberation and Pluralism (Oxford:
Oneworld, 1997); and Farid Esack, On Being a Muslim: Finding a
Religious Path in the World Today (Oxford: Oneworld, 2009).
10. “We’re the cause of our problems in the North,” http://www.van-
guardngr.com/2013/01, accessed January 20, 2013.
11. Kenneth Cracknell, In Good and Generous Faith: Christian Responses
to Religious Pluralism (Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press, 2005),
110–11.
12. Thomas Thangaraj, The Common Task: A Theology of the Christian
Mission (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1999), 28.
13. Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion Is Christianity? The Gospel beyond the
West (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003), 39.
14. Lewis S. Mudge’s proposal for a “covenantal humanism” is inti-
mately connected with the discussion on the linkages between reli-
gion and transformation. According to him, religious traditions
have a gift of responsibility toward the well-being of humankind.
See his The Gift of Responsibility: The Promise of Dialogue among
Christians, Jews, and Muslims (London and New York: Continuum,
2008).
15. James H. Cone, “Black Theology and Solidarity,” in Struggles for
Solidarity: Liberation Theologies in Tension, ed. Lorine M. Getz and
Ruy O. Costa (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1992), 47.
16. Two texts that deal with interreligious dialogue and global responsi-
bility are Paul F. Knitter, One Earth Many Religions (Maryknoll, NY:
Orbis Books, 1995) and Raimon Panikkar, Cultural Disarmament:
The Way to Peace (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press,
1995). For Knitter, the specter of environmental degradation and
social injustice demand interreligious alliances. In the book, Knitter
advocates a “this-worldly soteriology” necessary to overcome the
global eco-human problem. Panikkar, on the other hand, is con-
cerned with the question of peace. He weaves together insights from
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity to construct a new vision of
NOT ES208
peace and intercultural dialogue. See also his “Toward a Liberative
Interreligious Dialogue,” Cross Currents 45 (1995): 451–68. The
essence of the article lies in the fact that “the word shaped in dia-
logue that accords the oppressed a privileged place will grant authen-
ticity to the conversation among world religions” (451).
17. At the height of the Liberian civil war, it was a coalition of Christian
and Muslim women who led the charge that would eventually lead to
peace talks.
18. The Executive Council of Women’s Interfaith Council is Kathleen
McGarvey OLA, Comfort Fearon is the Christian Coordinator, and
Amina Kazaure, the Muslim Coordinator.
19. I am very grateful to Professor Yomi Durotoye, Wake Forest
University for this insight.
20. Francis Mading Deng, The Dinka of the Sudan (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1972), 24. The quality of alaafia is analo-
gous to the concept of dheeng among the Dinka people of Sudan.
This represents qualities such as generosity, kindness, compassion,
and good manners. The opposite of such positive virtues is yuur,
which means selfishness, ugly manners, and wanton disregard for
others. See Benjamin C. Ray, African Religions: Symbol, Ritual, and
Community (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000), 94.
21. Desmond Tutu, No Future Without Forgiveness (New York:
Doubleday, 1999), 31.
22. John Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy (New York: Doubleday,
1970), 282.
23. Aloysius Pieris, “The Place of Non-Christian Religions and Cultures
in the Evolution of Third World Theology,” in Irruption of the Third
World: Challenge to Theology, ed. Virginia Fabella and Sergio Torres
(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1983), 113–14.
24. Paul F. Knitter, “Toward a Liberation of Religions,” in The Myth of
Christian Uniqueness, ed. Paul F. Knitter and John Hick (Maryknoll,
NY: Orbis Books),181.
25. Ibid., 185.
26. This perspective is related to the praxis of interreligious dialogue.
Paul Knitter also connected this dimension to what he described as
the “global theological reality,” which combines tradition with praxis.
See Paul Knitter, No Other Name? A Critical Survey of Christian
Attitudes to World Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1985),
91–2. Religion is not simply about what people believe, it is also a
matter of what they do. Religion deals with thought, feeling, and
action. See also his One Earth, Many Religions: Multifaith Dialogue
and Global Responsibility (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1995).
27. Ibid., 187.
28. Harvey Cox, quoted in Knitter, “Toward a Liberation of Religions.”
29. Knitter, “Toward a Liberation of Religions,” 181.
NOT ES 209
30. Quoted in Knitter, “Toward a Liberation Theology of Religions,”
189.
31. Walter Bruegemann, Living Towards Vision: Biblical Reflections on
Shalom (New York: United Church Press, 1982), 15.
32. Stanley Samartha, quoted in Paul F. Knitter, “Toward a Liberation
Theology of Religions,” 189.
33. Hans Kung, quoted in Paul F. Knitter, “Towards a Liberation
Theology of Religions,” 189.
34. Hans Kung, “A Global Ethic: Development and Goals,” Interreligious
Insight 1 (January 2003): 10.
35. The project on Global Ethic cannot ignore the voices and concerns
of the dispossessed. For a critical appraisal of the notion of Global
Ethic, see Paul Hedges, “Are Interfaith Dialogue and a Global
Ethic Compatible? A Call for an Ethic to the Globe,” Journal for
Faith, Spirituality and Social Change 1.2 (2008): 109–32; and Paul
Hedges, “Concerns about the Global Ethic: A Sympathetic Critique
and Suggestions for a New Direction,” Studies in Interreligious
Dialogue 18.1 (2008): 157–63.
36. See S. J. Samartha and J. B. Taylor, eds., Christian-Muslim Dialogue
(Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1973) for the memorandum of
the conference in Broumana.
37. See the final statement of “Dialogue in Nigeria,” Second International
Conference on Youth and Interfaith Communication, Jos, Nigeria,
October 22–24, 2010.
38. Editorial Symposium, “Spirituality and Liberation: A Buddhist-
Christian Conversation,” Horizons 15.2 (1988): 361.
39. Miroslav Volf, Exclusion & Embrace: A Theological Exploration of
Identity, Otherness, and Reconciliation (Nashville: Abingdon Press,
1996), 220.
40. Abraham Joshua Heschel, The Prophets (New York: Harper Collins,
1962), 19.
41. S. J. Samartha, “Religious Identity in a Multi-Faith Society,” Current
Dialogue 13 (2004): 12.
42. See CTC Bulletin, XVIII (April 2002): 2–3.
43. Kwesi Dickson, Theology in Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books,
1984), 62.
44. See Elias K. Bongmba, The Dialectics of Transformation in Africa
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006) 200–2.
45. Jean-Marc Éla, “Christianity and Liberation in Africa” in Paths of
African Theology, ed. Rosino Gibellini, 146. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis
Books, 1994).
46. The classical typology of exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism was
introduced by Alan Race to describe Christian approaches to other
religions. See his Christians and Religious Pluralism (London: SCM
Press, 1983). Paul Hedges has identified four potential problems
NOT ES210
with the typology: it oversimplifies the possibilities, not everyone fits
neatly inside the categories, the terms are polemical, and they do not
represent an accurate classification. See Paul Hedges, Controversies
in Interreligious Dialogue and the Theology of Religions (London:
SCM Press, 2010), 18.
47. Christians Meeting Muslims: Papers on Ten Years of Christian-Muslim
Dialogue (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1977), 68.
48. Marc Gopin, “The Use of the Word and Its Limits: A Critical
Evaluation of Religious Dialogue as Peacemaking,” in Interfaith
Dialogue and Peacemaking ed. David R. Smock (Washington, DC:
United States Institute of Peace, 2002), 131.
49. Lamin Sanneh, Summoned from the Margin: Homecoming of an
African (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012), 193.
Conclusion: On Living and Walking Together into the Future
1. For a good exposition of this position, see Judith Berling, A Pilgrim
in Chinese Culture: Negotiating Religious Diversity (Eugene, OR:
Wipf and Stock, 1997), 36.
2. See CTC Bulletin XVIII (April 2002): 2–3.
3. See John Paden, Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto: Values and
Leadership (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1986), 3.
4. Diana Eck, cited in David Smock, ed., Interfaith Dialogue and
Peacemaking (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace,
2002), 6–7.
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Religious Literature and Documents
CAN (Christian Association of Nigeria). Kaduna Religious Riot 1987: A
Catalogue of Events. Kaduna: CAN Publicity Committee, 1987.
———. Leadership in Nigeria (To Date): An Analysis. Kaduna: CAN
Northern Zone, 1987.
Catholic Bishops of Nigeria. Christian/Muslim Relations in Nigeria: The
Stand of the Catholic Bishops. Lagos: Catholic Secretariat, n.d.
Islamic Study Group of Nigeria. A Rejoinder to CAN’s Leadership in Nigeria.
Lagos: Islamic Study Group, 1989.
TEKAN (The Fellowship of Churches of Christ in Nigeria). Towards the
Right Path for Nigeria. Jos: TEKAN, 1987.
Official Documents
Nigeria. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1989. Lagos:
Daily Times, 1989.
———. Government’s Views and Comments on the Findings and
Recommendations of the Political Bureau. Lagos: Federal Government
Printer, 1987.
———. Presidential Task Force on the Implementation of the Civil Service
Reforms. Lagos: Federal Government Printer, 1988.
———. Report of Tribunal of Inquiry on Kano Disturbances. Lagos: Federal
Government Printer, 1981.
Secondary Sources
Abdin, Tayyid Z. Al-. “The Implications of Shari’ah, Fiqh and Qanun in
an Islamic State.” In Religion, Law and Society: A Christian-Muslim
Discussion, edited by Tarek Mitri. Geneva: World Council of Churches,
1995.
BIBLIOGR APHY212
———. “The Role of Religious Institutions and ‘Ulama’ in a Contemporary
Muslim Society.” In Religion, Law, and Society: A Christian-Muslim
Discussion, edited by Tarek Mitri. Geneva: World Council of Churches,
1995.
Abu-Nimer, Mohammed. “Conflict Resolution in an Islamic Context.”
Peace and Change 21.1 (January 1996): 22–40.
Adamu, Haroun al-Rashid. The North and Nigerian Unity: Some Reflections
on the Political, Social and Educational Problems of Northern Nigeria.
Lagos: Daily Times, 1973.
Adigwe, H. A. Nigeria Joins the Organization of Islamic Conference O.I.C.
Onitsha: Archdiocesan Secretariat, 1986.
Agabje, Adigun. “Travails of the Secular State: Religion, Politics, and the
Outlook on Nigeria’s Third Republic.” Journal of Commonwealth and
Comparative Politics 28.3 (1990): 288–308.
Agi, S. P. I. The Political History of Religious Violence in Nigeria. Calabar:
Ushie, 1998.
Agnew, John. “Beyond Reason: Spatial and Temporal Sources of Ethnic
Conflicts.” In Intractable Conflicts and Their Transformation, edited by
Louis Kriesberg, Terrell A. Northrop, and Stuart J. Thorson. Syracuse,
NY: Syracuse University Press, 1989.
Ahsan, Abdullah al-. OIC: The Organization of the Islamic Conference. Series
no. 7. Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1988.
Akinrinade, Olusola, and M. A. Ojo. “Religion and Politics in Contemporary
Nigeria: A Study of the 1986 OIC Crisis.” Journal of Asian and Africa
Studies 4.1 (Fall 1992): 44–59.
Almond, Gabriel A., and Sidney Verba. The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes
and Democracy in Five Nations, an Analytic Study. Boston: Little, Brown,
1963.
Amaladoss, Michael. “Dialogue and Mission: Conflict or Convergence?”
Vidyajyoti 50 (1986): 62–86.
———. “Faith Meets Faith.” Vidyajyoti 49 (1985): 109–17.
———. Making All Things New: Dialogue, Pluralism and Evangelization in
Asia. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1990.
———. “The Pluralism of Religions and the Significance of Christ.”
Vidyajyoti 53 (1989): 401–20.
Ammah, R. “New Light on Muslim Statistics for Africa.” Bulletin on Islam
and Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa 2.1 (1984): 11–20.
Amucheazi, E. C. Church and Politics in Eastern Nigeria, 1945–1966: A
Study in Pressure Group Politics. Lagos: Macmillan, 1986.
Anasiudu, R. ed. Christian-Muslim Relations in Nigeria: The Stand of the
Catholic Bishops. Lagos: Catholic Secretariat.
Appleby, Scott R. The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and
Reconciliation. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000.
Atanda, J. A. “Paradoxes and Problems of Religion and Secularism in
Nigeria: Suggestions for Solutions.” In Nigeria since Independence: The
First Twenty-Five Years, edited by J. A. Atanda, Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya
Abubakar. Ibadan: Heinemann, 1989.
