Notes - Springer978-1-137-37911-5/1.pdf · Press, 2010), Patricia Crone and Martin Hinds, God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (Cambridge: U niversity

Notes

1 Introduction

1 . Tayeb El-Hibri, Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History: The Rashidun Caliphs (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 3–25, and Asma Afsaruddin, The First Muslims: History and Memory (Oxford: Oneworld, 2008), 51–78.

2 . A number of scholars have already stressed the weight of this era on in terms of its contribution to the development of Islamic thought and prac-tices. See, generally, Tayeb El-Hibri, Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History .

3 . Recent media and scholars’ interest in Islam have encouraged many authors to write about the founder of the religion. Secondary literature on the sub-ject has multiplied greatly over the last decade. For a sample of these works, see Barnaby Rogerson, The Prophet Muhammad: A Biography (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 2003), Maxime Rodinson, Muhammad: Prophet of Islam (London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2002), Richard A. Gabriel, Muhammad: Islam’s First Great General (Oklahoma City: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007), M. A. Cook, Muhammad (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), William Montgomery Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964), Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, 2006), and Fred McGraw Donner, Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2010).

4 . Islamic literature documenting this event indicates that this was an extremely traumatic experience. In fact, the Prophet Muhammad was said to have gone into seclusion after this encounter. See, generally, Tafs ī r literature of al- Ṭ abar ī and Ibn Kath ī r related to these verses.

5 . See, generally, Patricia Crone, God’s Rule: Government and Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004); Ann K. S. Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam (London: Oxford University Press, 1981); and Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

6 . Ib ā d ī s first secured the southeastern part of the Arabian Peninsula (Oman) as an autonomous state free from the control of the Umayyads. The Abbasids reconquered the region within two years after the rise of the Abbasid dynasty.

N o t e s176

7 . The common translation of this phrase is “people who untie and tie.” My reading of the historical record indicates that a more technical rendition of the Arabic phrase is “People who Solve and Contract,” on which I will elaborate in the appropriate section of this work.

8 . Many of these conclusions have been introduced in a number of critical stud-ies including the works of Ignaz Goldziher, Joseph Schacht, N. J. Coulson, John Burton, David Powers, Norman Calder, Micklos Muranyi, John Wansbrough, Patricia Crone, Yasin Dutton, and G. H. A. Juynboll.

2 Governance in Arab and Islamic Societies

1 . Winter, for instance, examined the explosive mix of theology and politi-cal thought in an analysis of the development of ideas about the role and authority of a ruler. See, T. J. Winter, The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008). Two decades ago, Bernard Lewis already made the connection between the clas-sical period and the modern manifestation of political Islam. His account of the ways in which Muslims have conceived of the relations between ruler and ruled, rights and duties, legitimacy and illegitimacy, obedience and rebel-lion, justice and oppression is illuminating and informative. See Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Daniel Lav, too, suggested the connections of classical Islamic theologies to contemporary Islamic radicalism and demonstrated the con-tinued relevance of medieval theology to modern debates. See Daniel Lav, Radical Islam and the Revival of Medieval Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Feb. 29, 2012). See, also, Gerald R. Hawting, The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate Ad 661–750 (London: Psychology Press, 2000).

2 . See, generally, Patricia Crone, God’s Rule: Government and Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004); Ann K. S. Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam (London: Oxford University Press, 1981); and Patricia Crone, Roman, Provincial, and Islamic Law: The Origins of the Islamic Patronate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

3 . See Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Hamilton A. R. Gibb, “Arab-Byzantine Relations under the Umayyad Caliphate,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers , Vol. 12 (1958), 219–233; Tayeb El-Hibri, Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: H ā r ū n al-Rash ī d and the Narrative of the Abbasid Caliphate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Mahmoud Haddad, “Arab Religious Nationalism in the Colonial Era: Rereading Rash ī d Ri ḍ ā ’s Ideas on the Caliphate,” Journal of the American Oriental Society , Vol. 117, No. 2 (Apr.–Jun., 1997), 253–277; Peter C. Scales, The Fall of the Caliphate of C ó rdoba: Berbers and Andalusis in Conflict (Leiden: Brill, 1994); Janina M. Safran, The Second Umayyad Caliphate: The Articulation of Caliphal Legitimacy in al-Andalus (Boston: Harvard College, 2000); H. Kennedy,

177N o t e s

“Central Government and Provincial Elites in the Early ‘Abb ā sid Caliphate,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Vol. 44 (1981), 26–38; Aziz Ahmad, “An Eighteenth-Century Theory of the Caliphate,” Studia Islamica , No. 28 (1968), 135–144; A. S. Tritton, The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of ‘Umar (London: F. Cass, 1970); Leonard Binder, “al-Ghazali’s Theory of Islamic Government,” The Muslim World , No. 3 (July 1955), 229–241; Ann K. S. Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam ; Muhammad Asad, The Principles of State and Government in Islam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961); Patricia Crone, God’s Rule: Government and Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004; and Mu ḥ ammad ʿ Abdullah As-Samm ā n and Sylvia G. Haim, “The Principles of Islamic Government,” Die Welt des Islams , Vol. 5, No. 3/4 (1958), 245–253.

4 . A number of scholars, Muslims and non-Muslims, have already suggested the idea that the “community of the believers” mentioned in the Qur’an included non-Muslims. In other words, by suggesting that Muhammad’s role as a social reformer should be given more weight and his theological teachings de-emphasized, I am not creating something from a vacuum of ideas. For instance, Fred Donner, who has provided a new perspective on the evolution of Islam, argues that the origins of Islam lie in a broad social movement started by the Prophet Muhammad. This movement, he contends, is best character-ized as that of “Believers,” which consisted of righteous Christians and Jews in its early years. For Donner, the Believers’ movement did not initially exclude Christians and Jews because they, too, were monotheists and agreed to live according to their revealed law. For him, the idea that Muslims constituted a separate religious community, distinct from Christians and Jews, developed at least a century later, under the initiative of his heirs, not Muhammad. See, generally, Fred M. Donner, Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2010).

5 . As a caliph, ‘Uthman offered more government positions to his relatives than any of his predecessors. See the list of relatives appointed governors, con-trollers, and judges by the caliph in Muhammad Hassan al-‘Idrus, Dawlat al-khil ā fah al-isl ā miyyah (Cairo: Dar al-Kitab al-Hadith, 2010), 67.

6 . The discussion of the origins and development of the events occurring during the transition from the rule of Muhammad to his successor is wide-ranging. While some of these works simply survey the accounts found in Muslim his-torians’ reports, others provide critical explanations and theories on the sub-ject. See, for example, Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), James E. Sowerwine, Caliph and Caliphate (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), Patricia Crone and Martin Hinds, God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (Cambridge: University of Cambridge Oriental Publications, 2003), R. Stephen Humphreys, The Crisis of the Early Caliphate (Albany: SUNY Press, 1990), and Barnaby Rogerson, The Heirs of Muhammad: Islam’s First Century and the Origins of the Sunni-Shia Split (New York: The Overlook Press, 2007).

N o t e s178

7 . Modern scholars have developed increased interest in the study of the ori-gins and evolution of Islamic societies and religious movements, especially since the rise of Islamism. Many works survey the growing influence of the Islamist movements within national states and in their transnational or global dimensions, as well in the context of historical circumstances from the clas-sical era until modern time. See, for example, the works of Jon Armajani, Modern Islamist Movements: History, Religion, and Politics (New Brunswick, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2011), Said Amir Arjomand, From Nationalism to Revolutionary Islam (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984), Mohammed Ayoob, The Many Faces of Political Islam: Religion and Politics in the Muslim World (Singapore: NUS Press, 2009), Olivier Roy, Globalised Islam: The Search for a New Ummah (London: Hurst & Company, 2004), Richard T. Antoun, Understanding Fundamentalism: Christian, Islamic, and Jewish Movements (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), Ira Marvin Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), William L. Cleveland and Martin P. Bunton, A History of the Modern Middle East (New York: Seal Press, 2009), Antony Black, The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present (London: Psychology Press, 2001), and Malise Ruthven, Islam in the World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).

8 . Related to the topic of this work, and in order to have an idea about the dif-ferent ideas of Islamist movements, see Mu ḥ ammad ʿ Abdullah As-Samm ā n and Sylvia G. Haim, “The Principles of Islamic Government,” Die Welt des Islams , Vol. 5, No. 3/4 (1958), 245–253, and Mahmoud Haddad, “Arab Religious Nationalism in the Colonial Era: Rereading Rash ī d Ri ḍ ā ’s Ideas on the Caliphate,” Journal of the American Oriental Society , Vol. 117, No. 2 (Apr. – Jun., 1997), 253–277.

9 . Ira M. Lapidus, “The Separation of the State and Religion in the Development of Early Islamic society,” International Journal of Middle East Studies , Vol. 6, No. 4 (Oct. 1975), 363–385; H. A. R. Gibb, “The Evolution of Government in Early Islam,” Studia Islamica , Vol. 4 (1995), 5–17; and H. A. R. Gibb, “Arab-Byzantine Relations under the Umayyad Caliphate,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers , Vol. 12 (1958), 219–233.

10 . See Muhammad Qasim Zaman, “The Caliphs, the ‘Ulama’, and the Law: Defining the Role and Function of the Caliph in the Early ‘Abbasid Period,” Islamic Law and Society , Vol. 4, No.1 (1997), 1–36.

11 . See Ira Katznelson and Gareth Stedman Jones, Religion and the Political Imagination (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 23, 70, 112, 275, 295, 314, and 336.

12 . Modern scholarship dealing with the development of Islamic sects and juris-prudence is rich with imaginative ideas and unique perspectives. The full range of findings is too complex and sophisticated to be summarized in a reductionist fashion in a brief analysis such as this work. Readers are advised to consult representative works including that of Eric J. Hanne, Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2007), Francis E.

179N o t e s

Peters, A Reader on Classical Islam (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), Robert Gleave and Eugenia Kermeli, Islamic Law: Theory and Practice (London: I. B.Tauris, Apr 21, 2001), Liyakat N. Takim, The Heirs of the Prophet: Charisma and Religious Authority in Shi’ite Islam (Albany: SUNY Press, 2007), Michael Cooperson, Classical Arabic Biography: The Heirs of the Prophets in the Age of Al-Ma ̓ m ū n (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), Jonathan Porter Berkey, The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), Chase F. Robinson, Islamic Historiography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), John E. Wansbrough, The Sectarian Milieu: Content and Composition of Islamic Salvation History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), John E. Wansbrough, Quranic Studies: Sources and Methods of Scriptural Interpretation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), and Eerik Dickinson, The Development of Early Sunnite Had ī th Criticism: The Taqdima of Ibn Ab ī Ḥ ā tim Al-R ā z ī (240/854–327/938) (Leiden: Brill, 2001).

13 . Even nonlegal, nonreligious texts contained ample references to the label of the “people of piety” which was then understood to refer the ‘ulama’ . See Muhammad Qasim Zaman, “The Caliphs, the ‘Ulama’, and the law: Defining the Role and Function of the Caliph in the Early ‘Abbasid Period,” Islamic Law and Society , Vol.4, No.1 (1997), 8.

14 . See Ann K. S. Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam , 13. 15 . See ibid., 14. 16 . Ibid., 24. 17 . For an English translation of al-M ā ward ī ’s work, see A. Yate (tr.), al-A ḥ k ā m

al-sultaniyyah: the Laws of Islamic Governance (London: Ta-Ha Publishers, 1996).

18 . [Q9:V6]. 19 . I call istij ā rah mobile protection since it does not come with any restrictions

on the movement and residence of the person receiving it. 20 . Ibn Is ḥ ā q is the first biographer to include the entire document in his S ī rah .

Other historians, including Ibn Kath ī r, Ibn Hish ā m, and Ibn Ab ī Khaythamah documented parts of the charter. Also, parts of the charter were cited in Ab ū ‘Ubayd al-Q ā sim Ibn Sall ā m’s al-Amw ā l .

21 . Other documents that were excluded from the religious tradition literature are later treaties between the community of Madinah and Quraysh. For instance, several years after drafting the charter, the Prophet Muhammad wanted to make a religious pilgrimage to Mecca. He was refused entry. He camped in the hills overlooking the city and waited for more of his follow-ers to join him. In the meantime, Quraysh sent a delegation to negotiate a compromise, the outcome of which was the short treaty of al- ḥ udaybiyyah. The main points of this agreement were as follows: (1) Muslims would return to Medina that year. (2) They would be permitted to enter Mecca for pilgrimage next year but they would stay only for three days in Mecca. (3) If a person from Quraysh of Mecca joins the Muslims without per-mission of his guardians, he or she would be sent back to Mecca, but if

N o t e s180

a Muslim from Mad ī nah went to Mecca he or she will not be sent back. Some of the Prophet’s Companions were not happy with the terms of the treaty at first.

22 . Reconstructing the first fifty years of the Islamic community is a challeng-ing task given the lack of reliable independent documentation from that era. The task becomes even more difficult when dealing with the political events of that era. Right after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, con-troversy was inescapable. Sunni literature attempted to avoid the discus-sion of the politics of that era. Modern scholars, then, were left with the body of hadith literature. This same literature constituted the backbone of the historical record that emerged no earlier than two and a half cen-turies after the rise of Islam. Together, hadith and historical reports are used today by modern scholars to provide new perspectives on the topic of religion and politics of the formative period of Islam. See, for example, Mahmoud Ayoub, The Crisis of Muslim History: Religion and Politics in Early Islam (London: Oneworld, 2005) and Madelung, The Succession to Mu ḥ ammad .

23 . See Muhammad Hassan al-‘Idrus, Dawlat al-khil ā fah al-isl ā miyyah (Cairo: Dar al-Kitab al-Hadith, 2010), 50–118.

24 . The battle of the camel ( al-jamal ) is chronicled in Ṭ abar ī ’s History, 3:39, 82, and 85; and al-Bid ā yah wa-‘l-nih ā yah by Ibn Kath ī r , 4: 241–299.

25 . The battle of Ṣ iff ī n ended when Mu’āwiyah tricked ‘Ali’s camp into accept-ing a rigged arbitration that led to the breakup of ‘Ali’s camp: some sup-ported the arbitration while others rejected it and ended up fighting against ‘Ali for accepting the arbitration. This dissension brought about the battle of al-Nahraw ā n, which pitted ‘Ali against the rejecters of the arbitration, led by Abd All ā h Ibn Wahb al-R ā sib ī . See al-Kashf , 2:239.

26 . A note concerning the form and pronunciation of the words imam, im ā mah, khal ī fah , and khil ā fah : these terms are all related, but they mean different things. The word imam refers to the person (leader) holding the leadership position ( im ā mah ). Similarly, the word khal ī fah refers to the person holding the post of the caliphate ( khil ā fah ).

27 . Ibn Khald ū n, al-Muqaddimah , 191. Also see the opinion of the Shafi’ite authority, al-Maw ā rd ī , in al-A ḥ k ā m al-sul ṭ ā niyyah , 5; and A’usht, Dir ā s ā t , 145.

28 . Al-Taft ā z ā n ī , Shar ḥ al-‘aq ā ’id , 15. 29 . See al-San’ān ī , al-T ā j al-mudhahhab li-a ḥ k ā m al-madhhab , 4: 404. 30 . Al-Zanjan ī , ‘Aq ā ’id al-im ā miyyah , 72. 31 . Ṣ a ḥ ī ḥ Muslim, in Shar ḥ al-Nawaw ī , 12:223–24, 240. 32 . This is the opinion of al-B ā qill ā n ī , al-Qur ṭ ub ī , Ibn Taymiyyah, and

al-Kas ā n ī . 33 . Ibn Sa’d, al- Ṭ abaq ā t , 3:183. 34 . Ibid., 3:281. 35 . This position was attributed to Ibn Mas’ūd and Ibn ‘Abb ā s. See al- Ṭ abar ī ,

J ā mi’ al-bay ā n , 1: 157. 36 . Ibn Taymiyyah, Minh ā j al-sunnah , 1:1 38.

181N o t e s

37 . Al-Shaqs ī , Minh ā j al- Ṭ ā lib ī n wa-bal ā gh al-r ā ghib ī n , 8: 44; al-M ā ward ī , al-A ḥ k ā m , 6; Ab ū Ya’l ā , al-A ḥ k ā m , 23; al-Q ā ḍ ī Abd al-Jabb ā r, al-Mughn ī , 1: 251; and al-Qur ṭ ub ī , al-J ā mi’ , 1271.

38 . The theory of succession based on textual recommendation by the sitting imam was only formalized by Im ā m Ja’far al- Ṣ ā diq. The split of the Shi’i com-munity into at least two other sects (Ismaelis/Seveners and Zaydis/Fifthers) is indicative of the disputes that must have arisen to settle the problem of suc-cession within the Shi’i community.

39 . Some scholars have justified this approach by invoking the principle of sadd al-dhar ā ’i’ , which is the inclination to preempt unnecessary harm. In this case the harm being possible anarchy and fragmentation of the community.

40 . Al-M ā ward ī , al-A ḥ k ā m , 6. 41 . See al-Kind ī , al-Mu ṣ annaf , 10:101–104. 42 . The select group of six appointed by ‘Umar consisted of persons anyone of

whom could be selected a caliph. This, again, suggests that Islamic political theory is based on precedent more than being based on jurisprudential or religious considerations.

43 . See al-M ā ward ī , al-A ḥ k ā m , 6; and al- Ṣ an’ān ī , al-T ā j al-mudhahhab , 4: 406. 44 . Sunnah can be understood as the precedent.

3 Origins and Transformation of Ibadism

1 . “One problem plaguing the study of the Ibadiyya and Kharijites is the uncriti-cal reliance on either Sunni or Ib ā ḍ ī sources for historical narratives. Such an approach ignores the fact that these accounts were, to varying degrees, tailored to serve the political and self-serving interests of the sect.” Adam R. Gaiser, Muslims, Scholars, and Soldiers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 5.

2 . A number of modern Islamicists assume that there are many forms of Ibadism: formative Ibadism, medieval Ibadism, modern Ibadism, North African Ibadism, Omani Ibadism, and east African Ibadism. Some argue that the “North African configuration of the imamate represents a theoretical arrange-ment of the imamate that does not correspond to a temporal North African institution of authority.” Gaiser, Muslims, Scholars, and Soldiers , 10–11.

3 . Gaiser, Muslims, Scholars, and Soldiers , 13. 4 . By ignoring Arabic legal sources and ethnographical evidence, some

Islamicists, including Gaiser and Wilkinson, were able to subscribe to the untenable theory about imamate in Ibadism as a fictitious construct created retroactively by the ‘ulama’. See, Gaiser, Muslims, Scholars, and Soldiers , 13.

5 . Definitions are derived from Merriam-Webster dictionary. 6 . Jean Baecheler, Revolution (New York: Harper and Row, 1975), 91. 7 . Sigmund Neumann, “The International Civil War,” World Politics , Vol. 1,

No. 3 (1949). 8 . Ellen Kay Trimberger, Revolution from Above: Military Bureaucrats and

Development in Japan, Turkey, and Peru (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1978), 12.

N o t e s182

9 . Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968), 264.

10 . Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 4.

11 . Perez Zagorin, Rebels and Rulers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 1:17.

12 . Robert Tucker, the author of The Marxian Revolutionary Idea , argued that economic causes and class struggle are behind revolutions. See, Carl Friedrich, Revolution (New York: Atherton, 1966), 228.

13 . Alexis Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the French Revolution (New York: Anchor, 1955), 8.

14 . H. Gerth, From Max Weber (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), 296.

15 . See al-Maq ā l ā t , 1:170–72. 16 . See al-Maq ā l ā t , 171–72. 17 . Ibid., 186. 18 . See al-Farq , 8. 19 . See ibid., 61. 20 . See al-Fa ṣ l , 144. 21 . We will discuss this particular claim when we deal with Ib ā ḍ ī fiqh. See al-Fa ṣ l ,

144. 22 . See al-Milal , 1:212. 23 . See ibid., 10. 24 . See Sunan of al-Tirmidh ī , Ab ū D ā w ū d, Ibn M ā jah; and Ibn Ḥ anbal’s

Musnad . 25 . See al- Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:116. 26 . See al- Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:127. 27 . See Ibn Ab ī al- Ḥ ad ī d, Shar ḥ al-nahj , 2:4. 28 . See Ibn F ā ris, Mu’jam Maq ā y ī s al-lughah , 2:178. 29 . See Shar ī f al-Am ī n, Mu’jam al-firaq al-isl ā miyyah , 122; and Khal ī l, Mu’jam

al-mu ṣṭ ala ḥ ā t al-d ī niyyah, 68. 30 . See al-Shahrast ā n ī , al-Milal wa-‘l-ni ḥ al , 1:114. 31 . See al- Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:115. 32 . Yaz ī d faced many military challenges supported by people from the heart-

lands, prompting him to place Mecca under siege until he eliminated the threat to his rule.

33 . See al- Ṭ abbar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:352–59. 34 . See al-Ash’ar ī , al-Maq ā l ā t , 1:168. 35 . The word al-Mu ḥ akkimah does not reflect the actual position known by it.

Literally, al-Mu ḥ akkimah means the group that arbitrated or that chose the arbitration as a solution for the conflict between Mu’āwiyah and ‘Ali. In real-ity, al-Mu ḥ akkimah was coined to refer to those who argued that arbitration is not valid because, by resorting to arbitration, the legitimate leader is dele-gitimizing his rule and legitimizing the opposition automatically.

36 . See al-Mubarrad, al-K ā mil , 3:1138. 37 . See al-Ash’ar ī , al-Maq ā l ā t , 1:204; and al-Shahrast ā n ī , al-Milal , 1:116.

183N o t e s

38 . See al-Khi ḍ r ī , T ā r ī kh al-umam , 149. 39 . See al-Khi ḍ r ī , T ā r ī kh al-umam , 149. 40 . See al-Bal ā dhir ī , al-Ans ā b , 5:362–372. 41 . See al-Bal ā dhir ī , al-Ans ā b , 5:175–8. 42 . See al-Ash’ar ī , al-Maq ā l ā t , 1:183. 43 . See al- Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:397–8. 44 . See al-Bal ā dhir ī , al-Ans ā b , 5:365. 45 . See al- Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:364–373. 46 . See al-Ash’ar ī , al-Maq ā l ā t, 1:169; Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih, al-‘Iqd al-far ī s , 2:98;

al-Baghd ā d ī , al-Farq , 84; Ibn Ḥ azm, al-Fa ṣ l , 5:52; al-Shahrast ā n ī , al-Milal , 1:121; and Ab ū Sufy ā n, al-Siyar , 1:298.

47 . See al-Mubarrid, al-K ā mil , 3:1215–6; Ibn ‘Abd Rubbih, al-‘Iqd al-Far ī d , 2:97.

48 . See al- Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:399. 49 . Although the movement is named after Ab ā ḍ , there is strong evidence explain-

ing the change in the vocalization from A b ā ḍ to I b ā ḍ . 50 . There is no single definition of Companion. While the literal mean-

ing suggests that a Companion is anyone who befriended the Prophet Muhammad, the designation is more technical than relational. In that sense, a Companion is any person who has met the Prophet in person even if such a person did not reside in Mad ī nah. The utility of the des-ignation is that a person who met the Prophet in person could quote the Prophet; hence being able to be part of the chain of transmission of ḥ ad ī th . A Follower on the other hand, refers to individuals who came after the generation of Companions.

51 . ‘Amr al-Nami, Dir ā s ā t ‘an al-Ib ā ḍ iyyah (Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 2001), 44.

52 . Dir ā s ā t , 48–49. 53 . Ibid., 47. 54 . Ibid., 52. 55 . Ibid., 52. 56 . Ibid., 53. 57 . Ibid., 53. 58 . See Kit ā b al-J ā mi ‘, 1:457. 59 . Ibn Sa’ad, Ṭ abaq ā t , 7:179–80; Al-Dhahb ī 1:62; Ibn Ḥ ajr 2:38 60 . Ib ā ḍ ī s of North Africa were the first to use the word “Ib ā ḍ ī” at the end of the

third century AH . 61 . See al- Ṭ abar ī , 6:108–18; Ibn al-Ath ī r, al-K ā mil , 208; and al- Ṭ abar ī , al-Bayan

wa-‘l-taby ī n , 2:243. 62 . See Ibn Sa’īd, al-Siyar , 119; and al-S ā lim ī , Shar ḥ al-J ā mi’ , 1:5. 63 . See Mu’jam al-buld ā n , 3:471. 64 . See al-Bal ā dhir ī , Al-Ans ā b , 3:103; al- Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:101–4; Ibn al-Ath ī r,

al-K ā mil , 3:316–17; Ibn Kath ī r, al-Bid ā yah wa-‘l-Nih ā yah , 7:273–74 65 . See al- Ṭ ubar ī , al-T ā rikh , 3:104, al-Mas’ūd ī , al-Mur ū j , 2:403;Ibn al-Jawz ī ,

al-Munta ẓ am , 5:123; Ibn al-Ath ī r, al-K ā mil , 3:321; Ibn Kath ī r, al-Bid ā yah wa-‘l-Nih ā yah , 7:278, and al-Barr ā d ī , al-Jaw ā hir , 112.

N o t e s184

66 . See Ibn Sa’d, al- Ṭ abaq ā t , 3:32; al- Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh ,, 3:107; Ibn al-Ath ī r, al-K ā mil , 3:322, and al-Shamm ā kh ī , al-Siyar , 1:48.

67 . See al-Shamm ā kh ī , Shar ḥ ‘aq ī dat al-taw ḥ ī d , 50. 68 . See al-Qu ṭ b, Shar ḥ ‘aq ī dat al-taw ḥ ī d , 113–14. 69 . Ab ū ‘Amm ā r ‘Abd al-K ā f ī , al-M ū jaz , 213–14. 70 . al-Shamm ā kh ī , Shar ḥ ‘aq ī dat al-taw ḥ ī d , 54 71 . Ahmed Ibn Bakr, Mas ā ’il al-taw ḥ ī d, 25. 72 . Ali M’ammar, Nash’at al-Madhhab al-Ib ā ḍ ī , 94. 73 . Ibn Sall ā m, Bad’ al-isl ā m , 56–59. 74 . al-Darg ī n ī , Ṭ abaq ā t , 12a, Ab ū Zakkariy ā , Siyar , 49, al-Shamm ā kh ī , Siyar ,

350. 75 . Ahmed Ibn Bakr, Mas ā ’il al-taw ḥ ī d , 25. 76 . al-W ā rijl ā n ī , al-Dal ī l , 99. 77 . al-Qu ṭ b, Shar ḥ ‘Aq ī dat al-taw ḥ ī d , 113–115. 78 . Ahmad Ibn Ḥ anbal, al-Musnad, 1:87; al- Ṭ abar ī , al-Mu’jam al-kab ī r , 1:58;

al- Ḥ ā kim, al-Mustadrak , 2:152; al-Bayhaq ī , al-Sunan al-Kubr ā , 8:311; Ab ū Na’īm, al- Ḥ ilyah , 1:320; Ibn Sa’d, al- Ṭ abaq ā t , 3:32, al-Bal ā dhir ī , al-Ans ā b , 3:122–29; al-Ya’q ū b ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 2:191; al- Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:110–14; Ibn Ghayl ā n, al-Siyar , 1:107; Ibn al-Athir, al-K ā mil , 3:327; al-Qalh ā t ī , al-Kashf , 2:250; Ibn Kath ī r, al-Bid ā yah wa-‘l-Nih ā yah , 7:279; al-Barr ā d ī , al-Jaw ā hir, 119–22; and al-Shamm ā kh ī , al-Siyar , 1:49.

79 . Qur’ān 4:V35. 80 . See al- Ṭ ahar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:109–10; Ab ū Qa ḥṭ ā n, al-Siyar , 1:106–8; al-Qalh ā t ī ,

al-Kashf , 2:244–45; al-Barr ā d ī , al-Jaw ā hir , 120–22; al-Shamm ā kh ī , al-Siyar , 1:49, and al-Bal ā dhir ī , al-Ansab , 3:122.

81 . See al- Ṭ abar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 3:114; al-Bal ā dhir ī , al-Ans ā b , 3:122, al-Ya’q ū b ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 2:191; Ab ū Qa ḥṭ ā n, al-Siyar , 1:107; and al-Shamm ā kh ī , al-Siyar , 1:49.

82 . Qur’ān, 49:9 83 . Qur’ān, 4:35. 84 . Al- Ṭ ahar ī , al-T ā r ī kh , 43:70–80. 85 . Qur’an: al- Ḥ ujur ā t : V9. 86 . al-M ā ’idah : V45. 87 . al-M ā ’idah : V47. 88 . al-M ā ’idah : V44. 89 . al-A’r ā f : V52. 90 . al-Baqarah : V143. 91 . Ā l ‘Imr ā n : V140–41. 92 . al-Na ḥ l : V91. 93 . al- Ḥ ujur ā t : V13. 94 . See ‘Abd al-Ra ḥ m ā n Ibn Khald ū n, al-Muqa ḍ imah (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab,

1967), 821. 95 . See Ab ū al-Q ā sim Ibn Ibr ā him al-Barr ā d ī , Kit ā b al-Jaw ā hir (Cairo: al-Hajri-

yyah, 1885), 22; and ‘Umar Ibn Ya ḥ y ā ’ Ibn Ab ī Si ṭ ah, al-Majma’ al-Mu’awwal (Jerba: al-Baruniyyah, 17th c.), 62.

185N o t e s

96 . See al-Rab ī ’ Ibn Ḥ ab ī b, al-J ā mi’ al- ṣ a ḥ ī ḥ , Tradition 769. 97 . See al- Ṭ abar ī , T ā r ī kh al-umam wa-‘l-mul ū k (Cairo: al-Istiq ā mah , 1939),

7:195. 98 . al-J ī t ā li, al-Qaw ā ’id , p.40; al-S ā limi, al-Mashariq , 337–38. 99 . Aflah Ibn Abd al-Wahh ā b, al-Ajwiba , 2–3.

100 . Ibn Ḥ azm, al-Fa ṣ l , 4:191. 101 . See al-Maq ā l ā t , 189. 102 . See A ḥ mad Ibn H ā nbal, al-Musnad , 1:131. 103 . See ‘Al ī M’ammar, al-Ib ā ḍ iyyah bayna al-firaq al-isl ā miyyah (‘Oman: Maktabat

al-Damir, 2003) 258–60. 104 . See al-Ash’ar ī , al-Maq ā l ā t , 171. 105 . See M’ammar, al-Ib ā ḍ iyyah, 266. 106 . SeeIbid., 266. 107 . See al-S ā lim ī , Tu ḥ fat al-a’y ā n , 1:87.

4 Islamic Law and Jurisprudence Reconsidered

1 . Ignaz Goldziher, Die Z â hiriten: Ihr Lehrsystem und ihre Geschichte (Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der muhammedanischen Theologie, Leipzig 1884), Joseph Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1950), Philippe Rancillac, Des origines du droit musulman à la Ris ā la d’al Šā fic ī , M é langes de l’Institut Dominicain d’Etudes Orientales (1977), David Forte, Studies in Islamic Law: Classical and Contemporary Application (New York: Lanham, 1999), Gautier H. A. Juynboll, Muslim Tradition: Studies in Chronology, Provenance and Authorship of Early Had ī th (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), David S. Powers, Studies in Qur’an and Had ī th: The Formation of the Islamic Law of Inheritance (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), Noel J. Coulson, A History of Islamic Law (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1964), Fazlur Rahman, Islamic Methodology in History (Karachi: Central Institute of Islamic Research, 1965), Ahmad Hasan, The Early Development of Islamic Jurisprudence (Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute, 1970), Mohammad Mustafa Azami, Studies in Early Had ī th Literature (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1978), Yasin Dutton, The Origins of Islamic Law: The Qur’an, the Muwatta’ and the Madinan ‘Amal (Richmond: Curzon, 1999), Abdulaziz Sachedina, The Ideal and Real in Islamic Law , in R. S. Khare (ed.), Perspectives on Islamic Law, Justice, and Society (New York: Lanham, 1999), and Miklos Muranyi, Fiqh , in H. G ä tje (ed.), G rundri ß der Arabischen Philologie , vol. 2, Wiesbaden (1987).