BIBLIOGR APHY 213
Audi, Robert. “The Separation of Church and State and the Obligations of
Citizenship.” Philosophy and Public Affairs 18.3 (1989): 259–96.
Avruch, Kevin, and Peter Black. “A Generic Theory of Conflict Resolution:
A Critique.” Negotiation Journal 3 (1987): 87–96.
Avruch, Kevin, Peter Black, and Joseph Scimecca, eds. Conflict Resolution:
Cross Cultural Perspectives. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1991.
Awolowo, Obafemi. Awo: The Autobiography of Chief Obafemi Awolowo.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960.
———. The People’s Republic. Ibadan: Oxford University Press, 1968.
Ayandele, E. A. The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria, 1842–1914: A
Political and Social Analysis. London: Longmans, 1966.
———. Nigerian Historical Studies. London: Rank Cass, 1979.
Babangida, Ibrahim. Quotes of a General: Selected Quotes of Major General
Ibrahim Babangida. Edited by Debo Basorun. Lagos: Terry, 1987.
Barth, Karl. The Christian Life. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987.
Bellah, Robert N. Beyond Beliefs: Essays on Religions in a Post-Traditional
World. New York: Harper and Row, 1970.
Benne, Robert. The Ethic of Democratic Capitalism: A Moral Reassessment.
Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1981.
Berger, Peter L. A Far Glory: The Quest for Faith in an Age of Credulity. New
York: Free Press, 1992.
———. The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion.
Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1969.
Berger, Peter L., and Richard John Neuhaus. To Empower People: The Role
of Meditating Structures in Public Policy. Washington, DC: American
Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1977.
Bevans, Steve. Models of Contextual Theology. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books,
1992.
Blyden, Edward W. Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race. London 1887;
repr. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1967.
Borrmans, Maurice. Guidelines for Dialogue between Christians and
Muslims. Translated by R. Marston Speight. Rome: Pontifical Council
for Interreligious Dialogue; New York: Paulist Press, 1990.
Brass, Paul, ed. Ethic Groups and the State. Totowa, NJ: Barnes and Noble,
1985.
Broome, Benjamin. “Managing Differences in Conflict Resolution: The
Role of Relational Empathy.” In Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice,
edited by Dennis Sandole and Hugo van der Merwe. Manchester, NY:
Manchester University Press, 1993.
Brown, Stuart E. Meeting in Faith: Twenty Years of Christian-Muslim
Conversations Sponsored by the World Council of Churches. Geneva: World
Council of Churches, 1989.
Bryant, Darrol M., and S. A. Ali, eds. Muslim-Dialogue: Promise and
Problems. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House, 1998.
Bukarambe, Bukar. “Nigerian and the Arab World.” In Nigerian’s External
Relations: The First Twenty-Five Years, edited by G. O. Olusanya and
R. A. Akindele, 420–35. Ibadan: University Press, 1986.
BIBLIOGR APHY214
Burrows, William R., ed. Redemption and Dialogue: Reading Redemptoris
Missio and Dialogue and Proclamation. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books,
1993.
Burton, John. The Collection of the Qur’an. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1977.
Bush, Robert, and Joseph Folger. The Promise of Mediation: Responding to
Conflict through Empowerment and Recognition. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass, 1994.
Cherry, Conrad, and Rowland A. Sherill, eds. Religion, the Independent
Sector, and American Culture. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992.
Clarke, Peter B. “Islam, Development and African Identity: The Case of
West Africa.” In Religion, Development, and African Identity, edited
by Kirsten Holst Petersen, 127–46. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of
African Studies, 1987.
———. “Religion and Political Attitude since Independence.” In Religion
and Society in Nigeria: Historical and Sociological Perspectives, edited by
Jacob K. Olupona and Toyin Falola, 216–29. Ibadan: Spectrum Books,
1991.
———. “The Religion Factor in the Developmental Process in Nigeria: A
Socio-Historical Analysis.” Geneve-Afrique 17.1 (1979): 45–64.
———. West Africa and Christianity: A Study of Religious Development from
the Fifteenth to the Twentieth Century. London: Edward Arnold, 1986.
———. West Africa and Islam: A Study of Religious Development from the
Eight to the Twentieth Century. London: Edward Arnold, 1982.
Clarke, Peter B., and Ian Linden. Islam in Modern Nigeria: A Study of a
Muslim Community in a Post-Independence State, 1960–1983. Mainz:
Grunewald; Munich: Kaiser, 1984.
Cohen, Abner. Custom and Politics in Urban Africa: A Study of Hausa
Migrants in Yoruba Towns. Manchester, NY: Manchester University
Press, 1969.
———. Two-Dimensional Man: An Essay on the Anthropology of Power and
Symbolism in Complex Society. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul,
1974.
Coleman, James S. Nigeria: Background to Nationalism. Berkeley: University
of California Press, 1958.
Cragg, Kenneth. The Call of the Minaret. Revised edition. Maryknoll, NY:
Orbis Books, 1985.
———. Counsels in Contemporary Islam. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press, 1965.
Crampton, E. P. T. Christianity in Northern Nigeria. London: Geoffrey
Chapman, 1979.
Crowder, Michael. The Story of Nigeria. 2nd ed. London: Faber and Faber,
1966.
Cruise O’Brien, Donald B. Saints and Politicians: Essays in the Organization
of a Senegalese Peasant Society. African Studies Series No. 15. London:
Cambridge University Press, 1975.
BIBLIOGR APHY 215
Cuddihy, John Murray. No Offense: Civil Religion and Protestant Taste. New
York: Seabury Press, 1978.
———. The Ordeal of Civility: Freud, Marx, Levi-Strauss, and the Jewish
Struggle with Modernity. Boston: Beacon Press, 1987.
Curran, Charles E. American Catholic Social Ethics: Twentieth-Century
Approaches. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1982.
Dahl, Robert A. Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy: Autonomy vs. Control.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982.
———. Modern Political Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963.
———. A Preface to Democratic Theory. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1956.
D’Costa, Gavin. Theology of Religious Pluralism: The Challenge of Other
Religions. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985.
Dawisha, A., ed. Islam in Foreign Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1983.
Decalo, Samuel. Coups and Army Rule in Africa: Studies in Military Style.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.
Deng, Francis. “Let’s Define Arab and African in Terms That Will Shed
Light on the Common Ground.” Middle East Report 21.5 (September/
October 1991): 31–33, 38.
———. “A Three-Dimensional Approach to the Conflict in the Sudan.”
In Religion and National Integration in Africa: Islam, Christianity,
and Politics in Sudan and Nigeria, edited by John O. Hunwick, 39–62.
Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1992.
Diamond, Larry. “Beyond Autocracy: Prospects for Democracy in Nigeria.”
In Beyond Autocracy in Africa. Working papers for the Inaugural Seminar
of the Governance in Africa Program, 25–28. Carter Center of Emory
University, Atlanta, February 17–18, 1989.
———. “Class Formation in the Swollen African State.” Journal of Modern
African Studies 25.4 (1987): 567–96.
Dudley, Billy. Instability and Political Order: Politics and Crisis in Nigeria.
Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, 1973.
———. An Introduction to Nigerian Government and Politics. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1982.
———. Parties and Politics in Northern Nigeria. London: Frank Cass,
1968.
Durkheim, Emile. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. New York:
Free Press, 1915.
Edema, Adebanjo. Christians and Politics in Nigeria. Ibandan: Codat,
1988.
Ekechi, F. K. Missionary Enterprise and Rivalry in Igboland, 1857–1914. Cass
Library of African Studies. London: Frank Cass, 1972.
Ekeh, Peter. Colonialism and Social Structure. Inaugural Lecture Series.
Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press, 1983.
Elder, Charles D., and Roger W. Cobb. The Political Uses of Symbols. New
York: Longman, 1988.
BIBLIOGR APHY216
Emory University. Governance in Africa Program. Perestroika without
Glasmost in Africa. Conference Report Series, vol. 2, no. 1. Atlanta:
Carter Center of Emory University, 1989.
Enloe, Cynthia. Ethnic Conflict and Political Development. Boston: Little,
Brown, 1973.
Esin, Justice O. A. Government Policy on Education at Both the Federal and
State Levels Has Left a Lot to be Desired. Lagos: Methodist Literature
Department, 1980.
Esposito, John. The Islamic Threat to the West: Myth or Reality? New York:
Oxford University Press, 1990.
Eze, Osita C. Human Rights in Africa: Some Selected Problems. Lagos:
Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, 1984.
Fadipe, N. A. The Sociology of the Yoruba. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press,
1970.
Fafunwa, A. Babs. History of Education in Nigeria. London: Allen and
Unwin, 1974.
Faksh, M. “Concepts of Rule and Legitimation in Islam.” Journal of South
Asian and Middle Eastern Studies 13.3 (1990): 21–36.
Falola, Toyin. Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular
Ideologies. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1998.
Familusi, M. M. Methodism in Nigeria, 1842–1992. Ibadan: NPS Educational
Publishers, 1992.
Feinburg, Joel. Social Philosophy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
1973.
Figgis, J. N. Churches in the Modern State. London: Longmans, Green,
1913.
Finer, Samuel Edward. Comparative Government. Harmondsworth: Penguin
Books, 1970.
First, Ruth. The Barrel of a Gun: Political Power in Africa and the Coup
d’Etat. London: Allen Lane, 1970.
Fisher, Roger, and Scott Brown. Getting Together: Building Relationships as
We Negotiate. New York: Penguin, 1988.
Folger, J., M. Poole, and R. Stutman, eds. Working through Conflict. New
York: Longman, 1997.
Foot, Philippa. Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978.
Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum, 1988.
Furnivall, J. S. Colonial Policy and Practice: A Comparative Study of Burma
and Netherlands India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1948.
Galtung, Johan. Peace by Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development
and Civilization. Oslo and London: International Peace Research
Institute and Sage, 1996.
Gamwell, Franklin I. Beyond Preference: Liberal Theories of Independent
Associations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
Gbadamosi, T. G. O. The Growth of Islam among the Yoruba, 1814–1908.
Ibadan History Series. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1978.
BIBLIOGR APHY 217
Gbadagesin, Segun. African Philosophy: Traditional Yoruba Philosophy and
Contemporary African Realities. New York: Peter Lang, 1991.
———. ed. The Politicization of Society during Nigeria’s Second Republic,
1979–83. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1991.
Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York:
Basic Book 1973.
Gopin, Marc. “Religion, Violence and Conflict Resolution.” Peace and
Change 22.1 (January 1997): 1–31.
Gort, Jerald D. “Liberative Ecumenism: Gateway to the Sharing of Religious
Experience Today.” In On Sharing Religious Experience: Possibilities of
Interfaith Mutuality, edited by Jerald D. Gort, Hendrik M. Vroom,
Rein Fernhout, and Anton Wessels. Amsterdam, 1992. Editions Rodopi,
Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1992.
Graf, William D. The Nigerian State: Political Economy, State Class, and
Political System in the Post-Colonial Era. London: James Currey, 1988.
Gray, Richard. Black Christians and White Missionaries. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press, 1990.
Greenawalt, Kent. Religious Convictions and Political Choice. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1988.
Griffiths, Paul. J. An Apology for Apologetics: A Study in the Logic of
Interreligious Dialogue. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991.
Hackett, Rosalind I. J., ed. New Religious Movement in Nigeria. Lewiston,
NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1954.
Hallowell, John H. The Moral Foundation of Democracy. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1954.
Hamilton, Alexander, James Madison, and John Jay. The Federalist Papers.
Introduction by Clinton Rossiter. New York: New American Library,
1961.
Hampshire, Stuart. Two Theories of Morality. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1977.
Hennelly, Alfred T., and John Langan, eds. Human Rights in the Americas:
The Struggle For Consensus. Washington, DC: Georgetown University
Press, 1882.
Hessel, Dieter T., ed. The Church’s Public Role: Retrospect and Prospect.
Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1993.
Heim, Mark, S. Salvations: In Search of Authentic Religious Pluralism.
Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1995.
Hick, John. God Has Many Names. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1982.
Hiskett, Mervyn. A History of Hausa Islamic Verse. London: School of
Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1975.
———. The Sword of Truth: The Life and Times of the Shehu Usuman dan
Fodio. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973.
Hocking, William Ernest. The Coming World Civilization. New York:
Harper and Row, 1956.
Hodgkin, Thomas. Nigerian Perspective: An Historical Anthology. West
African History Series. London: Oxford University Press, 1960.
BIBLIOGR APHY218
Hollenbach, David. Justice, Peace, Human Rights: American Catholic Social
Ethics in a Pluralistic Context. New York: Crossroad, 1988.