2 . The synergy between political and religious authority and the conflict that it created are well documented in Arabic and English sources. For an idea about the role of the caliphs in defining orthodoxy and heresy, see, Ann K. S. Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 41.

3 . Lamin al-Naji, al-Qad ī m wa-‘l-jad ī d f ī fiqh al-shafi’ī (Cairo: Dar Ibn ‘Affan, 2007), 1:48, 2:36–7.

N o t e s186

4 . The style and content of the book al-Ris ā lah , whose authorship is attributed to al-Shafi’i, for instance, appears to be a very early attempt at establishing himself apart from his predecessors. The author presents one legal case after another while tagging them to the specific legal proof from the Qur’an and/or Hadith; then he highlights the difference of opinion about the final rul-ing, and then concludes by highlighting his dissent. His other major work, al-Umm , on the other hand, did not include dissenting opinions at all. See Muhammad Ibn Idr ī s al-Sh ā fi’ī, al-Umm (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al_’Ilmiyyah, 1993) and Muhammad Ibn Idr ī s al-Shafi’ī, al-Ris ā lah (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al_’Ilmiyyah, NY).

5 . Lamin al-Naji, al-Qad ī m wa-‘l-jad ī d f ī fiqh al-shafi’ī (Cairo: Dar Ibn ‘Affan, 2007), 1:51.

6 . Ibid., 1:54–55. 7 . See, for example, Yahya Hashim Hassan Farghal, al-Firaq al-Isl ā miyyah f ī

al-m ī z ā n (Cairo: Dar al-Afaq al-Arabiyyah, 2007), Muhammad Hassan Bakhit, al-Firaq al-qad ī mah wa-l-mu’āṣirah (Cairo: Maktabat Afaq li-l-tiba’ah wa-l-nashr wa-l-tawzi’, 2006), Salah Ab ū al-Su’ud, al-Marja’ al-k ā mil f ī al-firaq wa-l-jam ā’ā t wa-l-madh ā hib al-isl ā miyyah (Cairo: Maktabat al-nafidhah, 2005), and Muhammad Ibn Abdul Karim al-Shahristani, Muslim Sects and Divisions (London: Kegan Paul International, 1983).

8 . See, for example, As’ad Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan al-Naysaburi al-Kara-bisi, al-Furuq (Cairo: Dar al-Salam, 2012).

9 . Since al-Mudawwanah is the earliest Ib ā ḍ ī source of law and practices, numer-ous authoritative commentaries were written by later scholars, the last of which is authored by the contemporary North African scholar Muhammad Ibn Y ū suf I ṭ fayyish (also known as al-Qu ṭ b).

10 . See Ibn Barkah, Ab ū Mu ḥ ammad ‘Abdull ā h Ibn Mu ḥ ammad. Kit ā b al-j ā mi’ (Oman: Wizarat al-Turath, 1971), 22–23.

11 . See Ibid., 24–25. 12 . Abdullah Ibn Hamid l-Salimi, Tal’at al-shams (Oman: Wizarat al-Turath al-

Qawmi, 1985), 1:26. 13 . Ibid., 2:129, 135, 137, and 145. 14 . See al-Mudawwanah , 419. 15 . See ibid., 449. 16 . I resisted making the distinction by appropriating the US categories (murder

v. manslaughter) to stay as close as possible to the Arabic wording. 17 . See al-Mudawwanah , 458. 18 . See ibid., 458–460. 19 . It is assumed that the reader is familiar with Sunni and Shi’ite law and

jurisprudence. Many works, including this author’s, have examined Sunni and Shi’ite literature and such works can be consulted for comparison purposes.

20 . See al-Mudawwanah , 463. 21 . See ibid., 464. 22 . See ibid., 464–65. 23 . See ibid., 500.

187N o t e s

24 . See ibid., 506. 25 . See ibid., 515. 26 . See ibid., 527. 27 . See ibid., 272. 28 . See ibid., 287. 29 . See ibid., 369–71. 30 . See ibid., 373. 31 . The handwritten manuscript is catalogued under the call number 19831 B,

dated 1246 AH and housed in D ā r al-Kutub al-’Arabiyyah (Cairo) and digital copies are available through a number of other Ib ā ḍ ī libraries.

32 . See Kit ā b al-J ā mi’ , 50–51. 33 . See ibid., 56–57. 34 . See ibid., 2:482–503 . 35 . See ibid., 2:483. 36 . See ibid., 2:483. 37 . See ibid., 2:484. 38 . See ibid., 2:484. 39 . See ibid., 2:484. 40 . See ibid., 484–85. 41 . al-Tawbah : V123. 42 . al-N ū r : V61. 43 . al-Anf ā l : V60. 44 . al-Anf ā l : V16. 45 . al-Baqarah : V195. 46 . al-Nis ā : V29. 47 . See Kit ā b al-J ā mi ’, 487–490. 48 . See ibid., 493–94. 49 . See ibid., 2:508. 50 . See ibid., 2:470. 51 . See ibid., 1:14. 52 . See ibid., 1:16. 53 . Abdullah Ibn Hamid al-Salimi, Sharh al-j ā mi’ al-sahih (Oman: Maktabat al-

Imam Nur al-Din al-Salimi, 2004), waw .

5 Statelessness and Leaderlessness

1 . Tradition 375 in al-J ā mi` al-sahih . 2 . Tradition 383 in al-J ā mi` al-sahih . 3 . I am aware that one’s observation can only be one possible interpretation out

of many. For this reason, for this study, I have recorded some of the events and I will make the recorded documents available so that other interested researchers, especially those from different disciplines, may examine them and provide their own interpretation.

4 . Not being familiar with this protocol, I ended up drinking more coffee than I was inclined or wanted to drink because I kept saying thank you or placing my left hand on top of the cup, none of which worked as efficiently as the

N o t e s188

gentle twist of the cup right and left, which I learned to do at a very late stage of my stay in Oman.

5 . After the ouster of Ben Ali, Ghannouchi returned to Tunisia and guided the movement as it contested the elections. The result of these elections and the transformation brought about by the so-called Arab Spring are dealt with in another work.

6 . The leadership and well as the rank and file of Q ā ̀ idah contained many of the former members of the Muslim Brethren. In fact, Ayman al-Zawahiri, who is considered as the second-in-command of the Q ā ̀ idah, is a former member of al-Jam ā ̀ ah al-Isl ā miyyah, which was founded in Egypt. Many scholars who study the Islamic movements think that al-Jam ā ̀ ah al-Isl ā miyyah was cre-ated as a direct response to the Muslim Brethren strategy, which was seen as flawed.

7 . The rulers of the early Islamic community first attempted to persuade, then, categorize dissenters. Finally, they waged a war of annihilation against them. In modern times, some Muslim governments categorize dissenters as being outside the mainstream, then, they jail their leaders. If support for the movement persists, then, the rulers will use the religious institutions and the judicial branch of government to execute the symbols of the movement. In Tunisia, for instance, Bourguiba applied all these steps to eradicate the Islamic Trend Movement. When the courts issued a prison sentence against al-Ghan-nouchi instead of the death penalty, Bourguiba wanted him and his colleagues retried. Consequently, Bourguiba was overthrown by his prime minister to prevent an uprising.

6 Conclusions

1 . Wael Hallah, for instance, contends that the doors of ijtih ā d never closed. 2 . See Kit ā b al-J ā mi ̀ , 1:623. 3 . Shiì new position, in theory and practice, converged to this new default

position due to the doctrine of Occultation and to the theoretical revision introduced by Imam Khomeini, namely Wil ā yat al-faq ī h (the regency of the jurist).

Bibliography

Primary Works

‘Abb ā s, I ḥ s ā n. D ī w ā n shi’r al-khaw ā rij. Cairo: Dar al-Kitab, 1982. a-Bayy ā s ī , Y ū suf Ibn Mu ḥ ammad Ibn Mu ḥ ammad Ibn Ibr ā h ī m al-An ṣ ā r ī . al-I’l ā m

bi-‘l- ḥ ur ū b al-w ā qi’ah f ī ṣ adr al-isl ā m. Amman: Dar al-Kitab, 1987. Ab ū ‘Amm ā r, ‘Abd al-K ā f ī . al-M ū jaz . Algiers: al-Sharikah al-Wataniyyah li-‘l-Nashr

wa-‘l-Tawzi’, 1987. Ab ū ‘Ubaydah, al-Q ā s ī Ibn Sall ā m al-Harw ī . al-Amw ā l . Beirut: Mu’assasat Nasir,

1981. Ab ū al-‘Arab, Mu ḥ ammad Ibn A ḥ mad Ibn Tam ī m al-Tam ī m ī . Kit ā b al-mi ḥ an. Beirut:

Dar al-Gharb al-Islam ī , 1983. Ab ū Gh ā nim, al-Khur ā s ā n ī . al-Mudawwanah . Oman: al-Jil al-W ā ed, 2006. Ab ū Na’īm, A ḥ mad Ibn ‘Abdull ā h al-A ṣ fah ā n ī . Hilyat al-awliy ā ’ wa- ṭ abaq ā t al-a ṣ fiy ā ’ .

Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 1988. Ab ū Zakkariy ā , Ya ḥ y ā Ibn Ab ī Bakr. Kit ā b al-siyar wa-akhbar al-ayimmah . Tunis:

al-Dar al-Tunusiyyah li-‘l-Nashr, 1985. al-‘Ijl ī , A ḥ mad Ibn ‘Abdull ā h Ibn Ṣ ā li ḥ . Ma’rifat al-thiq ā t . ¿??? al-Alb ā n ī , Mu ḥ ammad N ā ṣ ir al-D ī n. Irw ā ’ al-ghal ī l f ī takhr ī j a ḥ ā dith man ā r al-sab ī l .

Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islami, 1985. al-Amin, Sharif. Mu’jam al-firaq al-isl ā miyyah. Beirut: Dar al-Adwa’, 1986. al-A ṣ fah ā n ī , Ab ū Na’īm. Ḥ ilyat al-awliy ā ’ wa- ṭ abaq ā t al-a ṣ fiy ā ’ . Beirut: Dar al-Kitab

al-Arabi, 1985. al-Ash’ar ī , Ab ū al- Ḥ assan ‘Al ī Ibn Ism ā’ī l. Kit ā b al-luma’ f ī al-ra ḍ ‘al ā ahl al-bida’ .

Cairo: al-Maktabah al-Azhariyyah li-l-Turath, 1993. ———. Maq ā l ā t al-isl ā miyy ī n . Beirut: al-Maktabah al-‘Asriyyah, 1990. al-Baghd ā d ī , ‘Abd al-Q ā hir Ibn Ṭ ā hir Ibn Mu ḥ ammad. al-Farq bayna al-firaq. Beirut:

al-Maktabah al-‘Asriyyah, 1990. al-Bal ā dhir ī , A ḥ mad Ibn Ya ḥ y ā ’ Ibn J ā bir. Ans ā b al-ashr ā f . Beirut: Dar al-Fikr,

1996. al-Barr ā d ī , Ab ū al-Q ā sim Ibn Ibr ā h ī m. al-Jaw ā hir al-muntaq ā t f ī itm ā m m ā akhalla

min kit ā b al- ṭ abaq ā t. Cairo: Tab’ah al- Ḥ ajriyyah, 1884. ———. Ris ā lah f ī taqy ī d kutub a ṣḥ ā bin ā . Cairo: Dar al-Fadilah, 1984. al-Dhahb ī , Shams al-D ī n. al-‘Ibar f ī khabar man ghabar. Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-

‘Ilmiyyah, 1985. ———. T ā r ī kh al-isl ā m . Beirut: Dar al-Kitab, 1999.

B i b l i o g r a p h y190

al-Fayyash, Mu ḥ ammad Ibn Y ū suf. Haym ā n al-z ā d il ā d ā r al-mi’ād. Oman: Wizarat al-Turath, ‘1980.

———. Tays ī r al-tafs ī r . Oman: Wizarat al-Turath al-Qawmi wa-‘l-Thaqafah, 1981. al-Ghur ā b ī , ‘Al ī Mu ṣṭ af ā . T ā r ī kh al-firaq al-isl ā miyyah wa-nash’at ‘ilm al-kal ā m ‘inda

al-muslim ī n. Cairo: Matba’at al-Anglu al-Masriyyah, 1985. al- Ḥ ajr ī , ‘Al ī Ibn Mu ḥ ammad. al-Ib ā ḍ iyyah wa-manhajiyyat al-ba ḥ th ‘inda al-mu’arrikh ī n

wa-a ṣḥ ā b al-maq ā l ā t . Oman: Matabi’ al-Nahdah, 2000. al- Ḥ ar ī r ī , Mu ḥ ammad ‘Īs ā . al-Dawlah al-rustumiyyah bi-‘l-maghrib . Egypt: Dar al-

Qalam, 1987. al-Kha ṭ ī b, A ḥ mad Ibn ‘Al ī Ibn Th ā bit. T ā r ī kh baghd ā d. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1987. al-Kind ī , Ab ū Bakr A ḥ mad Ibn ‘Abdull ā h Ibn M ū s ā . al-Jawhar al-muqtasar . Oman:

Wizarat al-Turath, 1985. ——— . al-Mu ṣ annaf . Oman: Wizarat al-Turath, 1984. al-Mas’ūd ī , ‘Al ī Ibn al- Ḥ ussayn Ibn ‘Al ī . Mur ū j al-dhahab . Beirut: al-Maktabah al-

‘Asriyyah, 1988. al-Munqir ī , Na ṣ r Ibn Muz ā ḥ im. Waq’at ṣ iff ī n. Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1990. al-Qalh ā t ī , Mu ḥ ammad Ibn Sa’īd al-Azd ī . al-Kashf wa-‘l- bay ā n . Oman: Wizarat al-

Turath, 1980. al-Qarn ī , ‘Abdull ā h Ibn Mu ḥ ammad. Ḍ aw ā bit al-takf ī r ‘inda ahl al-sunah wa-‘l-

jam ā ’ah. Beirut: Mu’assasat al-Ris ā lah, 1992. al-Rab ī ’, Ibn Ḥ ab ī b. al-J ā mi’ al- ṣ a ḥ ī h . Beirut: Dar al-Fat ḥ , 1995. al-Sa’d ī , Jam ī l Ibn Kham ī s. Q ā m ū s al-shar ī ’ah . Oman: Wizarat al-Turath, 1983. al-S ā lim ī , Mu ḥ ammad Ibn ‘Abdull ā h. Shar ḥ al-j ā m ī ’ al- ṣ a ḥ ī ḥ . Oman: Maktabat

al-Istiq ā mah, 1996. al-S ā lim ī , ‘Abdull ā h Ibn Ham ī d. Jawhar al-ni ẓ ā m. Oman: al-Matba’ah al- Dhahabiyyah,

1993. al- Ṣ an’ān ī , ‘Abd al-Razzaq Ibn Hum ā m. al-Mu ṣ annaf . Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islami,

1983. al-Shahrast ā n ī , Ab ū al-Fat ḥ Mu ḥ ammad Ibn ‘Abd al-Kar ī m. al-Milal wa-‘l-ni ḥ al .

Beirut: Dar Sa’b, 1986. al-Shamm ā kh ī , Ab ū al-‘Abb ā s A ḥ mad Ibn Sa’īd. Kit ā b al- ī ḍ ā ḥ . Oman: Dar al-Fath,

1981. ———. Um ā n: Wizarat al-Turath, 1992. ———. Muqa ḍ imat al-taw ḥ ī d . Oman: Wizarat al-Turath, 1992. al- Ṭ abar ā n ī , Sulaym ā n Ibn A ḥ mad. Musnad al-sh ā miyy ī n . Beirut: Mu’assasat

al-Ris ā lah, 1989. al- Ṭ abar ī , Ab ū Ja’far Mu ḥ ammad Ibn Jar ī r. Tafs ī r j ā mi’ al-bay ā n . Beirut: Dar al-Kutub,

1992. ———. T ā r ī kh al-umam wa-‘l-mul ū k. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub, 1988. al-J ā ḥ i ẓ , ‘Amr Ibn Ba ḥ r. al-bay ā n wa’-‘l-taby ī n . Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1991. al- Ṭ ayyalis ī , Sulaym ā n Ibn D ā w ū d Ibn al-J ā r ū d. al-Musnad . Beirut: Dar al-Ma’rifah,

1993. al- Ṭ ū s ī , Mu ḥ ammad Ibn al- Ḥ assan. Tahdh ī b al-a ḥ k ā m. Beirut: Dar Sa’b, 1981. al-Ya’q ū b ī , A ḥ mad Ibn Ab ī Ya’q ū b Ibn Ja’far Ibn Wahb Ibn W ā ḍ ih. al-T ā r ī kh . Beirut:

Dar sadir, 1992. al-Y ū sf ī , al- Ḥ assan Ibn Mas’ūd. Ras ā ’il al-Y ū sf ī . al-Dar al-Bayda: Dar al-Thaqafah, 1981.

191B i b l i o g r a p h y

Ibn ‘Abd Rabbuh, A ḥ mad Ibn Mu ḥ ammad. al-‘Iqd al-far ī d . Beirut: Dar al-Hilal, 1990.

Ibn ‘Abd al-Barr, Y ū suf. al-Isti’āb f ī ma’rifat al-a ṣḥ ā b. Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1992. Ibn ‘Adiyy, ‘Abdull ā h al-Jarj ā n ī . al-K ā mil f ī du’af ā ’ al-rij ā l. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1988. Ibn ‘Āsh ū r, al- Ṭ ā hir. al-Ta ḥ r ī r wa-‘l-tanw ī r . Tunis: al-Dar al-Tunusiyyah li-‘l-Nashr,

1984. Ibn A’tham, A ḥ mad al-K ū f ī . Kit ā b al-fut ū ḥ . Beirut: Dar al-Adwa’, 1991. Ibn Ab ī ‘Āṣim, ‘Amr al-Shayb ā n ī . al- Ā ḥ ā d wa-‘l-math ā n ī . Riad: Dar al-Riwayah,

1991. Ibn Ab ī al- Ḥ ad ī d, ‘Abd al- Ḥ am ī d Ibn Hibatu-All ā h. Shar ḥ nahj al-bal ā ghah. Beirut:

Dar al-Jil, 1987. Ibn Ab ī al- Ḥ ad ī d, ‘Izz al-D ī n . Shar ḥ nahj al-bal ā ghah . Beirut: Dar I ḥ y ā al-Tur ā th

al-‘Arab ī , 1965. Ibn Ab ī Ḥ ā tim, ‘Abd al-Ra ḥ m ā n al-R ā z ī . Kit ā b al-jar ḥ wa-‘l-ta’d ī l. Beirut: Dar Ihya’

al-Turath al-‘Arabi, 1952. Ibn al-Ath ī r, ‘Al ī . al-K ā mil . Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1989. ———, ‘Ali. Asad al-gh ā bah f ī ma’rifat al- ṣ a ḥ ā bah. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1989. Ibn al-Jawz ī , ‘Abd al-Ra ḥ m ā n Ibn ‘Al ī Ibn Mu ḥ ammad. Kit ā b al- ḍ u’af ā ’ wa-‘l-matr ū k ī n .

Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1986. Ibn al-Jawz ī , ‘Abd al-Ra ḥ m ā n. al-Munta ẓ am f ī t ā r ī kh al-umam wa-‘l-mul ū k. Beirut:

Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1992. Ibn al-Mundhir, Mu ḥ ammad Ibn Ibr ā h ī m. al-Iqn ā ’ . Cairo: Dar al- Ḥ ad ī th, 1994. Ibn Barkah, Ab ū Mu ḥ ammad ‘Abdull ā h Ibn Mu ḥ ammad. Kit ā b al-j ā mi’ . Oman:

Wizarat al-Turath, 1971. Ibn F ā ris, Ab ū al- Ḥ assan A ḥ mad. Mu’jam maq ā y ī s al-lughah. Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1991. Ibn Ḥ ajr, Ahmad Ibn ‘Al ī al-‘Asqal ā n ī . al-I ṣ ā bah f ī tamy ī z al- ṣ a ḥ ā bah . Beirut: Dar

al-Jil, 1992. ———. Tahdh ī b al-tahdh ī b . Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1994. ———. Taqr ī b al-tahdh ī b . Cairo: Dar al-Salam, 1992. Ibn Ḥ ajr, Ahmad Ibn ‘Al ī . al-Dir ā yah f ī takhr ī j a ḥ ā d ī th al-hid ā yah. Beirut: Dar al-

Ma’rifah, 1989. Ibn Ḥ ajr, al-‘Asqal ā n ī al- Ḥ ā fi ẓ A ḥ mad Ibn ‘Al ī . Fat ḥ al-b ā ri’ . Beirut: Dar al-Fikr,

1993. Ibn Ḥ azm, Ab ū Mu ḥ ammad ‘Al ī Ibn A ḥ mad al- Ẓ ā hir ī . al-Fa ṣ l f ī al-milal wa-‘l-ahw ā ’

wa-‘l-ni ḥ al. Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1992. Ibn Ḥ azm, Ab ū Mu ḥ ammad ‘Al ī Ibn A ḥ mad al- Ẓ ā hir ī . al-Mu ḥ all ā . Beirut: Dar al-Jil,

1980. ———. Jamharat ans ā b al-‘arab. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1983. Ibn Ḥ ibb ā n, Mu ḥ ammad. Mash ā h ī r ‘ulam ā ’ al-am ṣ ā r. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-

‘Ilmiyyah, 1959. Ibn Hish ā m, Ab ū Mu ḥ ammad ‘Abd al-M ā lik. al-S ī rah al-nabawiyyah . Beirut: Dar

al-Jil, 1991. Ibn Ja’far, Ab ū J ā bir Mu ḥ ammad al-Azkaw ī . Kit ā b al-j ā mi’ . Oman: Wizarat al-Turath,

1973. Ibn Kath ī r, Ism ā’ī l. al-Bid ā yah wa-‘l-nih ā yah. Beirut: Maktabat al-Ma’arif, 1990. ———. Tafs ī r al-qur’ān al-‘az ī m. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 2000.


Ibn Khald ū n, ‘Abd al-Ra ḥ m ā n. al-Muqaddimah . Beirut: Mu’assat al-A’lami, 1974. Ibn Khayy ā ḍ , Khal ī fah. al-T ā r ī kh . Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1995. Ibn Ma’īn, Ya ḥ y ā ’. al-T ā r ī kh . Mecca: Jami’at al-Malik ‘Abd al-Aziz, 1979. Ibn Man ẓ ū r, Ab ū al-Fa ḍ l Jam ā l al-D ī n. Lis ā n al-‘arab . Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1990. Ibn Qutaybah, ‘Abdull ā h Ibn Muslim. al-Im ā mah wa-‘l-siy ā sah. Beirut: Dar al-

Ma’rifah, 1992. Ibn Sa’d, Mu ḥ ammad. al- Ṭ abaq ā t al-kubr ā . Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1986.

Secondary Works (Islamic Studies)

Abbas, Shemeem Burney. The Female Voice in Sufi Ritual: Devotional Practices of Pakistan and India . Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003.

Abbott, Nabia. Aishah: The Beloved of Mohammad . London: Al-Saqi, 1998. Abdel-Kader, Ali Hassan. The Life, Personality and Writings of al-Junayd: A Study of

a Third/Ninth Century Mystic with an Edition and Translation of His Writings . London: Luzac & Co., 1976.

Abdo, Geneive. No God but God: Egypt and the Triumph of Islam . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Abed, Shukri. Aristotelian Logic and the Arabic Language in Alfarabi . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991.

Abou El Fadl, Khaled. Rebellion and Violence in Islamic Law . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Abrahamian, Ervand. Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.

Abrahamov, Binyamin. Islamic Theology: Traditionalism and Rationalism . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998.

Abu-Lughod, Ibrahim. The Transformation of Palestine: Essays on the Origin and Development of the Arab-Israeli Conflict . Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2nd ed., 1987.

Abu-Lughod, Lila. Remaking Women: Feminism and Modernity in the Middle East . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998.

Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. The Tijaniyya: A Sufi Order in the Modern World . London: Oxford University Press, 1965.

Addas, Claude. Quest for the Red Sulphur: The Life of Ibn ‘Arabi . Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1993.

Affifi, Abu al-A‘la. The Mystical Philosophy of Muhyid’Din Ibnul-‘Arabi . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1936.

Afsaruddin, Asma. Excellence and Precedence: Medieval Islamic Discourse on Legitimate Leadership . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002.

———, ed. Hermeneutics and Honor: Negotiating Female “Public” Space in Islamic/ate Societies . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000.

Ahmad, Barakat. Muhammad and the Jews: A Re-examination . Delhi: Vikas, 1979. Ahmed, Akbar. Discovering Islam: Making Sense of Muslim History and Society . New

York: Routledge, revised ed., 2002. ———. Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World . London: I. B. Tauris,

1999.


Ahmed, Leila. Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993.

Al-Azmeh, Aziz. Arabic Thought and Islamic Societies . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986.

Algar, Hamid. The Islamic Revolution in Iran . London: Open Press, 1980. Allen, Roger. The Arabic Literary Heritage: The Development of Its Genres and Criticism .

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. al-Rasheed, Madawi. A History of Saudi Arabia . Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 2002. Al-Tabari (trans.). The History of al-Tabari, 40 Vols . Albany: State University of New

York Press, 1987–1999. Andrae, Tor. Mohammed: The Man and His Faith . London: George Allen & Unwin,

1936. An-Na’im, Abdullahi Ahmed. Toward an Islamic Reformation: Civil Liberties, Human

Rights, and International Law . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1996. Arberry, Arthur John. Aspects of Islamic Civilization . London: Allen & Unwin, 1964. ———. Discourses of Rumi . London: John Murray, 1961. ———. Mystical Poems of Rumi . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1979. ———. A Sufi Martyr: The Apologia of ‘Ain al-Qudat al-Hamadhani . London: George

Allen & Unwin, 1969. Arjomand, Said Amir, ed. Authority and Political Culture in Shi‘ism . Albany: State

University of New York Press, 1988. ———. The Shadow of God and the Hidden Imam . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago

Press, 1984. ———. The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran . Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1988. Armstrong, Karen. Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet . San Francisco, CA:

HarperSanFrancisco, 1993. Asad, Mohammad. The Road to Mecca . Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2001. Asad, Muhammad. Principles of State and Government in Islam . London: Islamic Book

Trust, 1980. ———. The Message of the Qur’an . Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus, 1980. Asad, Talal. Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity . Stanford, CA:

Stanford University Press, 2003. ———. Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and

Islam . Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Asani, Ali, et al. Celebrating Muhammad: Images of the Prophet in Popular Muslim

Poetry . Columbia, Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002. Averroes (Erwin Rosenthal, ed.). Commentary on Plato’s ‘Republic’ . Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1956. Averroes (George F. Hourani, trans.). Averroes: On the Harmony of Religion and

Philosophy . London: Luzac & Co., 1961. Averroes (Ibrahim Najjar, trans.). Faith and Reason in Islam: Averroes’ Exposition of

Religious Arguments . Oxford: Oneworld, 2001. Awde, Nicholas, ed. Women in Islam: An Anthology from the Qur’an and Hadiths . New

York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.


Ayoub, Mahmoud. The Qur’an and Its Interpreters . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984.

———. Redemptive Suffering in Islam . The Hague: Mouton, 1978. Ayoub, Mohammed. The Politics of Islamic Reassertion . London: Croom Helm,

1981. Badran, Margot. Feminists, Islam, and Nation: Gender and the Making of Modern

Egypt . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. Bakar, Osman. The History and Philosophy of Islamic Science . Cambridge: The Islamic

Texts Society, 1999. Baljon, Jon M. S. Modern Muslim Koran Interpretation (1880–1960) . Leiden: E. J.

Brill, 1961. Barlas, Asma. “Believing Women” in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the

Qur’an . Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002. Barnes, John Robert. An Introduction to Religious Foundations in the Ottoman Empire .

Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986. Bashir, Shahzad. Messianic Hopes and Mystical Visions: The Nurbakhshiya between

Medieval and Modern Islam . Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2003. Bates, Michael and Elizabeth Savage. Dinars and Dirhams, Coins of the Islamic Lands:

The Early Period . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Bell, Joseph N. Love Theory in Later Hanbalite Islam . Albany: State University of New

York Press, 1978. Bell, Richard. Introduction to the Qur’an . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press,

1963. ———. The Qur’an Translated . Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1960. Bennigsen, Alexandre, et al. Mystics and Commissars: Sufism in the Soviet Union .

Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986. Berkey, Jonathan P. The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East,

600–1800 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ———. Popular Preaching and Religious Authority in the Medieval Islamic Near East .

Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001. Bill, James A. The Eagle and the Lion: The Tragedy of American-Iranian Relations . New

Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988. Binder, Leonard, ed. Ethnic Conflict and International Politics in the Middle East .

Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1999. Black, Antony. The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present .

New York: Routledge, 2001. Blichfeldt, Jan-Olaf. Early Mahdism: Politics and Religion in the Formative Period of

Islam . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1985. Bloom, Jonathan and Sheila Blair. Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power . New

Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002. Bosworth, Clifford E. The Arabs, Byzantium and Iran: Studies in Early Islamic History

and Culture . Aldershot: Variorum/Ashgate, 1996. ———. The Islamic Dynasties . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1967. Bowker, John. What Muslims Believe . Oxford: Oneworld, 1999. Bozdogan, Sibel and Resat Kasaba, eds. Rethinking Modernity and National Identity in

Turkey . Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997.


Brann, Ross. Power in the Portrayal: Representations of Jews and Muslims in Eleventh- and Twelfth Century Islamic Spain . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.

Brockopp, Jonathan E. Early Maliki Law: Ibn ‘Abd al-Hakam and His Major Compendium Jurisprudence . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2000.

Brown, Daniel. Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Browne, Edward G. The Persian Revolution of 1905–1909 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910.

Brunner, Ranier and Werner Ende, eds. The Twelver Shia in Modern Times: Religious Culture and Political History . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2001.

Buehler, Arthur F. Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh . Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998.

Burgat, Fran ç ois and William Dowell. The Islamic Movement in North Africa . Austin: Center for Middle Eastern Studies, University of Texas, 1997.

Burke, Edmund and Ira M. Lapidus, eds. Islam, Politics, and Social Movements . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.

Burrell, David B. Freedom and Creation in Three Traditions . Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1993.

———. Knowing the Unknowable God: Ibn-Sina, Maimonides, Aquinas . Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1986.

Burton, John. The Collection of the Quran . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.

———. An Introduction to the Hadith . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994. ———. The Sources of Islamic Law: Islamic Theories of Abrogation . Edinburgh:

Edinburgh University Press, 1990. Burton, Richard. Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah . New

York: G. P. Putnam and Co., 1853. Butterworth, Charles E., ed. The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy: Essays in Honor

of Muhsin Mahdi . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992. ———. Alfarabi—The Political Writings: “Selected Aphorisms” and Other Texts . Ithaca,

NY: Cornell University Press, 2001. Butterworth, Charles E. and I. William Zartman, eds. Between the State and Islam .

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Calder, Norman. Studies in Early Muslim Jurisprudence . Oxford: Clarendon Press,

1993. Cardini, Franco. Europe and Islam . Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001. Chamberlain, Michael. Knowledge and Social Practice in Medieval Damascus, 1190–

1350 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Charrad, Mounira M. States and Women’s Rights: The Making of Postcolonial Tunisia,

Algeria, Morocco . Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. Chelkowski, Peter J. Ta‘ziyah: Ritual and Drama in Iran . Washington Square: New

York University Press, 1979. Chelkowski, Peter and Hamid Dabashi. Staging a Revolution: The Art of Persuasion

in the Islamic Republic of Iran . Washington Square: New York University Press, 1999.