Hughey, Michael W. Civil Religion and Moral Order: Theoretical and
Historical Dimensions. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1983.
Hunter, James Davidson. Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America.
New York: Basic Books, 1991.
Huntington, Samuel P. Political Order in Changing Societies. New Haven,
CT: Yale University Press, 1968.
Hunwick, John O., ed. Religion and National Integration in Africa: Islam,
Christianity, and Politics in the Sudan and Nigeria. Evanston, IL:
Northwestern University Press, 1992.
Idowu, E. Bolaji. African Traditional Religion: A Definition. London:
SCM, 1973.
———. God in Nigerian Belief. Lagos: Federal Ministry of Information,
1963.
Ilesanmi, Simeon O. Religious Pluralism and the Nigerian State. Athens:
Ohio University Center for International Studies, 1997.
Johnston, Douglas, and Cynthia Sampson, eds. Religion: The Missing
Dimension of Statecraft. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
Kakar, Sudhir. The Colors of Violence: Cultural Identities, Religion, and
Conflict. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
Kimball, Charles. When Religion Becomes Evil. New York: HarperCollins,
2002.
Knitter, Paul F. Jesus and the Other Names: Christian Mission and Global
Responsibility. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1996.
———. No Other Name? A Critical Survey of Christian Attitudes toward the
World Religions. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1985.
Kukah, Hassan M. Religion, Politics and Power in Northern Nigeria. Ibadan:
Spectrum Books, 1993.
Kukah, Hassan M., and Toyin Falola. Religious Militancy and Self-Assertion.
Aldershot: Avebury, 1996.
Lederach, John Paul. Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided
Societies. Tokyo: United Nations University, 1994.
———. Preparing for Peace: Conflict Transformation across Cultures.
Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1995.
Little, David. “Religious Militancy.” In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of
and Responses to International Conflict, edited by Chester A. Crocker and
Fen Hampson with Pamela Aall, 79–91. Washington, DC: US Institute
of Peace, 1996.
Miles, William. Elections in Nigeria: A Grassroots Perspective. Boulder, CO:
Lynne Rienner, 1988.
Mol, Hans. Identity and the sacred: A Sketch for a New Social-Scientific Theory
of Religion. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1976.
Mooney, Christopher F. Boundaries Dimly Perceived: Law, Religion,
Education, and the Common Good. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre
Dame Press, 1990.
BIBLIOGR APHY 219
Mouw, Richard, and Sander Griffioen. Pluralisms and Horizons: An Essay in
Christian Public Philosophy. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1993.
Mudimbe, V. Y. The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy, and the Order of
Knowledge. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988.
Muffet, D. J. M. Let the Truth Be Told. Zaria: Huldahuda, 1982.
Murray, John Courtney. “The Pattern for Peace and the Papal Peace
Program.” Pamphlet Of the Catholic Association for International Peace.
Washington, DC: Paulist Press, 1944.
———. The Problem of Religious Freedom. Westminster, MD: Newman
Press, 1965.
———. We Hold These Truths: Catholic Reflections on the American
Proposition. New York: Sheed and Ward, 1960; New York: Doubleday,
Image Books, 1964.
Neuhaus, Richard John. The Naked Public Square: Religion and Democracy
in America. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1984.
Ngwoke, Ikem B. C. Religion and Religious Liberty in Nigerian Law: From
the Colonial Days to 1983. Rome: Pontificia Universita Lateranense,
1984.
Nicholls, David. The Pluralist State. London: Macmillan, 1975.
———. Three Varieties of Pluralism. London: Macmillan, 1974.
Niebuhr H. Richard. Christ and Culture. New York: Harper and Row, 1951.
Niebuhr, Reinhold. Beyond Tragedy: Essays on the Christian Interpretation of
History. New York: Scribner’s, 1937.
———. The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness: A Vindication
of Democracy and a Critique of Its Traditional Defense. Library Edition.
New York: Scribner’s, 1960.
———. Christian Realism and Political Problems. New York: Scribner’s,
1953; Fairfield, NJ: Augustus M. Kelly, 1977.
———. Love and Justice: Selections from the Shorter Writings of Reinhold
Niebuhr. Edited by D. B. Robertson. Louisville, KY: Westminster John
Knox Press, 1957.
———. Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics. New
York: Scribner’s, 1932; Scribner Library Edition, 1960.
———. The Nature and Destiny of Man: A Christian Interpretation.
Vol. 1, Human Nature. Vol. 2, Human Destiny. New York: Scribner’s
1941–1943; Scribner Library Edition, 1964.
———. Reinhold Niebuhr on Politics: His Political Philosophy and Its
Application to Our Age as Expected in His Writings. Edited by Harry R.
Davis and Robert C. Good. New York: Scribner’s, 1960.
Kane, Ousmane. Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria: A Study of the
Society for the Removal of Innovation and Reinstatement of Tradition.
Leiden: Brill, 2003.
Nigerian Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs. Constitution of the Nigerian
Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs. Kano, Nigeria: Rasco Press, n.d.
Nisbet, Robert. The Social Philosophers: Community and Conflicts in Western
Thought. New York: Cromwell, 1973.
BIBLIOGR APHY220
Noll, Mark A., ed. Religion and American Politics: From the Colonial Period
to the 1980s. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Novak, Michael. The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism. New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1982.
Nwabueze, B. O. Nigeria’s Presidential Constitution, 1979–1983: The Second
Experiment in Constitutional Democracy. London: Longman, 1985.
Obilade, A. O. The Nigerian Legal System. London: Sweet and Maxwell,
1979.
Ofonagoro, W. I., Abiola Ojo, and Adele Jinadu, eds. The Great Debate:
Nigerians’ Viewpoints on the Draft Constitution, 1976–77. Lagos: Times,
1978.
Olupona, Jacob K. Kinship, Religion, and Rituals in a Nigerian Community:
A Phenomenological Study of Ondo Yoruba Festivals. Stockholm: Almqvist
and Wisksell International, 1991.
Olupona, Jacob K., ed. Religion and Peace in Multi-Faith Nigeria. Ile-Ife:
Obafemi Awolowo University Press, 1992.
Oyeleye, Oyediran, ed. Survey of Nigerian Affairs, 1975. Ibadan: University
Press, 1980.
———. Survey of Nigerian Affairs, 1976–77. Lagos: Nigerian Institute of
International Affairs and Macmillan, 1981.
Paden, John N. Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto: Values and Leadership in
Nigeria. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1986.
———. Muslim Civic Cultures and Conflict Resolution: The Challenge
of Democratic Federalism in Nigeria. Washington, DC: Brookings
Institution Press, 2005.
———. Religion and Political Culture in Kano. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1973.
Palmer, Parker J., Barbara G. Wheeler, and James W. Fowler, eds. Caring for
the Commonweal: Education for Religious and Public Life. Macon, GA:
Mercer University Press, 1990.
Panikkar, Raimon. The Cosmotheandric Experience: Emerging Religious
Consciousness. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1993.
———. The Intrareligious Dialogue. New York: Paulist Press, 1978.
———. The Unknown Christ of Hinduism. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books,
1981.
Pateman, Carole. Participation and Democratic Theory. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1970.
Peek, M. Scott. The Different Drum: Community Making and Peace. New
York: Simon and Schuster, 1987.
Peel, J. D. Y. Ijeshas and Nigerians: The Incorporation of a Yoruba kingdom,
1890s–1970s. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Pelotte, Donald E. John Courtney Murray: Theologian in Conflict. New York:
Paulist Press, 1976.
Perry, Michael J. Love and Power: The Role of Religion and Morality in
American Politics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
BIBLIOGR APHY 221
Pfeffer, Leo. God, Caeser, and the Constitution: The Court as Referee of
Church-State Confrontation. Boston: Beacon Press, 1975.
Pieris, Aloysius. Fire & Water: Basic Issues in Asian Buddhism and
Christianity. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1996.
Post, Kenneth, and Michael Vickers. Structure and Conflict in Nigeria,
1960–1966. London: Heinemann, 1973.
Pye, Lucian, and Sidney Verba, eds. Political Culture and Political
Development. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965.
Rabushka, Alvin, and Kenneth A. Shepsle. Politics in Plural Societies: A Theory
of Democratic Instability. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill, 1972.
Race, Alan. Christian and Religious Pluralism: Patterns in Christian Theology
of Religions. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1983.
Robbins, Thomas, and Roland Robertson, eds. Church-State Relations:
Tensions and Transitions. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1987.
Rosenthal, Erwin I. J. Political Thought in Medieval Islam: An Introduction
Outline. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958; Westport, CT:
Greenwood, 1985.
Rubenstein, Richard E. “The Analyzing and Resolving of Class Conflict.”
In Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice, edited by Dennis Sandole and
Hugo van der Merwe. Manchester, NY: Manchester University Press,
1993.
Rupp, George. Commitment and Community. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress
Press, 1989.
Sampson, Cynthia. “Religion and Peacemaking.” In Peacemaking in
International Conflict, edited by I. William Zartman and Lewis
Rasmussen. Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace, 1997.
Sandole, Dennis. “Paradigms, Theories and Metaphors in Conflict and
Conflict Resolution.” In Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice,
edited by Dennis Sandole and Hugo van der Merwe. Manchester, NY:
Manchester University Press, 1993.
Sandole, Dennis, and Hugo van der Merwe, eds. Conflict Resolution Theory
and Practice. Manchester, NY: Manchester University Press, 1993.
Sanneh, Lamin. Encountering the West: Christianity and the Global Culture
Process; The African Dimension. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1993.
———. Piety and Power: Muslims and Christians in West Africa. Maryknoll,
NY: Orbis Books, 1996.
———. Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture.
Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1989.
———. West African Christianity: The Religious Impact. Maryknoll, NY:
Orbis Books, 1983.
Satha-Anand, Chaiwat, Glen D. Page, and Sarah Gillat, eds. Islam and
Nonviolence. Honolulu: University of Hawaii and Spark M. Matsunaga
Institute for Peace, 1993.
Schacht, Joseph. The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1959.
BIBLIOGR APHY222
Schattschneider, E. E. Party Government. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1942.
Schreiter, Robert J. Constructing Local Theologies. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis
Books, 1985.
Shue, Henry. Basic Rights: Subsistence, Affluence, and U.S. Foreign Policy.
Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980.
Sklar, Richard L. Nigerian Political Parties: Power in an Emergent African
Nation. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963.
Soskice, Janet Martin. Metaphor and Religious Language. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1985.
Stackhouse, Max L. Creeds, Society, and Human Rights: A Study in Three
Cultures. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1984.
Stevenson, C. L. Facts and Values: Studies in Ethical Analysis. New Haven,
CT: Yale University Press, 1963.
Sturm, Douglas. Community and Alienation: Essays on Process, Thought, and
Public Life. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1988.
Thiemann, Ronald F. Constructing a Public Theology: The Church in a
Pluralistic Culture. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1991.
Thompson, Kenneth. Beliefs and Ideology. London: Tavistock, 1986.
Tocqueville, Alexis de. Democracy in America. 2 vols. New York: Schocken
Books, 1961.
Tracy, David. Dialogue with the Other: The Inter-Religious Dialogue. Grand
Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1990.
Troeltsch, Ernst. Religion in History. Translated By James Luther Adams
and Walter F. Bense. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1991.
Turner, Victor. Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human
Society. Ithaca: Vanguard, 1987.
Usman, Y. B. The Manipulation of Religion in Nigeria, 1977–1987. Kaduna,
Nigeria: Vanguard, 1987.
Wald, Kenneth. Religion and Politics in the United States. New York: St.
Martin’s Press, 1987.
Walzer, Michael. Spheres of Justice: A Defence of Pluralism and Equality. New
York: Basic Books, 1983.
West, Cornel. Democracy Matters: Winning the Fight against Imperialism.
New York: Penguin, 2004.
———. Prophetic Fragments: Illuminations of the Crisis in American Religion
and Culture. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1988.
Whitaker, C. S. The Politics of Traditional: Continuity and Change in
Northern Nigeria, 1946–1966. Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1970.
Wilfred, Felix. ed. Leave the Temple: Indian Paths to Human Liberation.
Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1992.
Williams, Pat, and Toyin Falola. Religious Impact on the Nation State: The
Nigerian Predicament. Aldershot: Avebury, 1995.
BIBLIOGR APHY 223
Wilson, Bryan. Religion in Sociological Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1982.
Wolterstorff, Nicholas. Until Justice and Peace Embrace. Grand Rapids, MI:
Eerdmans, 1983.