Chew, Samuel C. The Crescent and the Rose: Islam and England during the Renaissance . New York: Oxford University Press, 1937.

Chittick, William C. The Heart of Islamic Philosophy: The Quest for Self-Knowledge in the Teachings of Afdal al-Din Kashani . Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2001.

———. Imaginal Worlds: Ibn al-‘Arabi and the Problem of Religious Diversity . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995.

———. The Self-Disclosure of God: Principles of Ibn al-‘Arabi’s Cosmology . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997.

Chomsky, Noam. The Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel and the Palestinians . Boston, MA: South End Press, 2nd ed., 1999.

———. Middle East Illusions . Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003. Christelow, Alan. Muslim Law Courts and the French Colonial State in Algeria .

Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985. Clancy-Smith, Julia A. Rebel and Saint: Muslim Notables, Populist Protest, Colonial

Encounters (Algeria and Tunisia, 1800–1904) . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.

Cole, Juan R. I. Sacred Space and Holy War: The Politics, Culture and History of Shi‘ite Islam . London: I. B. Tauris, 2002.

Cole, Juan R. I. and Nikki R. Keddie. Shi‘ism and Social Protest . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986.

Commins, David Dean. Islamic Reform: Politics and Social Change in Late Ottoman Syria . New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

Conrad, Lawrence I. History of Historiography in Early Islamic Times: Studies and Perspectives . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003.

———. Reflections on Islamic History and Civilization: The Complete Collected Essays of Sir Hamilton Gibb . Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 2004.

Cook, Michael. Early Muslim Dogma . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.

———. The Koran: A Very Short Introduction . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

———. Muhammad . New York: Oxford University Press, 1983. Corbin, Henry (Joseph H. Rowe). The Voyage and the Messenger: Iran and Philosophy .

Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1998. Corbin, Henry (W. R. Trask). Avicenna and the Visionary Recital . New York: Pantheon

Books, 1960. ———. Creative Imagination in the Sufism of Ibn ‘Arabi . Princeton, NJ: Princeton

University Press, 1998. ———. Cyclical Time and Ismaili Gnosis . London: The Institute of Ismaili Studies

Ltd/Kegan Paul Int’l. with Islamic Publications, 1985. ———. Spiritual Body and Celestial Earth: From Mazdean Iran to Shi‘ite Iran .

Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977. ———. Temple and Contemplation (Islamic Texts and Contexts) . New York: Columbia

University Press, 1986. Cornell, Vincent J. Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism . Austin:

University of Texas Press, 1998.


Cornell, Vincent J. The Way of Abu Madyan . Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1996.

Cotran, Eugene and Adel Omar Sherif. Democracy, the Rule of Law and Islam . London: Kluwer Law International, 1999.

Coulson, Noel J. Conflicts and Tensions in Islamic Jurisprudence . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1969.

———. A History of Islamic Law . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1964. ———. Succession in the Muslim Family . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1971. Cragg, Kenneth. The Call of the Minaret . New York: Oxford University Press, 1956. ———. The Event of the Quran: Islam in Its Scripture . London: George Allen &

Unwin, 1971. ———. The Mind of the Quran: Chapters in Reflection . London: George Allen &

Unwin, 1973. ———. The Wisdom of the Sufis . New York: W. W. Norton, 1976. Craig, William L. The Kalam Cosmological Argument . New York: Harper and Row,

1979. Crone, Patricia. Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University

Press, 1987. ———. Roman, Provincial and Islamic Law: The Origins of the Islamic Patronate .

Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002. ———. Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity . Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1980. Crone, Patricia and Martin Hinds. God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First

Centuries of Islam . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Crone, Patricia and Michael Cook. Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World .

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. Curtis, Edward E., IV. Islam in Black America: Identity, Liberation, and Difference in

African-American Islamic Thought . Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002.

Curtis, Michael. Religion and Politics in the Middle East . Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1981.

Dabashi, Hamid. Authority in Islam: From the Rise of Muhammad to the Establishment of the Umayyads . New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publ., 1989.

Daftary, Farhad. The Assassin Legends: Myth of the Isma‘ilis . London: I. B. Tauris, 1994.

———. The Isma‘ilis: Their History and Doctrines . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

———. Mediaeval Isma‘ili History and Thought . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Daiber, Hans. Bibliography of Islamic Philosophy : Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999. Daniel, Norman. Islam and the West: The Making of an Image . Edinburgh: Edinburgh

University Press, 1958. ———. Islam and the West: The Making of an Image . Oxford: Oneworld, 2000. Dannin, Robert. Black Pilgrimage to Islam . New York: Oxford University Press,

2002.


Denny, Frederick Mathewson. An Introduction to Islam . New York: Macmillan, 1994.

Donaldson, William J. and Mashary Abdull ā h Naim. Sharecropping in the Yemen: A Study in Islamic Theory, Custom and Pragmatism . Leiden: Brill Academic Publ., 2000.

Dunn, Ross E. The Adventures of Ibn Battuta: A Muslim Traveler of the Fourteenth Century . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.

Dutton, Yasin. The Origins of Islamic Law: The Qur’an, the Muwatta’ and Medinan ‘Amal . Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1999.

Eaton, Richard Maxwell. Essays on Islam and Indian History . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Echevarria, Ana. The Fortress of Faith: The Attitude toward Muslims in Fifteenth Century Spain . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999.

Ehrenkreutz, Andrew S. Monetary Change and Economic History in the Medieval Islamic World . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 1992.

Eickelman, Dale. Knowledge and Power in Morocco: The Education of a Twentieth Century Notable . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985.

———. Moroccan Islam . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976. El-Ghonemy, M. Riad. Affluence and Poverty in the Middle East . London: Routledge,

1998. El-Hibri, Tayeb. Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: Harun al-Rashid and the Narrative

of the ‘Abbasid Caliphate . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Endress, Gerhard. Islam: An Historical Introduction . New York: Columbia University

Press, 2002. Ephrat, Daphna. A Learned Society in Transition: The Sunni ‘Ulama’ of Eleventh-

Century Baghdad . Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000. Ernst, Carl W. Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South Asian Sufi

Center . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992. ———. Ruzbihan Baqli: Mystical Experience and the Rhetoric of Sainthood in Persian

Sufism . London: Curzon Press, 1996. ———. The Shambhala Guide to Sufism . Boston, MA: Shambhala, 1997. ———. Words of Ecstasy in Sufism . Albany: State University of New York Press,

1984. Esack, Farid. On Being a Muslim . Oxford: Oneworld, 1999. ———. Qur’an, Liberation and Pluralism . Oxford: Oneworld, 1997. ———. The Qur’an: A Short Introduction . Oxford: Oneworld, 2002. Esposito, John L. Islam: The Straight Path . New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. ———. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World . Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1995. Esposito, John L. and John Obert Voll. Makers of Contemporary Islam . Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2001. Fakhry, Majid. Ethical Theories in Islam . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991. ———. A History of Islamic Philosophy . London: Longman, 1983. Firestone, Reuven. Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam . Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 2002.


———. Journeys in Holy Lands: The Evolution of the Abraham-Ishmael Legends in Islamic Exegesis . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990.

Fletcher, Richard. Moorish Spain . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. Fluehr-Lobban, Carolyn. Islamic Law and Society in the Sudan . London: Frank Cass

& Co., 1987. Fortna, Benjamin C. Imperial Classroom: Islam, the State, and Education in the Late

Ottoman Empire . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Frank, Allen J. Muslim Religious Institutions in Imperial Russia: The Islamic World of

Novouzensk District and the Kazakh Inner Horde, 1780–1910 . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2001.

Frank, Richard M. Al-Ghazali and the Ash‘arite School . Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994.

Fuchs, Barbara. Mimesis and Empire: The New World, Islam, and European Identities . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Fuller, Graham E. and Rend Rahim Francke. The Arab Shi‘a: The Forgotten Muslims. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.

Gabrieli, Francesco. Arab Historians of the Crusades . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969.

Gallagher, Nancy Elizabeth. Medicine and Power in Tunisia, 1780–1900 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

G ä tje, Helmut (w/Alford T. Welch). The Quran and Its Exegesis . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976.

Geertz, Clifford. Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1971.

Gelvin, James. Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.

Gershoni, Israel, Hakan Erdem, and Ursula Wok ö ck. Histories of the Modern Middle East: New Directions . Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002.

Gianotti, Timothy J. Al-Ghazali’s Unspeakable Doctrine of the Soul: Unveiling the Esoteric Psychology and Eschatology of the Ihya ’. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2001.

Gibb, Hamilton A. R. Modern Trends in Islam . New York: Octagon Books, 1972. ———. Whither Islam? London: Gollancz, 1932. Gibb, H. A. R. and Harold Bowe. Islamic Society and the West: A Study of the Impact of

Western Civilization on Moslem Culture in the Near East . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1957.

Gibb, Hamilton A. R. and J. H. Kramers. Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997 (reprint ed.).

Gilsenan, Michael. Recognising Islam: An anthropologist’s Introduction . London: Croom Helm, 1982.

Gleave, Robert. Inevitable Doubt: Two Theories of Shi‘i Jurisprudence . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2000.

Goitein, S. D. Studies in Islamic History and Institutions . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1966. Goldziher, Ignaz. Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law . Princeton, NJ: Princeton

University Press, 1981. Goodman, Lenn E. Islamic Humanism . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.


Goodwin, Jason. Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire . New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1999.

Graham, William A. Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam . The Hague: Mouton, 1977.

Gregorian, Vartan. The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan: Politics of Religion and Modernization, 1880–1946 . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1969.

Guillaume, Alfred. The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah . London: Oxford University Press, 1955.

———. The Traditions of Islam: An Introduction to the Study of Hadith Literature . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924.

Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck. The Muslims of America . New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.

Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck and John L. Esposito. Islam, Gender, and Social Change . New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Halm, Heinz. Shiism . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992. Hardy, Peter. The Muslims of British India . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1972. Harrison, Christopher. France and Islam in West Africa, 1860–1960 . Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1988. Hasse, Dag Nikolaus. Avicenna’s De Anima in the Latin West . London: The Warburg

Institute, 2000. Hathaway, Jane. The Politics of Households in Ottoman Egypt: The Rise of the Qazdaglis .

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Hawting, G. R. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate, AD 661–750 .

London: Routledge, 2nd ed., 2000. ———. The Idea of Idolatry and the Emergence of Islam: From Polemic to History .

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Hawting, G. R. et al. Approaches to the Quran . London: Routledge, 1993. Heer, Nicholas L. Islamic Law and Jurisprudence: Studies in Honor of Farhat J. Ziadeh .

Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990. Hillenbrand, Carole. The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives . New York: Routledge, 2000. Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture . London: Thames & Hudson, 1998. Hinds, Martin, et al. Studies in Early Islamic History . Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press,

1997. Hitti, Philip K. History of the Arabs: From Earliest Times to the Present . London:

Macmillan, 2002. ———. An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades: Memoirs

of Usamah ibn-Munqidh . New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. Hodgson, Marshall G. S. (w/ Edmund Burke III). Rethinking World History: Essays on

Europe, Islam, and World History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ———. The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization . Chicago,

IL: University of Chicago Press, 1974. Hoffman, Valerie. Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt . Columbia: University

of South Carolina Press, 1995. Hoodbhoy, Perez. Islam and Science: Religious Orthodoxy and the Battle for Rationality .

London: Zed Books, 1991.


Horne, Alistair. A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954–1962 . London: Macmillan, 1977. Hourani, Albert. Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age: 1798–1939 . Cambridge:

Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1993. ———. A History of the Arab Peoples . London: Faber and Faber, 1991. ———. Islam in European Thought . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Hovannisian, Richard G. and Georges Sabagh. Religion and Culture in Medieval Islam .

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Hudson, Michael E. Arab Politics: The Search for Legitimacy . New Haven, CT: Yale

University Press, 1977. Huff, Toby E. The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West . Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1995. Humphreys, R. Stephen. Islamic History: A Framework for Inquiry . Princeton, NJ:

Princeton University Press, revised ed., 1991. ———. From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260 . Albany:

State University of New York Press, 1977. Hunter, Shireen T. The Future of Islam and the West: Clash of Civilizations or Peaceful

Coexistence? Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998. Hutt, Antony. North Africa: Islamic Architecture . Northampton, MA: Interlink

Publishing Group, 1998. Ibn Khaldun (trans. Franz Rosenthal). The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History .

Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969. Ibn Rushd (Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee, trans.). The Distinguished Jurist’s Primer . New

York: Ithaca Press, 2000. Ibrahim, Ezzedin and Denys Johnson-Davies. Forty Hadith Qudsi . Cambridge:

Cambridge Univeriversity Press, 2003. Ibrahim, Saad Eddin. Egypt, Islam, and Democracy: Twelve Critical Essays in Modern

Islam . London: Frank Cass & Co., 1966. Inalcik, Halil, et al. An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–

1914 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Issawi, Charles. An Economic History of the Middle East and North Africa . New York:

Columbia University Press, 1982. Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition . Chicago, IL: University

of Chicago Press, 1972. Izutsu, Toshihiko. Concept of Belief in Islamic Theology . Salem, NH: Ayer Co. Publ.,

1980. ———. Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Quran . Montreal: McGill-Queens University

Press, 2002. ———. God and Man in the Koran . Salem, NH: Ayer Co. Publ., 1980. Jaber, Hala. Hezbollah: Born with a Vengeance . New York: Columbia University Press,

1997. Jafri, S. Husain M. The Origins and Early Development of Shi‘a Islam . Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2002. Jankowski, James. Nasser’s Egypt, Arab Nationalism, and the United Arab Republic .

Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002. Jankowski, James and Israel Gershoni. Rethinking Nationalism in the Arab Middle

East . New York: Columbia University Press, 1997.


Jansen, J. J. G. The Interpretation of the Koran in Modern Egypt . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974.

Jayyusi, Salma Khadra. The Legacy of Muslim Spain . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994. ———. Modern Arabic Poetry: An Anthology . New York: Columbia University Press,

1987. Jayyusi, Salma Khadra and Roger Allen. Modern Arabic Drama: An Anthology .

Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995. Johansen, Baber. Contingency in a Sacred Law: Legal and Ethical Norms in Muslim

Fiqh . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999. ———. The Islamic Law on Land Tax and Rent: The Peasants’ Loss of Property Rights

as Interpreted in the Ḥ anaf ī te Legal Literature of the Mamluk and Ottoman Periods . London: Croom Helm, 1988.

Juynboll, G. H. A. Muslim Tradition: Studies in Chronology, Provenance and Authorship of Early Hadith . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.

———. Studies on the First Century of Islamic Society . Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1982.

Kaegi, Walter E. Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Kahn, Muhammad Zafrulla. Muhammad, Seal of the Prophets . New York: Viking Press, 1981.

Karawan, Ibrahim A. The Islamist Impasse . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. Kasaba, Resat. The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy: The Nineteenth Century .

Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988. Kassis, Hanna E. A Concordance of the Qur’an . Berkeley: University of California

Press, 1998. Kawar, Amal. Daughters of Palestine: Leading Women in the Palestinian National

Movement . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Kazemi, Farhad. Poverty and Revolution in Iran: The Migrant Poor, Urban Marginality,

and Politics . Washington Square: New York University Press, 1981. Keddie, Nikki R. Iran: Religion, Politics and Society . London: Frank Cass, 1980. ———. Iran and the Muslim World: Resistance and Revolution . Washington Square:

New York University Press, 1995. ———. An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid

Jamal ad-Din “al-Afghani.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983 ed. ———. Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution . New Haven, CT: Yale University

Press, 2003. ———. Religion and Rebellion in Iran: The Tobacco Protest of 1891–1892 . London:

Frank Cass & Co., 1966. ———. Sayyid Jamal ad-Din “al-Afghani”: A Political Biography . Berkeley: University

of California Press, 1972. Kedourie, Elie. Democracy and Arab Culture . London: Frank Cass & Co., 1994. ———. Politics in the Middle East . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Keller, Nuh Ha Mim. Al-Nawawi’s Manual of Islam . Cambridge: The Islamic Texts

Society, 1996. Keller, Shoshana. To Moscow, Not Mecca: The Soviet Campaign against Islam in Central

Asia, 1917–1941 . Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001.