Young, Crawford. Ideology and Development in Africa. New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press, 1982.
———. The Politics of Cultural Pluralism. Madison: University of Wisconsin
Press, 1976.
———, ed. The Rising Tide of Cultural Pluralism: The Nation-State at Bay?
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993.
Index
1918 influenza pandemic, 54, 117
1991 Gulf War, 12
1992 riots, 166
1999 elections in Nigeria, 12
2003 elections in Nigeria, 125
2011 elections in Nigeria, 37
2015 elections in Nigeria, 60
Abacha, Sani, 57, 131
Abbott, Freeland, 87
ibn Abdallah, Muhammad Ahmad, 43
Abe, Masao, 168
Abeokuta, 38, 53, 109, 118
Abhishikananda, Swami, 22
Abia, 34
Abimbola, Wande, 61
Abiodun, Christianah, 119
ablution, 118, 119
Abrahamic legacy, 4, 41, 74, 92
“Abrahamic monotheism,” 92
Absolute, union with, 22, 23
absolute divine transcendence, 85
absolute state, pitfalls of, 133
Abubakar, Sa’ad, III, 152
Abyssinia, 16
accountability resulting from creative
dialogical engagement, 58
Achebe, Chinua, 32, 56, 140, 141
ACRA (Advisory Council for Religious
Affairs), 196n71
Ad gentes, 198n40
Adam, religion of, 124
Adamawa, 34, 38
Addis Ababa, 96
Adeboye, Enoch Adejare, 125, 126
Adefuye, Ade, 37
Adogame, Afe, 68
adultery, 124
advaita vedanta tradition, 22
Advisory Council for Religious Affairs,
196n71
affirmation and alteration within
African religion, 121
afiyah, 157
African Baptist Church, 54, 117
African Cry, 149
African Independent Church, 54, 111,
116–21
African Initiated Church. See Aladura
churches
African Islam, distinct characteristics
of, 42
African liberation theology. See
liberation theology
African Nations Cup tournament, 180
African Pentecostal and charismatic
churches, 121–6
See also Pentecostalism
African Reformation, 54
African religions, Christianity and Islam
as, 18
African Slave Trade and Its Remedy, 52
Agarenes, 76
agency within theology, 72, 73
aggiornamento, 91
agreeing to disagree, 81
Ahl al-Kitab, 17
Ahmadu, Seku, 48
Ajobi and Ajogbe: Variations on the
Theme of Sociation, 61
Akinjogbin, Adeagbo, 61
Akinola, Jasper, 150
Akiwowo, Akinsola, 61
Akwa-Ibom, 34
INDEX226
al-Din, Nasir, 45
al-Faruqi, Isma’il, 87
al-Faruqi, Raji, 99
al-Hajj, Umar, 48
al-Hindi, Sheikh Rahmatullah, 78
Al-Kindi, Risala of, 77
al-Maghili, Muhammad, 44–6
alaafia, 156, 157
alaafia (holistic well-being), 156
Aladura churches, 54, 55, 117–20
etymology of aladura, 118
relationship with Islam, 117
alcohol consumption, 120
Alexandria, 17
Algeria, 17
alienation as result of exclusive
theological propositions, 98
Alive to God, 87
All Progressives Congress (APC),
60
“Allah” as god kept in Kaa’ba, 124
Allahu Akbar, 116
Allen, William, 109
almajiri education, 42–4, 58
Almajiris, 173
Aloma, Idris, 44
Amin, Samir, 24
Amjad-Ali, Charles, 25, 26, 61, 62
An-Na’im, Abdullahi, 132, 133
Anambra people, 34
Anang people, 38
Anderson, Allan, 122
Angel Gabriel as messenger of God,
112–14
Anglican Church, 37, 81, 119
anthropological model of contextual
theology, 90
antichrist, 77, 124
anti-Semitism, 75–8
antislavery campaigns, 111
APC (All Progressives Congress), 60
appeals, Sharia courts, 130
appropriation in religious transmission,
7, 18, 19, 29, 43, 49, 53, 68, 100,
110, 111, 118, 121, 152–5
Aquinas, St. Thomas, 77
Arabic language, 22, 107, 110, 119
Arabization, 17
Bibles in Arabic, 112, 115
art, role of Islamic religion in, 129
Ashafa, Ustaz Muhammad Nurayn, 9,
166–8
Asia, dialogical and liberative theologies
in, 22, 23
Askiya Mohammed, 44
Asoro Kukuru, 107
Atlantic Monthly, 21
The Attitude of the Church towards the
Followers of Other Religions, 99
authenticity and authentic faith, 30, 45,
63, 90, 100, 117, 123, 181
authoritarianism, 133
autonomy, within Christian and Muslim
understanding, 23, 41, 49, 118
avidya, 161
awakening, spiritual, 21, 97, 109, 118,
149, 165–9
Awolowo, Obafemi, 66
Ayandele, E. A., 51, 52
Ayetoro, 120
Azikwe, Nnamdi, 178
Babangida, Ibrahim, 57, 127, 195n71
Babylon, 17
Bakare, Tunde, 150
balance
alaafia, 157
“communal equilibrium,” 170
peaceful interreligious coexistence in
parts of Nigeria, 65–7
Balewa, Abubakar Tafawa, 131, 132
Banu Ma’qil, 45
Basetti-Sani, Giulio, 197n18
baths, ritual, 120
Bauchi, 34, 38
Beatitudes, 171, 172
Bediako, Kwame, 144
begging, 58
“believers” vs. “unbelievers,” 77
Bello, Alhaji Ahmadu, 68, 178, 205n63
belonging
explanation of multireligious
belonging, 187n34
See also the Other/Otherness
Benedictine monk, 22
Benin, Republic of, 104
Benin Empire, 51
Benue, 38
Berber peoples, 45
Berger, Peter, 63
INDEX 227
Berom, 36
bestial beings, 77
Bevans, Stephen, 90
Bible, 78, 107, 111–15, 154, 176
Arabic language, 112, 115
common ground for interreligious
dialogue and communication found
in scriptural texts, 167
dialogue as Biblicist and affirming
of reconciliation and mutual
exchange, 114
gospel command for love,
compassion, and understanding,
100, 101
litafi, 113
textual level, Christian-Muslim
relations at, 27
Yoruba language, 111
Bida, 116
bilad al-harb (territory of non-Muslims),
46
bilingual education within almajiri
schooling, 193n43
Bishops Conference of Nigeria (CBAN),
8, 131
black stone, mockery of Islamic practices
and beliefs, 76
Boko Haram
aggravated violence by, 58, 64, 129
designation as terrorist group,
128, 129
generally, 5, 33, 40
increasing sophistication of, 35
International Religious Freedom
Report on, 195n61
bondage
economic bondage. See poverty
slavery. See slavery and slave trade
border-crossing
contemporary experience of, 192n31
See also immigration
born-again Christians. See
Pentecostalism
“born-again Muslims,” 126
Borno Empire, 44, 52
Bornu, 39
See also northern Nigeria
Borrmans, Maurice, 84
borrowing. See appropriation in
religious transmission
Bourdieu, Pierre, 78
bowing, 120
Brahman in advaita vedanta tradition,
22
Britain
civilizing agenda and mission, 52
collapse of Sokoto Caliphate, 48
in Crown Colony of Lagos, 38
English Penal Code, 130
establishment of British hegemony,
105
expatriates, 124
“indirect rule” by, 48, 204n58
Islam in, 25
See also colonization and colonial
mentality
broadcast media. See media
Brook, David, 21
Broumana, 100, 165, 200n73
Bruegemann, Walter, 162
Buddhism, 22, 158, 165, 168,
207n16
noted practitioners of multiple
religious belonging, 187n34
Buhari, Iman, 17
Building Bridges Seminar in Doha,
Qatar, 176
Burkina Faso, 45, 180
burning of churches, 128
Buxton, Fowell, 52
Byzance, Nicetas of, 77
Byzantium, 17, 76
Calabar, 53
The Call of the Minaret, 85–7
Cameroon, 45, 104
Campbell, John, 33, 37
CAN (Christian Association of Nigeria),
122, 127–31, 152
Canada, 25
CANAN (Christian Association of
Nigerian-Americans), 129
Canterbury, Archbishop of, 206n74
Cantwell Smith, Wilfred, 21, 22, 86
Cape Town, 137
Capita Philosophica: Philosophical
Chapters, 76
Capuchins, 51
Cartigny, Switzerland, 97
cartoons of Prophet Muhammad, 84
INDEX228
Catholicos Timothy, 196n6
Catholics, 87, 91–4, 128, 193n41,
205n61
Catholic Bishops Conference of
Nigeria (CBAN), 8, 131
Constitution of the Church, 91
Council of Trent, 94
ecclesia reformanda, 164
Lebanese Catholic scholar, 84
missionaries. See missionaries and
missionary movements
popes. See Popes
Second Vatican Council, 91–4, 99,
198n40
Triune God, 22
CBAN (Catholic Bishops Conference of
Nigeria), 8, 131
Celestial Church of Christ, 54, 117
censorship, 127
Chad, 45
Chambesy, Switzerland, 95
Chapman, Colin, 125
charismatic movements. See
Pentecostalism
chauvinism, 5
Cherubim and Seraphim movement, 54,
117–20
children, 119, 157
International Conference of Christian
and Muslim youths, 16
Muslim/Christian Youth Dialogue
Forum, 166
schooling at Madrassehs, 42–4, 58
Christ Apostolic Church, 54, 117,
119
Christ Jesus. See Jesus
Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN),
122, 127–31, 152
Christian Association of Nigerian-
Americans (CANAN), 129
Christian Council of Nigeria, 104
Christian Responsibility in an
Independent Nigeria, 104
Christian Students’ Movement, 127
Christianity as African religion, 31
robust presence in Nigeria, 37
Christmas Day bombing, 193n41
The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque:
Christians and Muslims in the
World of Islam, 71
Church Missionary Society (CMS), 53,
77, 105, 107–8
in India, 77
Church of the Lord, 54, 117
Church of the Lord (Aladura). See
Aladura
CIFR (Commission on International
Religious Freedom), 33, 138
civic responsibility, 157
civil service system, 56
civil war in Nigeria, 40, 64, 67, 130
Clapperton, Hugh, 52
Clarke, Peter, 44
clash of culture and civilization theses,
24, 25, 32, 41, 60, 125
“clash of ignorance,” 188n42
Clashes & Encounters: Islam and
Christianity in History, 74
clean worship, ablution as, 118, 119
CMS (Church Missionary Society), 53,
77, 105, 107, 108
Cobb, John, 159
codes and laws
Catholic Constitution of the Church,
91
code of conduct for Muslim rulers, 44
Constitution of Nigeria, 127, 130–2
English Penal Code, 130
international human rights laws,
193n44
shari’a, 35, 39, 43, 46, 47, 127, 130–
4, 203n48
Coe, Shoki, 88, 89
Cold War era, 23
Cole, M. S., 107
colonization and colonial mentality, 14,
26, 38, 39, 42, 43, 51–5, 115
early explorers, 51, 52
ethnic amalgamation, 55
foreign domination of Christian
churches, independence from,
116–21
independence of Nigeria, 32, 130
“indirect rule,” 204n58
legacies of, 5, 71
transformation of African
Christianity, 49–55
See also missionaries and missionary
movements
commandments, obedience to, 97
INDEX 229
commerce and trade, 32, 34, 39, 42, 43,
48, 50, 52, 55
Arabic as language of and trade, 17, 22
globalization, 3, 4, 87, 94, 192n31
slave trade, 38, 43, 52, 111
Commission on International Religious
Freedom (CIFR), 33, 138
“common source” of religion, 160
The Common Task: A Theology of the
Christian Mission, 154
A Common Word Between Us and You,
140
“communal equilibrium,” 170
communal well-being, 157
communality, 170
community life, meaning of, 151
compassion, prophetic call for, 100, 101
Cone, James, 155
Conference of European Churches, 95
“conflict of jealousies,” 32
conscience, consensus of, 162
conspiracies, religio-political, 126
Constitution of Nigeria, 127, 130–2
contextualization
“context-as-object,” 89
“context-as-subject,” 89
defined, 88, 89
as dynamic process, 26
etymology of “context,” 26
conundrums/dilemmas/paradoxes, 6,
22, 56, 60, 64, 72, 73, 81, 117,
129, 145, 177
conversions, 17, 32, 44, 78, 105, 113,
119, 126
surreptitious ways of converting, 93, 99
transmission and transformation of
African Christianity, 49–55
See also missionaries and missionary
movements
Coptic Christians, 17, 22
corruption in Nigeria, 5, 34, 55–7, 64,
65, 67
Council, Vatican II, 91–4, 99, 198n40
Council of Foreign Relations, 33
Council of Trent, 94
courts of appeal, sharia, 130
“covenantal humanism,” 207n14
Covering Islam, How the Media and the
Experts Determine How We See the
Rest of the World, 65, 66
Cox, Harvey, 161
Cracknell, Kenneth, 97, 141, 153
Cragg, Kenneth, 15, 32, 79–87, 100,
144
bravery of, 80
creativity in religious understanding and
appropriation, 121
criminal issues
crimes against humanity, 13
English Penal Code, 130
shari’a penal law, 132
Cross River Valley, 53
The Crown and The Turban: Muslims
and West African Pluralism, 133
Crowther, Ajayi, 8, 54, 110–17
crucified Africa, 171
crucified Christ, 83, 98, 135, 143
relationship between the Cross, the
Self, and the Other, 137
crucified mind, 169
“crucified people,” 143