Kennedy, Edward S. Astronomy and Astrology in the Medieval Islamic World . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 1998.

Kennedy, Hugh. The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State . London: Routledge, 2001.

———. The Early Abbasid Caliphate: A Political History . London: Croom Helm, 1981.

———. An Historical Atlas of Islam . Leiden: Brill Academic Publ., 2002. ———. The Historiography of Islamic Egypt (c. 950–1800) . Leiden: Brill Academic

Publ., 2001. ———. Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus . Boston, MA:

Addison-Wesley, 1997. Kepel, Gilles. Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press, 2002. Kerr, Malcolm. Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad ‘Abduh

and Rashid Rida . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966. Keshavarz, Fatemeh (w/ Frederick M. Denny). Reading Mystical Lyric: The Case of

Jalal al-Din Rumi . Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998. Khadduri, Majid. Al-Shafi‘i’s Risala: Treatise on the Foundations of Islamic Jurisprudence .

Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1999. Khalaf, Samir. Civil and Uncivil Violence: The Internationalization of Communal

Conflict in Lebanon . New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. Khalidi, Rashid. British Policy towards Syria and Palestine, 1906–1914 . London: Ithaca

Press, 1980. ———. Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern Consciousness . New York:

Columbia University Press, 1998. Khalidi, Rashid, et al. The Origins of Arab Nationalism . New York: Columbia

University Press, 1993. Khalidi, Tarif. Arab Historical Thought in the Classical Period . Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1994. Kholberg, Etan. Belief and Law in Imami Shi’ism . Aldershot: Variorum/Ashgate,

1991. ———. Shi’ism . Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003. King, David A. Astronomy in the Service of Islam . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum,

1993. ———. World Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and

Tradition in Islamic Science . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999. Kister, M. J. Concepts and Ideas at the Dawn of Islam . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum,

1997. Knysh, Alexander D. Ibn ‘Arabi and the Later Islamic Tradition: The Making of a

Polemical Image in Medieval Islam . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998.

———. Islamic Mysticism: A Short History . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2000. Koch, Ebba. Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology: Collected Essays . Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2001. Kraemer, Joel L. Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam: The Cultural Revival during the

Buyid Age . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1992.


Kraemer, Joel L. Philosophy in the Renaissance of Islam: Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani and His Circle . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986.

Kramer, Martin. Islam Assembled: The Advent of the Muslim Congresses . New York: Columbia University Press, 1986.

Kramer, Martin S. Shi‘ism, Resistance, and Revolution . Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987.

Lapidus, Ira M. A History of Islamic Societies . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

———. Muslim Cities in the Later Middle Ages . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967.

Laremont, Ricardo Rene. Islam and the Politics of Resistance in Algeria, 1783–1992 . Lawrenceville, NJ: Africa World Press, 1999.

Laroui, Abdull ā h. The Crisis of the Arab Intellectual . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977.

Lassner, Jacob. Islamic Revolution and Historical Memory: An Inquiry into the Art of Abbasid Apologetics . New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society, 1986.

———. The Shaping of Abbasid Rule . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980.

Lawrence, Bruce B. Shattering the Myth: Islam beyond Violence . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998.

Lecker, Michael. Jews and Arabs in Pre- and Early Islamic Arabia . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 1998.

Lee, Robert D. Overcoming Tradition and Modernity: The Search for Islamic Authenticity . Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997.

Levtzion, Nehemia. Islam in West Africa: Religion, Society and Politics to 1800 . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 1994.

Lewis, Bernard. The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam . London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967.

———. Islam from the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople: Politics and War . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.

———. The Jews of Islam . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987. ———. Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Inquiry . Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1990. ———. The World of Islam: Faith, People, Culture . New York: Thames and Hudson,

1992. Lings, Martin. Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources . New York: Inner

Traditions International, 1983. Litvak, Meir. Shi‘i Scholars of Nineteenth-Century Iraq . Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 2002. Madelung, Wilferd. Religious and Ethnic Movements in Medieval Islam . Aldershot:

Ashgate/Variorum, 1992. ———. Religious Schools and Sects in Medieval Islam . London: Variorum, 1985. ———. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate . Cambridge,

UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997. ———. Religious Trends in Early Islamic Iran . Albany: State University of New York

Press, 1988.


Mahdi, Muhsin. Alfarabi and the Foundation of Islamic Political Philosophy . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2001.

Makdisi, George. The Rise of Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1989.

Mallat, Chibli. The Renewal of Islamic Law . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

———. Shi’i Thought from the South of Lebanon . Oxford: Centre for Lebanese Studies, 1988.

Malti-Douglas, Fedwa. Power, Marginality, and the Body in Medieval Islam . Aldershot: Ashgate/ Varorum, 2001.

Martin, Richard C. Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies . Oxford: Oneworld, 2001.

———. Islam, a Cultural Perspective . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982. Martin, Vanessa. Creating an Islamic State: Khomeini and the Making of a New Iran .

London: I. B. Tauris, 2000. Masri, Al-Hafiz Basheer Ahmad. Animals in Islam . Petersfield, England: Athene Trust,

1989. Masud, Muhammad Khalid, Brinkley Messick, and David S. Powers. Islamic Legal

Interpretation: Muftis and Their Fatwas . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996.

Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. Islam and Human Rights: Tradition and Politics . Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 3rd ed., 1999.

Mazzaoui, Michel. The Origin of the Safawids: Shi‘ism, Sufism, and the Gulat . Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1972.

McCloud, Aminah Beverly. African American Islam . London: Routledge, 1995. Meri, Josef W. The Cult of Saints among Muslims and Jews in Medieval Syria . Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 2003. Mernissi, Fatima. The Forgotten Queens of Islam . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota

Press, 1993. Metcalf, Barbara Daly. Moral Conduct and Authority: The Place of Adab in South Asian

Islam . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. Momen, Moojan. An Introduction to Shi’i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver

Shi’ism . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985. Motzki, Harald. The Biography of Muhammad: The Issue of the Sources . Leiden: E. J.

Brill, 2000. Moussalli, Ahmad S. Moderate and Radical Islamic Fundamentalism: The Quest for

Modernity, Legitimacy and the Islamic State . Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1999.

Moynihan, Elizabeth B. Paradise as a Garden: In Persia and Mughal India . New York: George Braziller, 1980.

Munson, Henry, Jr. Islam and Revolution in the Middle East . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989.

Murata, Sachiko. The Tao of Islam: A Sourcebook on Gender Relationships in Islamic Thought . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992.

Murata, Sachiko and William C. Chittick. The Vision of Islam . New York: Paragon House, 1994.


Murphy, Caryle. Passion for Islam — Shaping the Modern Middle East: The Egyptian Experience . New York: Scribner, 2002.

Nakash, Yitzhak. The Shi’is of Iraq . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity . San Francisco,

CA: Harper SanFrancisco, 2002. ———. Ideals and Realities of Islam . London: Allen & Unwin, 1966. ———. Islam: Religion, History, and Civilization . San Francisco, CA: Harper

SanFrancisco, 2002. ———. Islamic Art and Spirituality . Albany: State University of New York Press,

1987. ———. Islamic Life and Thought . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981. ———. Islamic Spirituality . New York: Crossroad, 1987. ———. Islamic Spirituality II: Manifestations . New York: Crossroad, 1991. ———. Muhammad: Man of God . Chicago, IL: Kazi Publ., 1995. Nelson, Kristina. The Art of Reciting the Qur’an . Austin: University of Texas Press,

1986. Netton, Ian. A Popular Dictionary of Islam . London: Curzon Press, 1992. Newby, Gordon D. A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam . Oxford: Oneworld, 2002. ———. The Making of the Last Prophet: A Reconstruction of the Earliest Biography of

Muhammad . Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989. Nicolle, David. Warriors and Their Weapons around the Time of the Crusades:

Relationships between Byzantium, the West, and the Islamic World . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 2003.

Norris, Harry T. Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society between Europe and the Arab World . Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994.

Nurbakhsh, Javad. Traditions of the Prophet: Ahadith . New York: Khaniqahi Nimatullahi Publ., 1981.

Nyang, Sulayman S. Islam in the United States of America . Chicago, IL: ABC Int’l. Group/Kazi Publ., 1999.

Ouyang, Wen-Chin. Literary Criticism in Medieval Arabic-Islamic Culture: The Making of a Tradition . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997.

Owen, Roger. State, Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East . New York: Routledge, 2000.

Ozdalga, Elisabeth. The Veiling Issue, Official Secularism and Popular Islam in Modern Turkey . Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 1998.

Peters, F. E. A Reader on Classical Islam . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.

Peters, Francis E. The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.

———. Muhammad and the Origins of Islam . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.

Powers, David S. Studies in Qur’an and Hadith: The Formation of the Law of Inheritance . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.

Rahman, Fazlur. Islam . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1979. ———. Major Themes of the Qur’an . Minneapolis, MN: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1980.


Rashid, Ahmed. Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002.

———. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.

Reinhart, A. Kevin. Before Revelation: The Boundaries of Muslim Moral Thought . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995.

Rejwan, Nissim. The Many Faces of Islam: Perspectives on a Resurgent Civilization . Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000.

Renard, John. In the Footsteps of Muhammad: Understanding the Islamic Experience . New York: Paulist Press, 1992.

———. Seven Doors to Islam: Spirituality and the Religious Life of Muslims . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.

———. Windows on the House of Islam: Muslim Sources on Spirituality . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.

Rippin, Andrew. Approaches to the History of the Interpretation of the Qur’an . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988.

———. Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices . London: Routledge, 2nd ed., 2001.

———. The Qur’an: Formative Interpretation . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 2000. ———. The Qur’an: Style and Contents . Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001. ———. The Qur’an and Its Interpretive Tradition . Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2002. Rippin, Andrew and Jan Knappert. Textual Sources for the Study of Islam . Chicago, IL:

University of Chicago Press, 1986. Robinson, Chase F. Islamic Historiography . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

2003. ———. A Medieval Islamic City Reconsidered: An Interdisciplinary Approach to

Samarra . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Robinson, David. Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial

Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, 1890–1920 . Athens: Ohio University Press, 2000.

Robinson, Francis. Atlas of the Islamic World since 1500 . New York: Facts on File, 1982.

Robinson, Neal. Christ in Islam and Christianity . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991.

———. Islam: A Concise Introduction . Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1999. ———. Discovering the Qur’an: A Contemporary Approach to a Veiled Text . London:

SCM Press, 1996. ———. The Sayings of Muhammad . London: Duckworth, 1991. Rodinson, Maxime. Muhammad . New York: Pantheon Books, 1980 ed. Rosen, Lawrence. The Anthropology of Justice: Law as Culture in Islamic Society .

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. ———. Bargaining for Reality: The Construction of Social Relations in a Muslim

Community . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1984. ———. The Culture of Islam: Changing Aspects of Contemporary Muslim Life . Chicago,

IL: University of Chicago Press, 2003.


Rosen, Lawrence. The Justice of Islam: Comparative Perspectives on Islamic Law and Society . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Rosenthal, Franz. The Classical Heritage in Islam . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975.

———. Greek Philosophy in the Arab World: A Collection of Essays . Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 1990.

———. Humour in Early Islam . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1956. ———. Muslim Intellectual and Social History: A Collection of Essays . Aldershot:

Ashgate/Variorum, 1990. ———. Science and Medicine in Islam: A Collection of Essays . Aldershot: Ashgate/

Variorum, 1991. ———. Sweeter Than Hope: Complaint and Hope in Medieval Islam . Leiden: E. J.

Brill, 1997. Roy, Olivier. Afghanistan: From Holy War to Civil War . Princeton, NJ: Princeton

University Press, 1995. ———. The Failure of Political Islam . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,

1994. ———. Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

2nd ed., 1990. Rubin, Uri. The Eye of the Beholder: The Life of Muhammad as Viewed by the Early

Muslims . Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1995. ———. The Life of Muhammad . Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998. Ruedy, John. Islamism and Secularism in North Africa . New York/Washington, DC: St.

Martin’s Press/Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, 1994. Ruthven, Malise. Islam: A Very Short Introduction . New York: Oxford University Press,

2000. ———. Islam in the World . New York: Oxford University Press, 2nd ed., 2000. Sachedina, Abdulaziz A. Islamic Messianism: The Idea of the Mahdi in Twelver Shi’ism .

Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981. Sachedina, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein. The Just Ruler in Shi’ite Islam: The Comprehensive

Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Saeed, Abdull ā h. Islamic Banking and Interest: A Study of the Prohibition of Riba and Its Contemporary Interpretation . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2nd ed., 1997.

Said, Edward W. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World . New York: Vintage, revised ed., 1997.

———. The End of the Peace Process: Oslo and After . New York: Pantheon Books, 2000.

———. Peace and Its Discontents: Essays on Palestine in the Middle East Peace Process . New York: Vintage, 1995.

———. The Politics of Dispossession: The Struggle for Palestinian Self-Determination, 1969–1994 . New York: Pantheon Books, 1994.

Said, Edward W. and Christopher Hitchens. Blaming the Victims: Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question . London: Verso, 1988.

Savory, R. M. Introduction to Islamic Civilization . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976.


Schacht, Joseph. An Introduction to Islamic Law . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984. ———. The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence . Oxford: Clarendon Press,

1950. Schimmel, Annemarie. Calligraphy and Islamic Culture . Washington Square, NY:

New York University Press, 1984. ———. I Am Wind, You Are Fire: The Life and Work of Rumi . Boston, MA: Shambhala,

1992. ———. Islam: An Introduction . Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,

1992. ———. And Muhammad Is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic

Piety . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985. ———. Mystical Dimensions of Islam . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina

Press, 1975. ———. As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam . New York: Columbia University

Press, 1982. ———. A Two-Colored Brocade: The Imagery of Persian Poetry . Chapel Hill: University

of North Carolina Press, 1992. Schulze, Reinhard. A Modern History of the Islamic World . Washington Square, NY:

New York University Press, 2000. Schuon, Frithjof. Islam and the Perennial Philosophy . London: World of Islam Festival

Publ. Co., 1976. ———. (w/ D. M. Matheson). Understanding Islam . London: George Allen &

Unwin, 1963. Seale, Patrick. The Struggle for Syria: A Study of Post-War Arab Politics , 1945–1958.

New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987. Sells, Michael. Approaching the Qur’an: The Early Revelations . Ashland, OR: White

Cloud Press, 1999. ———. The Bridge Betrayed: Religion and Genocide in Bosnia . Berkeley: University of

California Press, 1996. Shariati, Ali (trans. Laleh Bakhtiar). Hajj: Reflections on Its Rituals . Chicago, IL: Kazi

Publ., 1993. ———. (trans. Hamid Algar). On the Sociology of Islam: Lectures by Ali Shari’ati .

Berkeley, CA: Mizan Press, 1979. Simons, Thomas W. Jr. Islam in a Globalizing World . Stanford, CA: Stanford University

Press, Singerman, Diane and Homa Hoodfar. Development, Change, and Gender in Cairo: A

View from the Household . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996. Sivan, Emmanuel. Radical Islam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics . New Haven,

CT: Yale University Press, 1990. Smith, Jane I. and Yvonne Haddad. The Islamic Understanding of Death and

Resurrection . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981. Smith, Wilfred Cantwell. Islam in Modern History . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University

Press, 1957. ———. On Understanding Islam: Selected Studies . The Hague: Mouton, 1981. Sonbol, Amira El-Azhary. Women, the Family, and Divorce Laws in Islamic History .

Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1996.


Sonbol, Amira El-Azhary. Women of Jordan: Islam, Labor and the Law . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2003.

Sonn, Tamara. Interpreting Islam: Bandali Jawzi’s Islamic Intellectual History . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.

———. Islam and the Question of Minorities . Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1996.

Spellberg, Denise A. Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of ‘A’isha bint Abi Bakr . New York: Columbia University Press, 1996.

Stowasser, Barbara Freyer. The Islamic Impulse . Washington, DC: Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, 1989.

Stowasser, Barbara Freyer. Women in the Qur’an: Traditions and Interpretations . New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Tabataba’i, ‘Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husain (w/ Seyyed Hoseyn Nasr). Shi’ite Islam . London: George Allen & Unwin, 1975.

Tamimi, Azzam S. Rachid Ghannouchi: A Democrat within Islamism . New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Tayob, Abdulkader. Islam: A Short Introduction . Oxford: Oneworld, 1999. Tayob, Abdulkader I. Islam in South Africa: Mosques, Imams, and Sermons . Gainesville:

University Press of Florida, 1999. Telhami, Shibley and Michael Barnett. Identity and Foreign Policy in the Middle East .

Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002. Tucker, Judith E. In the House of the Law: Gender and Islamic Law in Ottoman Syria

and Palestine . Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. Turner, Colin, trans. (Mohammad Baqir Behbudi, textual exegesis). The Quran: A

New Interpretation . Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 1998. Vogel, Frank E. Islamic Law and Legal Systems: Studies of Saudi Arabia . Leiden: E. J.

Brill, 2000. Wadud-Muhsin, Amina. Qur’an and Woman: Reading the Sacred Text from a Woman’s

Perspective . New York, Oxford University Press, 1999. Waines, David. An Introduction to Islam . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

2nd ed., 2003. Walbridge, John. The Leaven of the Ancients: Suhrawardi and the Heritage of the Greeks .

Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999. Walker, Paul E. Early Philosophical Shiism: The Isma’ili Neoplatonism of Abu Ya’qub

al-Sijistani . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ———. Exploring an Islamic Empire: Fatimid History and Its Sources . London: I. B.

Tauris, 2002. ———. Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani: Ismaiili Thought in the Age of al-Hakim . London:

I. B. Tauris, 1999. Wasserstrom, Steven M. Between Muslim and Jew: The Problem of Symbiosis under

Early Islam . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995. Watt, William Montgomery. Early Islam: Collected Articles . Edinburgh: Edinburgh

University Press, 1991. ———. The Formative Period of Islamic Thought . Oxford: Oneworld, 1998. ———. The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University

Press, 1972.


———. The Majesty That Was Islam: The Islamic World, 661–1100 . London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1974.

———. Muhammad at Mecca . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953. ———. Muhammad at Medina . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956. ———. Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman . London: Oxford University Press, 1961. ———. What Is Islam? . London: Longman, 1970. Weiss, Bernard G. The Spirit of Islamic Law . Athens: University of Georgia Press,

1998. Wheeler, Brannon M. Applying the Canon in Islam: The Authorization and Maintenance

of Interpretive Reasoning in Ḥ anaf ī Scholarship . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996.

Wiley, Joyce N. The Islamic Movement of Iraqi Shi’as . Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992.

Wilkinson, John Craven. The Imamate Tradition of Oman . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.

Williams, John Alden. The Word of Islam . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994 Willis, Michael. The Islamist Challenge in Algeria: A Political History . Washington

Square: New York University Press, 1999. Wing, Adrien K. Democracy, Constitutionalism and the Future of Palestine . Jerusalem:

Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs, 1994. Wisnovsky, Robert. Avicenna’s Metaphysics in Context . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University

Press, 2003. Wolfe, Michael. One Thousand Roads to Mecca: Ten Centuries of Travelers Writing about

the Muslim Pilgrimage . New York: Grove Press, 1997. X, Malcolm. The Autobiography of Malcolm X (as told to Alex Haley) . New York:

Ballantine, 1992. Yamani, Mai. Feminism and Islam: Legal and Literary Perspectives . Washington Square:

New York University Press, 1996. Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. Religion and Politics under the Early ‘Abbasids: The

Emergence of the Proto-Sunni Elite . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997. ———. The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change . Princeton, NJ:

Princeton University Press, 2002. Zebiri, Kate. Mahmud Shaltut and Islamic Modernism . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993. Zeghal, Malika, Gardiens de l’Islam: Les oulemas d’Al Azhar dans l’Egypte contempo-

raine . Paris: Presses de la Fondation nationale des sciences politiques, 1996. ———, Islamism in Morocco: Religion, Authoritarianism, and Electoral Politics.

Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2008. Zubaida, Sami. Islam, the People and the State: Essays on Political Ideas and Movements

in the Middle East . London: I. B. Tauris, 1993. Zubaida, Sami. Law and Power in the Islamic World . London: I. B. Tauris, 2003.

General Works

Allison, J. W. F. A Continental Distinction in the Common Law . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.


Allison, J. W. F. A Continental Distinction in the Common Law: A Historical and Comparative Perspective on English Public Law . England: Clarendon Press, 1996.

Austin, John. The Philosophy of Positive Law . London: J. Murray, 1913. Bannon, Cynthia Jordan. The Brothers of Romulus: Fraternal Pietas in Roman Law,

Literature, and Society . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997. Beard, Charles Austin. An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United

States. New York: The Free Press, 1986. Beiner, Ronald. Theorizing Citizenship. Albany: State University of New York Press,

1995. ———. What’s the Matter with Liberalism? Berkeley: University of California Press,

1992. Bentley, Arthur. The Process of Government. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard

University Press, 1967. Berlin, Isaiah. Four Concepts of Liberty. Oxford: Oxford University, 1969. Bloch, Maurice. Ritual, History and Power: Selected Papers in Anthropology . London:

The Athlone Press, 1989. Bookchin, Murray. The Philosophy of Social Ecology. Montreal: Black Rose Books,

1990. Buchanan, James M. The Limits of Liberty: Between Anarchy and Leviathan. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1975. Buckland, W. W. Roman Law and Common Law . Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1952. Bull, Hedley. The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics. New York:

Columbia University Press, 1995. Chelhod, Joseph. Le sacrifice chez les arabes. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France,

1955. Cohen, Arnold J. Jewish Civil Law . Jerusalem: Feldheim Publishers, 1991. Coleman, James S. Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press, 1990. Copp, David, Hampton, Jean, and Roemer, John E. The Idea of Democracy. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1993. Cunningham, Frank. Democratic Theory and Socialism. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1987. Dahl, Robert A A Preface to Democratic Theory. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago

Press, 1956. Dallmayr, Fred. Margins of Political Discourse. Albany: State University of New York

Press, 1989. Derrida, Jacques. Writing and Difference. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press,

1978. Duncan, Graeme. Democratic Theory and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1983. Dunn, John. Western Political Theory in the Face of the Future. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1979. Durkheim, Emile. Les Formes Elementaires De La Vie Religieuse . Paris: Librairie Felix

Alcan, 1912.


Ely, John Hart. Democracy and Distrust. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.

Evans-Pritchard, E. E. Theories of Primitive Religion . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965.

Fontenrose, Joseph. The Ritual Theory of Myth . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971.

Foucault, Michel. Archeology of Knowledge. New York: Harper and Row, 1972. Fraser, Nancy. Unruly Practices: Power, Discourse and Gender in Contemporary Social

Theory, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989. Frazer, J. G. The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion . New York: The

Macmillan Co., 1927. Freud, Sigmund. Totem and Taboo: Some Points of Agreement between the Mental Lives

of the Savages and Neurotics . New York: Norton, 1950. Friedman, Milton. Capitalism and Freedom. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press,

1962. Fukuyama, Francis. The End of History and the Last Man. New York: The Free Press,

1992. Goodheart, Arthur L. English Law and the Moral Law . London: Stevens, 1953. Griffiths, Paul J. Religious Reading . New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Hallifax, Samuel. An Analysis of the Roman Civil Law . Cambridge: J. Archdeacon,

1779. Hart, H. L. A. (Herbert Lionel Adolphus). The Concept of Law. Oxford: Clarendon

Press, 1994. Hoeflich, Michael H. Roman and Civil Law and the Development of Anglo-American

Jurisprudence in the Nineteenth Century . Athens: University of Georgia Press, ca.1997.

Holmgren, Jennifer. Marriage, Kinship, and Power in Northern China Aldershot: Variorum, 1995.

Hubert, Henri. Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function . London: University of Chicago Press, 1964.

Hume, David. Philosophical Essays Concerning Human Understanding. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Educational Pub., 1955.

Kahn-Freund, Otto. Comparative Law as an Academic Subject . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965.

Kelly, P. J. Utilitarianism and Distributive Justice: Jeremy Bentham and the Civil Law . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.

Kirk, G. S. et al. Le Sacrifice dans L’antiquite . Geneve: Vandeuvres, 1980. Knudten, Richard D. The Sociology of Religion, an Anthology . New York: Appleton-

Century-Crofts, 1967. Lapin, Hayim. Early Rabbinic Civil Law and the Social History of Roman Galilee: a

Study of Mishnah . Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1995. Larmore, Charles E. Patterns of Moral Complexity. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1987. Lenski, Gerhard Emmanuel. The Religious Factor: A Sociological Study of Religion’s

Impact on Politics, Economics, and Family Life . Westport: Greenwood Press, 1977.


Lentz, Tony M. Orality and Literacy in Hellenic Greece . Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, ca. 1989.

Levine, Andrew. Liberal Democracy: A Critic of Its Theory. New York: Columbia University Press, 1981.

L é vi-Strauss, Claude. The Savage Mind . London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1966.

Levy, Reuben. An Introduction to the Sociology of Islam. London: Williams and Norgate, 1931.

Locke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924.

Ludwikowski, Rett. The Beginning of the Constitutional Era: A Bicentennial Comparative Analysis of the First Modern Constitutions . Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1993.

Lynn, Monty and David Moberg (eds). Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion . Greenwich: JAI Press, 1989.

Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Prince, in The Portable Machiavelli. New York: Viking Penguin, 1979.

MacIntyre, Alisdair. After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981.

Mackenzie, D. A. Myths of Babylonia and Assyria . London: The Gresham Publishing Co., YA.

Mansbridge, Jane J. Beyond Adversary Democracy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1983.

McKenna, Marian C. The Canadian and American Constitutions in Comparative Perspective . Canada: University of Calgary Press, 1993.

Merryman, John Henry. The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Western Europe and Latin America . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985.

Michaud, Francine. Un signe des temps: Accroissement des crises familiales autour du patrimoine à Marseille à la fin du XIIIe si è cle . Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1994.

Mill, John Stuart. Nature , in Essays on Ethics, Religion and Society, Collected Works of John Stuart Mill. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969.

Miller, Robert K. Jr. and McNamee, Stephen J. (eds). Inheritance and Wealth in America . New York: Plenum Press, 1998.

Misak, Cheryl. Truth, Politics, Morality: Pragmatism and Deliberation. London: Routledge, 2000.

Mol, Hans. Identity and the Sacred: A Sketch for a New Social-Scientific Theory of Religion . New York: Free Press, 1977.

Money-Kyrle, R. The Meaning of Sacrifice . London: Johnson Reprint Co. Ltd.: 1965.

Moors, Annelies. Women, Property, and Islam: Palestinian Experiences, 1920–1990. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Mukhopadhyay, Maitrayee. Legally Dispossessed: Gender, Identity, and the Process of Law. Calcutta: Bhatkal Books International, ca. 1998.


Nadin, Mihai. The Civilization of Illiteracy . Dresden: Dresden University Press, 1997.

Nagendra, S. P. The Concept of Ritual in Modern Sociological Theory . New Delhi: The Academic Journal of India, 1971.

Newman, Edwin S. The Law of Civil Rights and Civil Liberties . New York: Oceana Publications, 1957.

Newman, William M. The Social Meanings of Religion: An Integrated Anthology . Chicago, IL: Rand McNally, 1974.

Ordeshook, Peter. A Political Theory Primer. London: Routledge, 1992. Pals, Daniel L. Seven Theories of Religion . New York: Oxford University Press,

1996. Pateman, Carole. Participation and Democratic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1970. Peffer, Rodney G. Marxism, Morality and Social Justice. Princeton, NJ: Princeton

University Press, 1990. Peletz, Michael G. A Share of the Harvest: Kinship, Property, and Social History among

the Malays of Rembau . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. Pennock, J. Roland. Democratic Political Theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University

Press, 1979. Peterson, Mark A. Korean Adoption and Inheritance: Case Studies in the Creation of

a Classic Confucian Society. Ithaca, NY: East Asia Program, Cornell University, 1996.

Pettit, Philip. Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Phillips, Anne. Engendering Democracy. University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 1991.

Pickering, W. S. F. Durkheim’s Sociology of Religion: Themes and Theories. London Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984.

Preus, J. Samuel. Explaining Religion . London: Yale University Press, 1987. Putnam, Robert. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton,

NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993. Quaegebeur, J. Ritual and Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East . Leuven, 1993. Raz, Joseph. The Morality of Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986. Riley, Johnathan. Liberal Utilitarianism: Social Choice Theory and J. S. Mill’s Philosophy.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Roby, Henry John. Roman Private Law in the Times of Cicero and of the Antonines.

Cambridge: University Press, 1902. Rosenfeld, Jeffrey P. The Legacy of Aging: Inheritance and Disinheritance in Social

Perspective . Norwood, NJ: Ablex Pub. Corp., 1979. Rumsey, Almaric. Moohummudan Law of Inheritance and Rights and Relations Affecting

It: Sunni Doctrine . Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1981. Saller, Richard P. Patriarchy, Property, and Death in the Roman Family. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1994. Sarkar, Golapchandra. Hindu Law: With an Appendix of Mahomedan Law of

Inheritance . Calcutta: Banerjee, 1903.


Schiffman, Lawrence H. Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls. Philadelphia, PA: Jewish Publication Society, 1994.

Schlesinger, Rudolf B. Comparative Law: Cases, Text, Materials . London: Stevens, 1960. Schumpeter, Joseph. Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy. New York: Harper and

Row, 1962. Sedgwick, John. Rich Kids . New York: Morrow, c1985. Segal, R. A. Ritual and Myth . New York: Garland Publishing, 1996. Sharpe, E. J. Comparative Religion: A History . Evanston, IL: Open Court, 1986. Shaw, Arthur. Readings in the Philosophy of Law . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,

1993. Shaw, Malcolm N. International Law . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1997. Shifman, Pinhas. Dine ha-mishpahah bi-Yisrael . Jerusalem: Ha-Universitah ha-Ivrit

bi-Yerushalayim, 1984. Smith, W. C. The Meaning and End of Religion . New York: The Macmillan Company,

1962. Smith, W. R. Lectures of William Robertson Smith . London: A. and C. Black, YA. Strom, Gerald S. The Logic of Lawmaking: A Spatial Theory Approach. Baltimore, MD:

The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990. Sundberg, Jacob W. F. Civil Law, Common Law and the Scandinavians. Stockholm:

Almqvist & Wiksell, 1969. Taylor, John. Elements of the Civil Law. London: printed for T. Payne, 1772. Tellegen, J. W. The Roman Law Of Succession in the Letters of Pliny the Younger,

Zutphen. Holland: Terra, 1982. Thomas, Aquinas Saint. Aquinas ethicus . London: Burns and Oates, 1896. Tocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America. New York: Harper and Row, 1969. Tully, James. Strange Multiplicity: Constitutionalism in an Age of Diversity. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1995. Turner, V. The Forest of Symbols . New York: Cornell University Press, 1967. Tushnet, Mark V. Making Civil Rights Law: Thurgood Marshall and the Supreme Court .

New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. Tylor, Edward B. Primitive Culture; Research into the Development Of Mythology,

Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art And Customs. 3rd American from 2nd English . New York: H. Holt & Co., 1883.

Wagner, William G. Marriage, Property, and Law in Late Imperial Russia. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994.

Waltz, Kenneth. Man, the State and War: A Theoretical Analysis. New York: Columbia University Press, 1959.

Wansbrough, John E. Quranic Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977. Watson, Alan. The Making of the Civil Law . Cambridge: Harvard University Press,

1981. Weiss, Bernard G. The Search for God’s Law . Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press,

1992. Wensinck, J. Some Semitic Rites of Mourning and Religion: Studies on Their Origin and

Mutual Relation . Amsterdam: 1917.


Westrup, Carl Wium. Introduction to Early Roman Law . London: Oxford University Press, 1934.

Widengren, Geo. Mani and Manichaeism . London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1961.