Crusades, 12, 23, 32, 50, 74, 87
“transcendent moralism” that justifies
violence, 67, 68
culture
appropriation in religious
transmission, 7, 18, 19, 29, 43, 49,
53, 68, 100, 110, 111, 118, 121,
152–5
creative ways of relating gospel to
concrete existential conditions,
89, 90
cultural context of religion, 31, 89, 180
cultural dynamics of Nigeria, 26–8
cultural solipsism, 24
religion as transcending cultural
barriers, 21
Culture of Peace and Non-Violence
conference, 13
Cyrus, 17
daily life
Islam as a way of life, 59
poverty, disease, unemployment, and
death, transformational power of
religion, 146–8, 153
situations where faith and life relate,
15, 16, 83, 90
See also existential concerns; praxis/
practical model
INDEX230
dan Fodio, Abdullah, 47
dan Fodio, Mohammed Bello, 47
dan Fodio, Usman, 39, 43, 45, 47, 130,
191n25
Daniel, Norman, 75
Daniels, David, 183n5
Danish cartoons of Prophet
Muhammad, 84
darkness, spiritual, 161
da’wah, 95, 177
De Fide Orthodoxa: The True Faith, 76
De Haeresibus: False Beliefs, 76
Decalogue, obedience to, 97
defamity of Islam, 77
definition of Christian-Muslim
encounters, 26, 27, 103
dehumanization, 79, 136, 147, 181
demagogues, 69, 111, 126, 182
democratization of society, 19, 20, 122
demographic shifts, 20, 21, 29, 37, 144
demographics of Islam and Christianity
in Nigeria, 6, 36–9
demonization, 12, 13, 55, 63, 76, 125,
136
Deng, Francis, 157
Denham, Dixon, 52
dependency and domination, 149
See also colonization and colonial
mentality
destructive power of religion, 11–30
DFI (Dialogue with People of Living
Faiths and Ideologies), 96
dheeng, 208n20
Dhimmi, 17
diakonia, 98
dialogical faith, 30, 134–41
essentialist dialogue, 178
vs. exclusivism, provincialism, and
monologue, 3, 12, 24, 29, 40, 88,
94, 96, 98, 99, 110, 145, 153, 155,
159, 177
liberation theology, 158–61
“dialogue”
etymology, 26
explained, 2, 69, 103
as happenstance, 160
as show, 139
Dialogue with People of Living Faiths
and Ideologies (DFI), 96
Dickson, Kwesi, 170
dilemmas/paradoxes/conundrums, 6,
22, 56, 60, 64, 72, 73, 81, 117,
129, 145, 177
din, separation from doula, 47
al-Din, Nasir, 45
Dinka people of Sudan, 208n20
Diop, Cheikh Anta, 24
diplomacy
religion as means to, 43
role of Islam, 43, 59, 129
role of priests, 51
discernment, 6, 73, 86, 147
The Disintegration of Islam, 125
disparity of wealth, 58
dispensation, 73, 98, 154, 171
divine grace, 85, 91, 92, 171
divine mandate to work for humanity
and community, 169
divine prophecy. See prophecy
divine transcendence. See transcendence
divorce, 76, 130
doctrine-centered theories of dialogue,
62
Doha, Qatar, 176
donations to church, 126
double belonging in spiritual affiliation,
159
doula, separation from din, 47
dramatis personae, 15
dreams, interpretation of, 44
Dupuis, Jacques, 92
Durkheim, Emile, 19
East subregion, 38
EATWOT (Ecumenical Association of
Third World Theologians), 161
ebi commonwealth social theory, 61
ecclesia reformanda, 164
Eck, Diana, 3, 180
ecological degradation, 56, 207n16
Economic Community of West
African States Monitoring Group
(ECOMOG), 36
economic dynamics of Nigeria, 26–8,
34, 35, 56, 58, 64, 65, 129
economic context of religion, 31, 89,
180
effect on need for rebirth and
orientation, 155
GDP of northern Nigeria, 5
INDEX 231
poverty in Nigeria, 5, 56, 58, 180
prosperity of minority, 149
Ecumenical Association of Third World
Theologians, 161
ecumenism, 16, 21, 87, 98, 127, 176
global ethic, 162–5
Edinburgh Missionary Conference of
1875, 106, 107
Edo, 34, 38
education
almajiri education, 42–4, 58
as antidote to violence, 5
autonomy of Christian schools, 127
European system, 42
intellectual elite, 43, 44
intellectualism of Islam, 47, 48
scholarship, promotion by
missionaries, 106, 107
student killings, 58
training of clerics, scholars, lawyers,
doctors, and administrators, 44,
107
value of educational structure of
Islam, 46
WCC irenic scholarship, 95
Efik, 38
egalitarianism, 109, 148
Egypt, 17, 20, 36, 37
El-Kanemi, 52
Ela, Jean-Marc, 149, 150, 171
elders, 158
elections in Nigeria, 12, 37, 60, 125
empire. See colonization and colonial
mentality
“encounters,” explained, 15, 16, 84
English language, 107, 115
enlightenment ideals, 25, 28, 32, 85,
98, 144, 161, 165
environmental degradation, 56, 207n16
Enwerem, Evan, 127, 130
Epe, 105
epoche, practice of, 86
equilibrium
alaafia, 157
“communal equilibrium,” 170
peaceful interreligious coexistence in
parts of Nigeria, 65–7
Esack, Farid, 6, 150
esoteric elements of religions, 79, 83,
123
essentialist dialogue, 178
estrangement, explained, 170
“eternal shari’a,” 132
ethics, 125, 133, 134
ethical significance of religion, 32,
63, 64, 122
global ethic, 162–5
Middle Belt of Nigeria, 39
within Islam, 109, 129
Ethiopia, 16, 104
ethnicity and ethnic conflicts, 32, 34,
35, 40, 55, 57, 67
ethnicity politics, 128
modern pluralistic Nigeria,
38–41
religion as transcending ethnic
barriers, 21
shifting identities, 35
See also specific ethnic groups by
name
Euler-Ajayi, M. T., 107
evangelization, 80, 88, 89, 94, 100,
105–10, 112, 122, 126
backed by American collection-plate
money, 65
da’wah, 95, 177
The Great Commission, 2, 81, 95,
124
tension between evangelism and
dialogue, 95
See also missionaries and missionary
movements
evil, transformation of, 30
“evolutionary” transformation, 89
exclusivism, provincialism, and
monologue, 3, 12, 24, 29, 40, 88,
94, 96, 98, 99, 110, 145, 153, 155,
159, 177
executions of heretics, 75
Existence alone, 22, 23
existential concerns, 83, 89, 165, 170,
181
poverty, injustice, moral decadence,
and unemployment, 153
separation of theology from real
human experiences, 25
See also daily life; praxis/practical
model
existential darkness (avidya), 161
exorcism, 55
INDEX232
Experiences with Heathens and
Mohammedans in West Africa, 112,
114
expressway prayer grounds, 146
extra ecclesiam nulla salus, 94
extremism/fanaticism, 32, 33, 40, 57,
63–5, 68, 74, 109, 126–9
See also violence and warfare
face-to-face dialogue, 100
failing state, Nigeria as, 33, 34, 36–8,
69, 146
faith
authentic faith, 30
in contemporary landscape, 19–21
daily situations where faith and life
relate, 15, 16, 83, 90
new sense of, 170
Faith and Witness of WCC, 96
faith healing, 119
“Faith Meet Faith Series,” 1
family life
ebi commonwealth social theory, 61
role of Islam in, 129
fanaticism/extremism, 32, 33, 40, 57,
63–5, 68, 74, 109, 126–9
See also violence and warfare
al-Faruqi, Isma’il, 87
al-Faruqi, Raji, 99
fasting, 55, 120
federal Sharia court of appeals,
130
federalist character of Nigeria, 132
De Fide Orthodoxa: The True Faith, 76
Fisher, Humphrey, 44
flu pandemic, 54, 117
Foday Kaba, 43
dan Fodio, Usman, 39, 43, 45, 47, 130,
191n25
football, 180, 181
Foreign Affairs magazine, 25, 37
foreign domination of Christian
churches, independence from,
116–21
foreign investment in Nigeria, 5, 57
Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO)
designation, 129
forgiveness and reconciliation, 60, 66,
112, 114, 134–8, 158, 162, 165,
179, 181
the Pastor and the Imam, 166, 167,
172, 173
Forward, Martin, 183n2
foundationalism, 160
The Fount of Knowledge, 76
France, 25
Francophone countries in Africa, 105
French incursions, 39
French missionaries, 52, 53
Franciscans, 51
freedom of religion, 20, 69, 128, 131,
132, 134, 182
constitutional injunction for secular
state, 132
report, 33
US Commission on International
Religious Freedom’s
French. See France
Friday (Jimo), 119
FTO (Foreign Terrorist Organization),
129
Fulani people, 34, 36, 38, 39, 47, 127
Futta Jallon, 50
Gabriel as messenger of God, 112–14
Gadaffi, Muammer, 57
Gallup poll, 205n62
the Gambia, 62
Gandhi, Mahatma, 182
Gao, 43, 44
Gaudeul, Jean-Marie, 11, 74
Gbadamosi, G. O., 108
Gbonigi, Bola, 150
general elections. See elections in
Nigeria
generosity within Islam, 109, 208n20
genocide, 14, 135
“geography of religious expression,” 68
geopolitics, 1, 8, 41, 122
German interests, 39, 77
“getting along,” 81
Ghana, 62, 104
Ghazi bin Muhammad, 36
Gifford, Paul, 63
global affairs and considerations, role of
religion in, 19, 20
Global Ethic Foundation, 162, 209n35
global perception of interreligious
relations in Nigeria, 65
global relevance of Nigeria, 38
INDEX 233
globalization, 3, 4, 87, 94, 192n31
global ethic, 162–5
world system of exploitation, 171
“globalization from below,” 3
glossolalia, 123
Gobir, Sultan of, 47
God has a Dream, 138
God is Back: How Global Revival of Faith
is Changing the World, 65
God’s Century: Resurgent Religion and
Global Politics, 19, 20
Goiten, 86
gold, Levant route to, 50
Gopin, Marc, 173
gospel command for love, compassion,
and understanding, 100, 101
Gospel of Luke, 135, 147
grace, divine, 85, 91, 92, 157, 171
Gramsci, Antonio, 61
The Great Commission, 2, 81, 95, 124
Greek Christendom, 27
Greek etymology of “dialogue,” 26
Greek language, 22
Greek mythology, 40
Greek style of writing, 119
Griffith, Sidney, 71, 72
gross domestic product (GDP) of
northern Nigeria, 5
“the ground of our being,” 175
growth of Christianity, 144
growth of Islam, 11, 42, 73, 74
The Guidelines for Dialogue between
Christians and Jews (Borrmans), 84
Guidelines on Dialogue (WCC), 93, 94,
96, 97
Gulf War, 12
Guru Maharaji temple, 152
Hadith, 120
De Haeresibus: False Beliefs, 76
al-Hajj, Umar, 48
Hamartolos, George, 77
Hanbali school, 42
Hartford Seminary, 80
Harvard School of Government, 33
Hassan, Abdille, 43
Hausa-Fulani hegemony, 127
Hausa people and Hausaland, 34, 39,
46, 47, 115, 127, 157
health care, 5
heathenism, 114–16
Hegemony and Culture: Politics and
Religious Change among the
Yoruba, 61
heresy, 75, 100
hermeneutics
of change, 99, 138, 150, 180
contextualization within, 90
of suspicion, 147, 160
Heschel, Abraham Joshua, 168, 169
highway prayer grounds, 146
“highway to heaven,” 146
hijrah (migration), 17, 85
al-Hindi, Rahmatullah, 78
Hinduism, 22, 158, 187n36, 207n16
practitioners of multiple religious
belonging, 187n34
Hiskett, Mervyn, 45, 47, 48
historical considerations
Abrahamic religions, historical
relations among, 4, 25, 27, 31
emergence of Nigeria as nation state,
32, 55
overview of voices shaping Christian
response to Islam, 71–101
role of Islam and Christianity in
Africa, 7, 16–18
role of religion in the world, 108
spread of Islam, 11, 42, 73, 74
See also colonization and colonial
mentality
Hodgson, Marshall, 24
holistic well being/wholeness, 149–74
holocaust, 168
Holy Spirit, 114, 199n63
charismatic movements. See
Pentecostalism
dialogue requiring, 97
discernment of meaning and content
of religion, 91
Holy Ghost Night, 146
liberative perspective, 123, 124
The Holy Spirit, Chi, and the Other: A
Model of Global and Intercultural
Pneumatology, 124
honor, “presence” as silent honor, 59
hope, sense of, 7, 30, 64, 98, 140, 147,
151, 162–6
eschatology connected to hopes of
people, 170–2
INDEX234
hospitality ethos, 19, 51, 52, 105, 109
Hossein Nasr, Seyyed, 12
House of Prayer, 120
human, meaning of, 151
“human dialogue,” 195n67
human rights, 5, 127, 133
crimes against humanity, 13
international human rights laws,
193n44
human well-being (maslaha), 143, 154,
156
human wholeness, 149–74
humanum, 161, 163
humility within dialogue, 93, 98, 101
Huntington, Samuel, 24, 25
Hussain, Amir, 25
hypersexualization, 77
Ibadan, 38, 53
Ibadan, Olubadan of, 119
Ibadan, University of, 104
Ibibio, 38
ibn Abdallah, Muhammad Ahmad, 43
Ibn Khaldun, 133
Iconoclastic debates, 76
Id al-Fitr, 140
idolatry, 112, 114
Ifa diviner, 114
Ife, University of, 61
Igbo, 38, 53, 140, 204n58
Ijaw, 38
I’jaz al-Qur’an, The Qur’an inself is not
a Miracle, 78
Ilorin, 113
Imam, 111–13
the Pastor and the Imam, 166, 167,
172, 173
imitation and appropriation in religion,
7, 18, 19, 29, 43, 49, 53, 68, 100,
110, 111, 118, 121, 152–5
immigration, 17, 34, 44, 92, 192n31
effect on affiliation and identity, 3
effect on demographics, 21
hijrah (migration), 17, 85
imperialism. See colonization and
colonial mentality in Africa
incarnation, 25, 26, 62, 74, 82, 98,
198n40
“inculturation model” of
indigenization, 89
independence of African countries, 31
independence of Nigeria, 67, 130
independency of African religions,
116–21
India, 20, 77, 78, 106, 154
indigenenous African people
agents in African Christianity, 50
appropriation of faith, 7, 18, 19, 29,
43, 49, 53, 68, 100, 110, 111, 118,
121, 152–5
evangelization by indigenous
Christians, 107
“indigenization,” 31, 54, 89
as pawns in scheme of religio-political
dispensation, 51
pluralistic context, indigenous
understanding of meaning and
purpose of mission, 109
trappings of empire and indigenous
circumstances, influence on
religions traditions, 71
See also traditional African religions
individuality vs. communal
responsibility, 157
Indonesia, liberal politics in, 20
infidel, use of term, 79
influenza pandemic, 54, 117
inheritance practices, 39
instrumentalization of religions, 14
intellectual elite, 43, 44
intellectualism of Islam, 47, 48
“interfaith dialogue industry,” 1
Interfaith Forum of Muslim and
Christian Women’s Association,
156
Interfaith Meditation Center, 167, 168
intermarriages, 55
international affairs and considerations,
role of religion in, 19, 20
International Conference of Christian
and Muslim youths, 16
international human rights laws,
193n44
International Missionary Council, 94
International Religious Freedom Report
for 2012, 195n61
Internet evangelism, 55
intra vs. interreligious dialogue, 137
invisible and visible, intrinsic connection
between, 123
INDEX 235
Isa, 119
See also Jesus
Iseyin, 105
Ishmaelites, 76
Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan
Africa, 144
Islam and Orientalism, 86
“Islam in the West,” 25
Islamic conference, 127
“Islamic heresy,” 76
Islamization, 17
resistance to, 126–9
Islamophobia, 12
Iwo, 105
iyasimimo (sanctification), 120
Izhar al-Haqq (The Demonstration of
Truth), 78
Jahiliyyah period, 85, 124, 144, 196n6
Jama’atu Nasril Islam (JNI), 130
Jameelah, Maryam, 86
“janjaweed,” 58
Jenkins, Philip, 28, 144
Jesuit order, 90, 158
Jesus, 59, 151
crucified Christ, 83, 98, 135, 143
emasculated Jesus, 85
as great prophet, 112, 113
incarnation, 25, 26, 62, 74, 82, 98,
198n40
messianic role of Jesus, 32
miraculous birth of Christ, 32, 112,
113
relationship between the Cross, the
Self, and the Other, 137
Jews and Judaism
anti-Semitism, 75–8
Jewish-Christian mode of thinking,
76
possibility of salvation to, 91
Ji-Sun Kim, Grace, 124
Jibrila (Gabriel), 112–14
jihad, 23, 39, 43, 45, 48
“transcendent moralism” that justifies
violence, 67, 68
See also violence and warfare
Jimo (Friday), 119
jingoism, 40
JNI (Jama’atu Nasril Islam), 130
John of Damascus, 76
John Paul II, 62, 63, 199n63
John Templeton Foundation on
Tolerance and Tension, 144
John XXIII, 91–4
Johnson, Reverend James, 106–9
Jos, 35, 36, 64, 68, 137
joys of religious inquiry, 79, 80
Judaism. See Jews and Judaism
judicial system, 56
Islamic scholars as jurists, 44
Sharia courts, 130
Juergensmeyer, Mark, 64, 67, 185n9
jurisdiction of shari’a law, 131–4
justice, 64, 65, 137, 141, 147, 150–63,
207n16
constant battle against injustice, 170,
171
as existential concern, 153
historical legacy of injustice, 49
justice of God among all people, 164
liberation from injustice. See
liberation theology
perspective of the other, justice
requiring, 168
Socratic approach, 157
Kaa’ba, 124
Kaduna, 9, 34, 38, 131, 137, 152, 156,
166
Kairos document, 181
Kalam, 82
Kalu, Ogbu, 68, 121, 126, 144
Kandy, Sri Lanka, 97
Kanem-Bornu Empire, 39
Kano, 34, 43, 66, 131, 137
Kanuri, 39
Katsina, 43
Kenny, Joseph, 120
Kenya, 104
Kerr, David, 78, 80
Kim, Grace Ji-Sun, 124
Kimball, Charles, 185n11
Al-Kindi, Risala of, 77
“Kingdom-centered” view, 161
kitab, 74
Knitter, Paul, 24, 92, 159
Koran. See Qur’an
Koyama, Kosuke, 14
kufr, 197n25
Kukah, Hassan, 131, 150
INDEX236
Küng, Hans, 162, 163
Kuti, Fela, 57
Kwara, 34
Kwashi, Ben, 35
Kyoto, 161
Lagos, 38, 53, 108, 109, 120–2, 181
Crown Colony of Lagos, 38
Lagos-Ibadan Expressway, 146
Laitin, David, 61
Lambeth Conference of 1888, 112
language
Anglophone countries in Africa, 105
Arabic. See Arabic language
bilingual education within almajiri
schooling, 193n43
religious jingoism, 40
religious language and symbolism, 29
time-fuse of vernacular literacy, 117
translation of Bible to local languages,
154
warfare, language of, 64, 125
Laroui, Abdullah, 24
Last, Murray, 45
Latin American paradigm of liberation
theology, 161
Lausanne Congress on World
Evangelization, 89
laws. See codes and laws
lectures on ways to foster peace among
Christians and Muslims, 168
Leo III of Byzantium, 76
Levant route to spices and gold, 50
leviathan state, 133
Levtzion, Nehemia, 43
Lewis, Bernard, 4, 24, 25, 79
lex credendi, 15
liberal political theory, 62
liberal view of interreligious encounters,
27
liberation theology, 6, 143, 147, 150–63
common ground, 151
identification of liberation as core
value in religion, 98
ongoing process of liberation, 170
prophetic connection with dialogue,
158–61
prosperity of minority, 149
Soteria, 160
within meaning of “mission,” 154
Liberian civil war, 208n17
life, dialogue of, 139–41
“The Light of the Nations,” 91
listening, 170
a “listening” church, 164
“teacher’s complex,” 165
litafi, 113
See also Bible
literacy
Arabic language, 22, 48
Islamic scholars, 43, 44, 47
missionaries’ role, 106, 107
vernacular, 54, 117
liturgy/ritual, 54, 117, 118, 123, 133,
134, 149
creative paradigms, 49
models relevant to Africa, 54, 116–21
Living Faith Church, 125
Lokoja, 116
love, gospel command for, 98–101
Luke, Gospel of, 135
Lumen Gentium, 91
Luther, Martin, 78
Maba Jahu, 43
Macquairre, John, 63
Maddalla, 193n41
Madhi, 45
Madrassehs, 42–4, 58
Maeir, Karl, 33
al-Maghili, Muhammad, 44–6
Maghrib, conquest of, 17
magisterium, 16
Maitatsine, 33, 40
Mala, Babs, 104
Malawi, 104
Mali, 44, 45
Maliki School of law, 17, 42
Mamluks, 17
manifestations of Islam and Christianity
in Nigeria, 31–69
Mansa Musa, 44
Mansur B. Sergun, 76
Ma’qil, 45
marginalization, 143, 167
marriage, 39, 43, 130
intermarriages, 55
mockery of Islamic practices and
beliefs, 76
Marshall, Ruth, 125
INDEX 237
maslaha, 143, 154, 156
Massignon, Louis, 4, 197n18
Maurier, H., 92
Mauritania, 45
Mbiti, John, 158
Mecca, 16, 85
media, 55, 75
censorship, 127
portrayal of Nigeria, 65, 66
medicine
native medicine, 119
training of doctors, 44
medieval thinking, 27, 65, 75, 82, 99,
105, 125, 196n1
Medina, 17, 46, 85
meditation, 22, 23
Interfaith Meditation Center, 167,
168
“meeting” within interreligious
relations, 84
Meier, Karl, 37
Melkite Christians, 17, 22
menstruation, 120
Merton, Thomas, 158
messianic role of Jesus, 32, 113, 114
Methodists, 53
United African Methodist Church,
54, 117
Mexico, liberal politics in, 20
Middle Belt of Nigeria, 34, 38, 39, 48
Middle East, 22, 23
migration. See immigration
militant/radical ideology, 32, 33, 40,
57, 63–5, 68, 74, 109, 126–9
resistance to Islamic revivalism and
militancy, 126–9
See also violence and warfare
military corruption, 57
military rule, 34, 35, 66, 67, 131
Miller, Ethel, 124
ministerial obligations vs. intellectual
engagement, 83
misogyny, 124
missionaries and missionary movements,
6, 20, 28, 29, 39, 44, 47–55, 100,
103, 125, 126
dialogue and proclamation as
authentic elements of evangelizing
mission, 100
and “faithful presence,” 111
freedom from oppression and
ignorance, as meaning of
“mission,” 154
The Great Commission, 2, 81, 95,
124
Islamic theology, knowledge by
missionaries, 107
missionary agenda of Christianity and
Islam, 121
passive recipients of religious
traditions, 31
paternalism, 111
secession of African religions from
foreign domination, 116–21
shift from mission to dialogue, 81
surreptitious conversions, 93, 99
transmission and transformation of
African Christianity, 49–55
whole world conversion as goal, 154
in Yorubaland, 105–10
See also colonization and colonial
mentality; conversions
Mizan al-Haqq (The Balance of Truth),
78
mockery of Islamic practices and beliefs,
76
Models of Contextual Theology, 90
modesty within interreligious
understanding, 81
monks, 22, 76, 77
monogamy, 43
monologue/exclusivism/provincialism,
3, 12, 24, 29, 40, 88, 94, 96, 98,
99, 110, 145, 153, 155, 159, 177
Monophysite church, 17
monotheism, 4, 74
“Abrahamic monotheism,” 92
theological jealousies, 32
moral significance of religion, 32
Morocco, 17
Moshay, G. J. O., 124
mosques, 108, 119
Moubarac, Youakim, 84
Mountain of Fire, 152
Muhammad Bello, 47, 52
Muhammad (Prophet), 16, 17, 73–6,
113, 119, 120, 125, 151
Christian understanding of, 84, 85
“shared theism,” 84
sunna, 46, 151
INDEX238
mujahid (fighter in the path of God), 46
multilateral vs. unilateral evangelism,
126
Muslim/Christian Youth Dialogue
Forum, 166
“the Muslim World,” 23
Muslims and Christians: Face to Face, 24
Mveng, Engelbert, 161, 170, 171
mysterium tredemdum et fascinans,
169
mystery within religion, 79, 80, 168,
173
mysterium tremendum, 100, 169
vs. practical, 173
Soteria, 160
Ultimate Reality, 22, 50, 73, 155,
175
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, 12, 42, 73, 82
“nation for God,” 52
National Council of Nigeria and
Cameroons, 178
National Council of Nigerian Citizens,
178
nationalism, 31, 106, 181
religion as transcending ethnic,
national, and cultural barriers, 21
secession to develop theological and
worship models relevant to Africa,
116–21
transnationalism, 87
Nations Cup tournament, 180
nation-states, 25, 182
emergence of Nigeria as nation state,
32
failing state, Nigeria as, 33, 34, 36–8,
69, 146
native medicine, 119
natural gas, 56, 57
natural resources, 34, 56
neighborliness, 134
The New Crusaders, 63
Newbigin, Lesslie, 1
The Next Christendom, 28
Nicetas of Byzance, 77
Niger, 45
Niger Delta, 56
Niger Mission, 54, 117
Niger state, 131, 193n41
Nigeria: Dancing on the Brink, 33
Nigeria, idea of Nigeria founded on
political compromise, 41
Nigeria, liberal politics in, 20
“Nigeria on the Brink: What Happens if
the 2011 Elections Fail?,” 37
Nigeria Supreme Council for Islamic
Affairs (NSCIA), 152
Nigerian civil war, 40, 64, 67, 130
Nkrumah, Kwame, 18, 19
No Other Name?, 159
North Africa, 17, 31, 39, 43
Northern and Southern Protectorate, 39
Northern Christian Association, 127
Northern Governors Peace and
Reconciliation Committee, 152
northern Nigeria, 57, 58, 68, 130, 131,
134, 178
civil war in Nigeria, 40, 64, 67, 130
creation of Northern Protectorate, 39
framework for understanding
conflicts within Nigeria, 38–41
gross domestic product of, 5
historical competition between north
and south, 34, 35
ideal spot for missionary work, 125,
126
informal power-sharing structure
shifing presidential position
between northerner and
southerner, 41
Islamic fortress of, 53
north as Muslim, south as Christian,
34
Sardauna of Sokoto, 68, 127, 178,
205n63
Northern Peoples Congress, 178
Nostra Aetate, In our Time, 92, 93, 99
NSCIA (Nigeria Supreme Council for
Islamic Affairs), 152
Nyang, Sulayman, 17
Obadare, Ebenezer, 145
Obafemi Awolowo University, 61
Obama, Barack, 4
Obasanjo, Olusegun, 125, 129, 131
obedience to piety (taqlid), 44, 78
The Obligations of the Princes, 44
obscurantist tendencies, 82
Ogbomosho, 53
Ogere, 119
INDEX 239
Ogunbiyi, T. A. J., 107
OIC (Organization of Islamic
Conference), 36, 43, 127, 128
oil drilling, 56, 57
Ojo, Matthew, 125
Okogie, Olubunmi, 128, 150
Old Calabar, 53
Olubadan of Ibadan, 119
Olupona, Jacob K., 3
Oluwole, Reverend, 108
Omoyajowo, J. Akinyele, 119
Onaiyekan, John, 150, 152
Ondo, 119
one world, 180
oneness of God, 45, 115
Organization of Islamic Conference
(OIC), 36, 43, 127, 128
Orientalism, 24
Oritsejafor, Ayodele Joseph, 128, 129
Orobator, Agbonkhianmeghe, 90
Oshitelu, Josiah Olunowo, 119
the Other/Otherness, 29, 62, 80, 134–
7, 157, 175, 176, 189n52
dehumanization, 79, 136, 147, 181
double belonging in spiritual
affiliation, 159
as fellow participant in project for
personal and communal well-being,
168
relationship between the Cross, the
Self, and the Other, 137
Ubuntu, 136, 158, 170
Otto, Rudolf, 169
Oudney, Walter, 52
Oyedepo, David, 125
Oyo, 38
Paden, John, 61
padroado agreements, 51
paganism, 114–16
“pagan” point of view, 48
Pakistani Christians, 25
Panikkar, Raimon, 22, 90, 159, 160
paradise, mockery of Islamic practices
and beliefs, 76
paradoxes/dilemmas/conundrums, 6,
22, 56, 60, 64, 72, 73, 81, 117,
129, 145, 177
passive recipients of religious traditions,
31
“the pastor and the imam,” 166, 167,
172, 173
paternalism, 82, 99, 111
patience within interreligious
understanding, 81
Paul, Saint, 135
payment of evangelists, 108
PDP (Peoples Democratic Party), 60
peace, 152, 165–70
affected by political machinations and
power play, 165
entrenchment in Christianity and
Islam, 152
“indigenous model to peacemaking,”
166
interreligious coexistence in parts of
Nigeria, 65–7
Peel, J. D. Y., 60, 61, 120
Penal Code of England, 130
Pentecostalism, 20, 21, 55, 121–6
charismatic renewal, 49, 50, 55
as fundamentalism, 63–5
people of the book (Ahl al-Kitab), 17
“people of the ship,” 17
Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), 60
persecution, 5, 16, 17
Persia, 27, 77
personal witness, 81
petroleum, 56, 57
Pew Charitable Trusts, 122, 144
Pew Forum, 37
Pfander, Karl, 77, 114
Phan, Peter, 1
phenomenological study of Islam,
explained, 72
Philpott, Daniel, 19
Pieris, Aloysius, 23, 158, 159
piety, 46, 119, 133, 134
framework for appraising theological
credentials of Islam, 118
taqlid (blind obedience to piety), 78
pilgrimage, 127, 130
Plateau State, 38, 64
ploys for conversion or proselytization,
93, 99
pluralism, 7, 67, 155, 156
challenges of, 181, 182
complacent pluralism, 138
ecumenical pluralist theology, 163
and “faithful presence,” 111
INDEX240
pluralism—Continued
framework for appraising theological
credentials of Islam, 118
indigenous understanding of, 109
modern pluralistic Nigeria, 38–41
new awareness of role of religion in
pluralistic society, 165
polarizing language, 12, 25
political activism, 168
political dynamics, 19, 20, 26–8, 35, 57,
89, 133
allocation of offices on basis of
religion, 68
corruption, 5, 34, 55–7, 64, 65, 67
creative ways of relating gospel to
concrete existential conditions,
89, 90
elections, 12, 37, 60, 125
framework for understanding
ethnoregional politics, 38–41
historical interaction of Christians
and Muslims, 71
idea of Nigeria founded on political
compromise, 41
Middle Belt of Nigeria, 39
peace process colored by political
machinations, 165
political context of religion, 31, 89,
180
religio-political conspiracies, 126
role of Islam, 129, 130
shifting identities, 35
theology, political, 122
Yoruba, political toleration, 61
poll tax, 17
polycentric, Christian-Muslim
understanding as, 23
polygamy, 43
polytheism, 115
Islam as polytheistic, 77
Pontifical Council for Inter-Religious
Affairs, 93
Pope John Paul II, 99
Pope John XXIII, 91–4
Pope Paul VI, 92
Pope Pius IX, 92
population of Nigeria, 36, 67, 195n69
Portuguese influence, 38, 51
poverty, 5, 56, 58, 164, 180
blessedness of poor, 158, 159
liberation from. See liberation
theology
violence, relationship to, 167
world system of, 171
See also economic dynamics of Nigeria
power
coloring peace process, 165
connections between religion and
power, 146
informal power-sharing structure
shifing presidential position
between northerner and
southerner, 41
relationship between human and
sacred, power as essential to, 123
of religion, 11–30
“symbolic imposition,” 78, 79
“power over,” 79
praxis/practical model, 150
afiyah, 157
connection between faith and action,
174
daily life. See daily life
dialogue, to fulfill common practical
responsibilities, 96
human actions as practical condition
for religious experience, 168
link between orthodoxy and
orthopraxis, 148
peacemaking born out of, 166
poverty, injustice, moral decadence,
and unemployment, 153, 161
separation of theology from real
human experiences, 25
situations where faith and life relate,
15, 16, 83, 90
See also existential concerns
prayer, 55, 118–20, 157
Presbyterian missionaries, 53
“presence” as silent honor and witness,
59
president, 146
elections. See elections in Nigeria
informal power-sharing structure
shifing presidential position
between northerner and
southerner, 41
“the presiding idea,” 42
Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad, 36
Principles of Christian Theology, 63
INDEX 241
profane. See secular vs. sacred
Programme for Christian-Muslim
Relations in Africa (PROCMURA),
59, 103–5
prophecy, 72, 81, 119
mandates of Christianity and Islam,
6, 163, 164, 172, 176, 180
theological jealousies, 32
within liberation theology, 158–61
Prophet Muhammad. See Muhammad
proselytism. See evangelization
prostration, 119
Protestantism, 94–100
African Reformation, 53, 54
independency of African religions,
116–21
World Council of Churches, 36, 88,
93–100, 165, 172
provincialism, exclusivism, and
monologue, 3, 12, 24, 29, 40, 88,
94, 96, 98, 99, 110, 145, 153, 155,
159, 177
public life, role of religion in, 28, 122,
129, 145
purification process, 153
Qadriyya Brotherhood, 42
Qatar, 176
Qur’an, 74–8, 80, 83, 84, 112, 120,
124, 176
common ground for interreligious
dialogue and communication found
in scriptural texts, 167
prescriptive principles within, 41
primeval covenant with God and
man, 97
textual level, Christian-Muslim
relations at, 27
understanding by Christians, 104
Yoruba translation, 107
Qur’anic schools (Madrassehs), 42–4,
58
Raba, 116
Race, Alan, 209n46
“radical astonishment,” 169
radical/militant ideology, 32, 33, 40,
57, 63–5, 68, 74, 109, 126–9
See also violence and warfare
Rahmatullah al-Hindi, Sheikh, 78
Ramadan, 116
RCC (Roman Catholic Church of
Nigeria). See Catholics
re-awakening, spiritual, 21, 97, 109,
118, 149, 165–9
reciprocity within dialogue, 136
reconciliation and forgiveness, 60, 66,
112, 114, 134–8, 158, 162, 165,
179, 181
the Pastor and the Imam, 166, 167,
172, 173
reconquista agenda, 50
Redeemed Camp, 146, 152, 153
Redeemed Christian Church of God,
125, 146
redemption and redemptive faith, 30,
52, 181
See also salvation
Redemptoris Missio, 99, 200n63
regional identities in Nigeria, 38–41
See also ethnicity and ethnic conflicts
Religious Encounter and the Making of
the Yoruba, 60, 61
religious freedom. See freedom of
religion
renewal, spirit of, 12, 31, 44–9, 91–4,
155
resistance
to Islamization, 126–9
jihad, 45
to love, 137
prophet mission of Muhammad, 85
religion as avenue for, 153
See also liberation theology
responsibility to God, Islamic ideas of,
172
responsibility to transform society, 168,
169
resurrection message in Christianity,
134, 136
revelation jealousies, 32
revelation of Godself, 81
revivalism, Islamic. See militant/radical
ideology
“revolutionary” transformation, 89, 90
Ricoeur, Paul, 90
Ringim, Hafiz, 193n41
riots, 66, 131, 166
Risala of Al-Kindi, 77
ritual. See liturgy/ritual
INDEX242
River Senegal basin, 50
Roman Catholic Church of Nigeria
(RCC). See Catholics
“The Roots of Muslim Rage,” 25
rosaries, 119
Rossano, Bishop, 93
Rotberg, Robert, 33
Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic
Thought, 36, 140
rule of law, 5, 56, 57
ruling class, 57
Runnymede Trust, 12
rural communities, 17, 36, 195n61
Sabbath, 119
sacred black stone in Islam, 76
sacred vs. secular, 19, 20, 32, 129
Constitution of Nigeria, secularism
within, 127
power as essential to relationship
between human and sacred, 123
Safran, Nadav, 86
Sahel region, 44
Sahih Buhari, 17
Said, Edward, 24, 65, 73
Saint John of Damascus, 76
Saint Luke, 147
Saint Paul, 135
Saint Theresa’s Catholic Church in
Maddalla, 193n41
Saint Thomas Aquinas, 77
Salafis, 42
salat, 134
salvation
common salvation history, 72
implications for human development,
152
Jesus Christ’s salvific work, 83, 97
within manifest destiny, 52, 92
Muhammad, status of, 84
possibility to Jews, Muslims, etc., 77,
91, 92, 94, 97, 99
salvation history, 84
Soteria, 160
witin Islamic Kalam, 82
Samartha, Stanley, 97, 162, 169, 170
sanctification (iyasimimo), 120
Sandals at the Mosque, 83
Sanneh, Lamin, 12, 32, 59, 86, 121,
133, 139, 144, 154, 173
Saracens, 76
Sardauna ethnic group, 38
Sardauna of Sokoto, 68, 127, 178,
205n63
satan-possessed murderer, Islam
described as, 124
Sati Mati, 43
Schimmel, Annemarie, 84
scholars, Islamic, 44–7
Scottish missionaries, 53
scripture
textual level, Christian-Muslim
relations at, 27
See also Bible; Qur’an
seccesionism in Nigeria, 32
secession of African religions from
foreign domination, 116–21
Second Vatican Council, 91–4, 99,
198n40
Secretariat for Relations with Non-
Christians, 92, 93
secular vs. sacred, 19, 20, 32, 129
Constitution of Nigeria, secularism
within, 127
power as essential to relationship
between human and sacred, 123
seizure of properties, 46
self, 29
human quest to make sense of, 167
relationship between the Cross, the
Self, and the Other, 137
self-analysis and criticism, 41, 98, 153
“to each his own,” 157
self-reliance/self-help, 107, 108, 110
Selvanayagam, Israel, 2
seminars on ways to foster peace, 168
Senegal River basin, 50
Senegambia, 45
sentimentalism, 81
separation of church and state, 129,
132, 133
non-separation of din (religion) and
doula (state), 47
separation of theology from real human
experiences, 25
September 11, 2001, 12
Sergun, Mansur B., 76
service, command to, 98
sex, hypersexualized beings, 77
Shafi’l school, 42
INDEX 243
Shah, Timothy Samuel, 19
Shaikh Muhammad, Khalid, 43
shari’a, 35, 39, 43, 46, 127, 130–4,
203n48
“historical shari’a,” 132
Sharma, Arvind, 2
Shekau, Abubakar, 58, 204n51
shema Israel, 74
Shi’a groups, 42
shibboleth of faith, 109
Shiraz Bible merchant, 78
shoes, removal of, 120
Siddiqui, Ataullah, 25, 29
Sierra Leone, 104, 106, 112, 113
sincerity, interreligious, 81
sincerity within interreligious
understanding, 81
Singulari quadam, 92
sitz im leben, 15
slavery and slave trade, 14, 38, 43, 52,
55, 181
abolishment, 111
freed slaves, 110
historical legacy, 49
Smart, Ninian, 15
Smith, Huston, 83
Smith, Jane, 80, 81
social issues, 26–8, 57, 129, 144,
150–63
21st century sociopolitical landscape,
14
creative ways of relating gospel to
concrete existential conditions,
89, 90
human quest to make sense of society,
167
ideals of social commitment, 173
interconnectedness of Christianity
and Islam, 25
Islamization of society vs.
Islamization of state, 133
responsibility to transform society,
168, 169
social action, retreat from religion, 173
within context of religion, 31, 89, 180
See also liberation theology
Society of Holy Ghost Fathers, 53
Socratic approach to justice, 157
Sokoto Caliphate, 39, 45–8, 52, 55,
130, 133, 152
Sokoto (state), 34, 52
Sardauna of Sokoto, 68, 127, 178,
205n63
solidarity, spirit of, 65–7, 156
religion as avenue for solidarity, 153
solipsism, 24
Songhai cities, 44
Soteria, 160, 161
soulless beings, 77
South Africa, 14, 137, 138, 150, 180
African Nations Cup tournament,
180
Kairos document, 181
Southern Baptist Convention
Missionaries, 53
southern Nigeria, 38–41, 61, 62, 130,
131
civil war in Nigeria, 40, 64, 67, 130
creation of Southern Protectorate, 39
framework for understanding
conflicts within Nigeria, 38–41
historical competition with North,
34, 35
north as Muslim, south as Christian,
34, 41
Soyinka, Wole, 13, 66, 67, 132
spice trade, 50, 51
“Spirit-Chi,” 124
spirit of renewal enlivening Christianity
and Islam, 12
spirit of solidarity and service, 65–7
Spirit of the Lord, 121–6
See also Holy Spirit
spiritual sophistry, 145, 146
spiritual warfare, 55
Sri Lankan priest, 158
St. John of Damascus, 76
St. Luke, 147
St. Paul, 135
St. Theresa’s Catholic Church in
Maddalla, 193n41
St. Thomas Aquinas, 77
stereotyping, 31, 66, 72, 73, 75, 97,
136, 177
student killings, 58
Sudan region, 39, 43–5, 48, 186n21,
208n20
Sufism, 17
anti-Sufi movement, 191n16
Tariqa (Sufi Brotherhoods), 43
INDEX244
Suleja bombings, 193n41
Summoned from the Margin:
Homecoming of an African, 59
Sunday Sabbath, 119
sunna of Prophet Muhammad, 46, 151
supererogatory prayers, 118
superstitition, 19, 76, 114, 115
Surat Al-Hujurat 49:13, 186n18
surreptitious conversions, 93, 99
suum cuique, 157
The Sword of Truth, 45, 48
symbiotic religious experiences, 15, 22
“symbolic imposition,” 78, 79
synthetic model of contextual theology,
90
Syrian Christians, 22
Tainan Theological College, 88
takbír, 134
takdhib, 84, 197n25
Tambaram Missionary Conference, 96
Tanakh, 111
taqlid (blind obedience to piety), 44, 78
Tariqa (Sufi Brotherhoods), 43
Tawhid, 74, 196n6
taxation, 17, 46
“teacher’s complex,” 165
technology, modern, 92
Internet evangelism, 55
TEF (Theological Educational Fund),
88
television. See media
Ten Commandments, 118, 119
terrorist groups, 35, 128
See also Boko Haram
Tessiers, former Archbiship from
Algiers, 34
Thangaraj, Thomas, 154
“The Gospel, Cultural
Contextualization and Religious
Syncretism,” 89
“the People of God,” 91
“theocratic class,” 145
Theological Educational Fund (TEF),
88
This House has Fallen: Midnight in
Nigeria, 33, 37
Thomas Aquinas, 77
Tijaniyya Brotherhood, 42
Tillich, Paul, 175
Timbuktu, 43, 44
Timothy, 196n6
“to each his own,” 157
Toft, Monica Duffy, 19
tolerance, traditional ethos in Africa,
105
Tracts for Mohammedans, 107
trade. See commerce and trade
traditional African religions, 19, 53,
114–16, 139
appropriation in religious
transmission, 7, 18, 19, 29, 43, 49,
53, 68, 100, 110, 111, 118, 121,
152–5
ethos of hospitality and tolerance, 105
jointly waged war against, 114–16
See also indigenenous African people
training of clerics, scholars, lawyers,
doctors, and administrators, 44,
107
transcendence, 85
“transcendent moralism” that justifies
violence, 67
transcendental model of contextual
theology, 90
transformative power of religion, 11–30,
165
translation model of contextual
theology, 90
translation model of indigenization, 89
transnationalism, 87
The Transparency International
Corruption Index, 55
Trent, Council of, 94
trickery
clandestine approaches in conversion
and mission, 95
tension between evangelism and
dialogue, 95
Trinitarian doctrine, 74, 112, 114
trinity, 125
trinity, questions regarding, 112
Triune God, 22
The Trouble with Nigeria, 56
truth, fidelity to, 101
The Truth about Muhammed: An Appeal
to Englishmen in Nigeria, 124
Tuareg populations, 47
Tunisia, 17
Tunolashe, Moses Orimolade, 118
INDEX 245
Turkey, liberal politics in, 20
Turkish dominions, 109
Turks
Euro-Mediterranean axis of
encounters, 27
Turner, Harold, 53, 54
Tutu, Desmond, 13, 138, 158
Tveit, Olav Fyske, 36
Ubuntu, 136, 158, 170
Ukah, Asonzeh, 126
Ukpong, Justin, 89
Ultimate Reality, 22, 50, 73, 155, 160,
163, 164, 175
Umar, Jibril B., 45
Umayyad period, 76
umma, 11, 42, 43, 176
“unbelievers” vs. “believers,” 77
understanding, gospel command for,
100, 101
unilateral vs. multilateral evangelism,
126
United African Methodist Church, 54,
117
United Nations, 13, 58
United Native African Church, 54, 117
United Presbyterians, 53
United States, missionaries from, 52
United States collection-plate money, 65
United States Commission on
International Religious Freedom
(CIFR), 33, 138
United States congress subcommittee
on Africa, Global Health, and
Human Rights, 129
unity in Nigeria, 32, 34, 165
ethos of, 40
potential benefits of breaking up the
country, 57
“the universal sacrament of salvation,”
91
“universal theory” of religion,
160
University Obafemi Awolowo, 61
University of Ibadan, 104
University of Ife, 61
Upper Niger areas, 112
“us versus them,” 13
See also the Other/Otherness
Uzukwu, Elochukwu, 164
van Gorder, Christian, 1
Vatican II, 91–4, 99, 198n40
“velvet curtain of culture,” 23
vilification, 75
violence and warfare, 40, 49, 58, 63–7,
69, 152, 167
civil war in Nigeria, 40, 64, 67,
130
Crusades, 12, 23, 32, 50, 67, 68, 74,
87
institutionalization of religious
violence, 33
language of warfare, 64, 125
Liberian civil war, 208n17
mass killings, 36
militant ideology, 32, 57, 65, 68, 74,
126–9
northern Nigeria, 35
obligation of warfare, 46
rioting, 66, 131, 166
Saint Theresa’s Catholic Church in
Maddalla, 193n41
spiritual warfare, 55
terrorist groups, 35, 128
traditional African religions, war
against, 114–16
“transcendent moralism” that justifies
violence, 67, 68
See also Boko Haram
virgin birth of Christ, 32, 112, 113
visible and invisible, intrinsic connection
between, 123
visions, interpretation of, 44
Volf, Miroslav, 135, 136, 168
voting, elections in Nigeria, 12, 37, 60,
125
wali, 118
Walls, Andrew, 144
war. See violence and warfare
Warner, Stephen, 3
water in rites and practices, 120
Watt, Montgomery, 84
WCC (World Council of Churches), 36,
88, 93–100, 165, 172
Weber, Max, 19
Webster, James, 54
well-being (maslaha), 143, 154,
156
Wesleyan Methodists, 53
INDEX246
“the West,” 23
West subregion, 38
Western Sudan, 39, 43, 44
Who Is This Allah?, 124
wholeness, 149–74
Whose Religion Is Christianity: The
Gospel beyond the West, 154
WIC (Women’s Interfaith Council), 156
Wilfred, Felix, 170, 178
Williams, Rowan, 206n74
witness, personal, 81
woli, 118
women, 5, 120, 124, 154, 156
Women’s Interfaith Council, 156
workshops on ways to foster peace
among Christians and Muslims,
168
World Conference on Religion and
Peace, 161
World Council of Churches (WCC), 36,
88, 93–100, 165, 172
World Missionary conferences, 94
worship. See liturgy/ritual
wudu before prayer, 119
Wuye, James Morel, 9, 166–8
the Pastor and the Imam, 166, 167,
172, 173
Yerima, Ahmed Sani, 131
Yobe, 58
Yoruba people, 34, 38, 53, 54, 105–10,
139, 156, 157
ancestral origin, 61
communal responsibility, 157, 158
grassroots dialogue, 62
language, 114
liturgical innovation, 54
secession of African religions from
foreign domination, 116–21
tolerance of religious worldviews,
60–3, 109
traditional religion of, 157
yuur, 208n20
Zamfara, 131
Zango region, 166
Zebiri, Kate, 24, 98
Zwemer, Samuel, 86, 125