———. Mesopotamian Elements in Manichaeism . Uppsala: Uppsala Universitets, 1946.

Wilson, John. Social Theory . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1983. Wolff, Hans Julius. Roman Law . Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1951.

Index

‘Ā’ishah, 35, 66, 68, 69, 71, 79, 101‘Abd al-Qādir Ibn Ṭāhir Ibn

Muḥammad al-Baghdādī, 55‘Abd al-Rahman Ibn ‘Awf, 34, 45‘Abd al-Wahhāb, 69, 75, 76, 77, 123‘Abdullāh Ibn Abāḍ, 55, 56, 89‘Abdullāh Ibn al-Zubayr, 62, 63‘Abdullāh Ibn Yazīd, 54, 76‘adāwat a’dā’ allāh, 92‘ajam, 53‘alāqat al-lafẓ bi-‘l-ma’nā, 98‘Alī, 32, 34, 35, 43, 45, 55, 58, 59, 60,

61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 79, 80, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 94, 100, 101, 102, 104, 121

‘āmmat al-muslimīn, 70‘Amr Ibn al-’Āṣ, 66, 69, 72, 80, 86, 92‘aqd, 43, 44Àzzābah, 11, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152‘illah, 57, 122, 142‘ilm al-tawḥīd, 96‘Ubaydah, 66, 72, 73, 74, 115, 117,

118‘ulama, 36‘ulamā’, 19, 20, 124, 134, 135‘Umar, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 42, 43, 44.

See also caliph‘uqūbah, 127‘Uthman, 34, 35, 43, 45‘Uthmān, 19, 20, 35, 48, 49, 58, 59,

66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 79, 81, 89, 90, 91, 97

Abāḍ al-Murrī al-Tamīmī, 65Abbasid, 36, 37, 39

Abd al-Rahman Ibn Khaldun, 37Abdullāh Ibn Yaḥyā al-Kindī, 66, 68,

136, 144abrogation, 28, 118, 136Abū ‘Ubaydah, 55, 66, 68, 71, 72, 73,

74, 84, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 131, 132, 143, 144

Abū al-Ḥassan al-Ash’arī, 53Abū al-Khaṭṭāb, 68, 82Abū Bakr, 6, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 42, 44,

49, 62, 68, 79, 90, 92, 121, 131, 132, 153, 170

Abū Ḥanīfah, 108, 109, 110, 118, 140, 142, 168

Abū Mūsā, 80, 86Abu Muslim, 36Abū Qudāmah, 75, 76adaptive governments, 36afḍal, 75, 76Afghanistan, 38aḥkām, 116, 136ahl al-ḥall wa-`l-àqd, 44, 171, 172ahl al-istiqāmah, 70ahl al-kitāb, 6, 54, 69. See also people

of the bookahl al-nahrawān, 59, 61, 87ahl al-ra’y, 108ahl al-ṣalāh, 54ahl al-shura, 44ahl-al-wa’īd, 98Ahmad Ibn Ḥanbal, 53, 108, 118, 143akhbār, 142, 143akhlāq, 128al-’adillah al-sam’iyyah, 96

I n d e x220

al-’aṣabiyyah al-qabaliyyah, 73al-Andalus, 36al-Ash’arī, 53, 54, 55, 63, 72, 80, 102al-aṣwāt al-mufīdah, 98Alawite, 38al-dawlah al-rustumiyyah, 75al-Faruq, 32alfāẓ, 98Algeria, 38al-Ḥafṣiyyah, 53, 55, 56al-Hassan, 35al-ḥukm al-’ādil, 102al-ḥukm al-jā’ir, 102al-ikhwān al-muslimūn, 162al-Ka’bah, 23al-khawarij, 35al-khawārij, 8, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 60,

61, 72, 73, 87, 88, 91allegiance, 32al-muhajirun, 31al-Mukhtār Ibn ‘Awf, 66al-Saffah, 36al-shura, 42al-Siddiq, 32al-yazīdiyyah, 53, 55al-Zubayr, 34, 35amīr, 82, 103, 104, 171amīr al-mu’minīn, 40, 41, 85, 86Anas Ibn Mālik, 71, 132Andalus, 55Andalusī, 75anṣār, 31, 32, 42, 62, 91apostasy, 32, 79Arab, 22, 34, 36, 38, 42Arabian peninsula, 68arbitration, 57, 61, 64, 65, 66, 80,

84, 85, 86, 87, 101, 104, 150, 160, 170

arbitrators, 85, 86, 89, 160Aristotle, 50, 51aṣḥābī, 94assassination, 43, 168authoritarianism, 42authority, 2, 3, 7, 9, 18, 19, 20, 22, 29,

31, 35, 38, 41, 47, 48, 52, 59, 66, 67, 68, 71, 78, 83, 85, 94, 104,

110, 111, 115, 117, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125, 127, 142, 155, 156, 157, 164, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172

autonomous, 39, 52, 133, 159awqāf, 150ayimat al-jūr, 74Ayrawān, 149Azd, 61

Azdī, 69Azraq, 63, 64, 66, 92

Bāghāy, 84Baghdādī, 55, 56Banū Umayyah, 93barā’ah, 56, 95, 99, 100, 101, 151, 152Barā’ah, 86, 100barī’ mina al-shirk, 53Baṣrah, 63, 71, 72, 73, 80, 90, 115, 154Baṣrī, 61, 117, 119battle of the camel, 88bay’ah, 32Berber, 72, 84, 149bid’ah, 70, 76bipolar world, 38book of god, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93Bourguiba, 161, 163Britain, 37bureaucracy, 33bureaucratic network, 36

caliph, 3, 7, 8, 19, 20, 21, 22, 32, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 50, 58, 59, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 73, 79, 84, 85, 98, 101, 104, 110, 114, 123, 125, 132, 134, 135, 170, 171, 172

caliphate, 8, 18, 19, 22, 31, 36, 37, 41, 43, 44, 45, 67, 79, 81, 97, 100, 102, 109, 112, 114, 124, 147, 154

CaliphsAbbasid, 4, 17, 19, 68, 71, 98, 170Umayyad, 3, 17, 19, 20, 22, 35, 36,

66, 68, 71, 73, 84, 134, 135, 154, 165, 170

221I n d e x

camel, 35, 58, 61, 68, 79, 85, 88. See also battle of the

caucus process, 42change, 29, 49, 50, 51, 70, 74, 86, 89,

95, 100, 108, 113, 161, 162, 164charisma, 52, 78charter, 24checks-and-balances, 36China, 8, 37Christian, 34civil society, 37, 165civil strife, 63, 68, 94, 111, 168civil wars, 2, 8, 9, 15, 16, 24, 29, 35,

45, 48, 50, 68, 69, 84, 94, 96, 97, 165, 168

class struggle, 52class struggles, 51classical Islamic thought, 45coercion, 42colonialism, 38commander of the faithful, 41, 61, 87community representatives, 44companion, 34, 65, 88, 117, 121, 142

al-Zubayr Ibn al-’Awwām, 65concealment, 8, 53, 66, 68, 70, 82, 83,

84, 151, 152consensus, 3, 7, 10, 23, 40, 115, 118,

120, 121, 122, 133, 138, 140, 142, 158, 159, 163, 167, 169, 171, 172

consent, 4, 27, 37, 150, 155, 165. See also dissent

constitutional, 3, 50. See also changeconsultation, 27, 31, 42, 43, 44,

62, 169contest, 37, 48

da’wah, 70, 73Dahhān, 72, 117dalīl, 120, 122, 142Damascus, 35, 73, 114dār, 54, 102, 103dār kufr, 54, 102dār tawḥīd, 54dawlah, 75, 76defense leader, 82

deliberation, 42deputy of God, 41designation, 39, 41, 42, 75dhahaba, 111, 113dhimmi, 111dictatorship, 42difā’, 82dignity, 1, 6, 13, 17, 48, 52, 161disobedient Muslim, 62, 65dissent, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16,

17, 18, 29, 30, 41, 45, 47, 51, 52, 67, 68, 69, 73, 74, 78, 79, 81, 84, 88, 94, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 104, 105, 108, 109, 111, 113, 124, 133, 136, 144, 148, 152, 153, 158, 159, 163, 165, 168, 170, 172

dissenter, 75ijtihadic dissent, 69legal dissent, 4, 108, 111, 133, 168military dissent, 79political dissent, 4, 78, 144

dissenters, 58, 64, 67, 74, 91, 98, 99, 112, 162, 168, 170

dissenting opinions, 109, 141divine law, 41divine mercy, 41diwan, 33diyah, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 141Durkheim, 51

Eastern European, 38elections, 17, 42, 161, 162emotional reaction, 52endorsement, 32, 33, 42, 43, 45Ethiopia, 62ethnic, 10, 16, 35, 50, 58, 111, 152,

154European occupation, 37

fallible, 30, 169faqātilū allatī tabghī, 87farā’id, 137farḍ ‘ayn, 40farḍ kifāyah, 40farthiyyah, 74Farwah Ibn Nawfal, 66

I n d e x222

fāsiqūn, 89faṣliḥū baynahumā, 87Fatimids, 82, 84, 149fīmā wa’ada, 92firaq, 53, 55, 111followers, 65, 73, 94, 117, 119,

124, 143form of government, 38, 39, 51, 52,

169, 171France, 1, 37function of the caliph, 21, 41, 135fuqahā’, 62fusq, 70

Germany, 37Ghifārī, 90governing powers, 52, 171Governor of Egypt

‘Abdullāh Ibn Sa’d Ibn Abī Sarḥ, 67guardianship, 22, 27, 99, 100

ḥaddathanī, 122, 132ḥadīth, 97, 120, 121, 132, 142, 143,

144, 153Ḥafṣ Ibn Abī al-Muqdām, 53ḥajj, 136ḥalqah, 149, 151, 152HAMAS, 1Hamdānī, 90Ḥanafī, 40, 63, 64, 109, 110, 112, 114,

127, 135ḥaram, 23Ḥarawrā’, 86ḥasanah, 131Hashimite, 24, 37, 38Hashimites, 67Ḥayyān al-A’raj, 71ḥikmat al-taklīf, 57Hishām, 93house of justice, 99household of the Prophet, 38, 67ḥudaybiyyah, 24ḥudaybiyyah treaty, 86ḥudūd, 89, 116, 121, 125, 132, 151Ḥulūliyyah, 57human rights, 38, 127

Ḥuṣayniyyah, 74Huwwārah, 72

i`tiṣām, 149Ibadi, 41, 44Ibāḍī, 45Ibāḍī jurisprudence, 30, 115, 118,

128, 133Ibadism, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 29, 39,

47, 48, 49, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 65, 70, 72, 74, 81, 87, 101, 102, 104, 105, 115, 119, 124, 147, 160, 161, 164, 167, 169, 170, 172

Ibn ‘Abbās, 59, 71, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 94, 121, 131, 143

Ibn ‘Abd al-’Azīz, 72, 74, 76, 115, 116, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 128, 129, 131, 132

Ibn ‘Aṭiyyah, 56Ibn ‘Umar, 69, 71, 119, 121, 143Ibn ‘Uqbah, 90Ibn Aflaḥ, 69, 78Ibn al-Aghlab, 149Ibn al-Azraq, 64Ibn al-Khaḍramī, 90Ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, 121Ibn Bakr, 149Ibn Barakah, 136, 137Ibn Duwayj, 90Ibn Findīn, 75Ibn Ḥabīb, 71, 74, 75, 76, 115, 116,

120, 123, 128, 130, 143Ibn Ḥazm, 55, 72, 167Ibn Karīmah, 84Ibn Khubāb, 80Ibn Ma’rūf, 74, 75Ibn Manṣūr, 115, 116, 132Ibn Marwān, 56, 62, 89, 90Ibn Mas’ūd, 69, 71, 121, 143Ibn Ṣufrah, 71Ibn Wahb, 61, 66, 69, 80, 82Ibn Zaltāf, 82identity, 10, 52, 122, 147, 148, 154,

158, 159, 160, 163, 172ijmā’, 117, 118, 121, 122

223I n d e x

ijtihād, 118, 120, 123, 124, 168, 169legal reasoning, 73

IjtihādIjmā’, 77Qiyās, 77

illegitimate, 62, 82, 103, 163illiteracy, 38imam, 39, 41, 43imām, 21, 39, 40, 49, 59, 60, 61, 75,

76, 77, 80, 82, 84, 98, 100, 104, 140, 149, 151, 168, 169, 171

imām al- difā’, 82imāmah, 9, 39, 40, 41, 44, 45, 49, 57,

61, 67, 75, 76, 81, 95, 170imamiyyah, 39īmān, 20, 53, 70, 95, 97, 98imperial rule, 31indigenous governance, 31inequality, 51, 52inequity, 52infallible, 7, 30, 99, 100, 169. See also

fallibleinquisition, 19, 98, 135, 159institution, 8, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19, 21,

22, 23, 33, 39, 43, 67, 84, 124, 134, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 171, 172

insurrection, 50Iraq, 2, 11, 37, 71, 73, 75, 108, 109,

110, 116, 120, 161irtadda wa-kafar, 92islām, 91, 97, 103Islamic civilization, 3, 4, 10, 11, 12,

15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 29, 31, 35, 36, 42, 44, 45, 47, 48, 51, 52, 96, 97, 101, 104, 107, 111, 114, 134, 154, 158, 162, 163, 170, 172

Islamic governance, 31, 39, 42Islamic governance system, 31. See also

caliphateIslamic jurisprudence, 39Islamic societies, 2, 4, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18,

22, 45, 99, 113, 147, 153, 158, 164, 172

Islamic treaties, 29

Islamic world, 38Islamicists, 1, 4, 15, 17, 18, 49, 85, 94,

107, 108, 113, 114, 134, 142islāmiyyūn, 162isnād, 116, 119, 120, 143, 145istiḥsān, 121istijarah, 23Istiqāmah, 73Italy, 37

Ja’fari, 39Jābir Ibn Zayd, 55, 65, 66, 67, 68, 71,

72, 84, 97, 117, 118, 119, 123, 143jabriyyah, 90, 97jald, 121, 132jamā’at al-muslimīn, 70janā ‘alā nafsih, 141Jibrīl, 97jihād, 60, 137, 138, 139, 140, 168jinn, 99Jordan, 38juḥūd, 70junub, 78jurisdiction, 40, 152just leader, 41, 100

kāfir, 53, 56, 63, 65, 69, 92kāfir al-millah, 63, 65kāfirah, 103kalām, 96, 97, 98kalāmu allāh, 98Khalf, 77khālī, 154Khalīfah, 39, 104khalīfat al-muslimīn, 104khalīfat rasūl allāh, 41, 79khamr, 92, 132kharaja, 59, 62, 69kharajat ‘alayh, 88Kharajites. See kharaja

Ṣaffār, 64kharijism, 1, 11, 12, 48, 53, 57, 58,

161, 164khawārij, 48, 57, 58, 59, 60, 65, 69, 72,

92, 99, 170khārijī, 72

I n d e x224

khilafah, 39Khomeini, 161khums, 91Khurāsānī, 11, 74, 115, 116, 117, 123khurūj, 59, 60, 61, 62, 81, 98, 102,

137, 168, 169khuṭbat al-wadā’, 62kifāyah, 139kitāb, 11, 108, 116, 122, 123, 131, 133,

136, 142, 168kitāb al-jāmi’, 133, 136, 142kitmān, 8, 66, 68, 70, 82, 84, 149knowledgeable, 20, 41, 44, 150Kūfah, 60, 73, 80, 86, 90, 115kuffār, 54, 70kūfī, 74kufr, 20, 70, 95, 103kufr al-millah, 65

lā ḥukma illā lillāh, 66, 69, 80lā ṭā’ah li-makhlūq fī ma’ṣiyat

al-khāliq, 102lā yushrik man ankara siwā allāh, 77latif, 43leader, 1, 5, 6, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,

29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 52, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 68, 70, 76, 79, 81, 82, 83, 87, 88, 90, 91, 98, 103, 104, 116, 136, 140, 148, 149, 150, 151, 159, 162, 164, 169, 171, 172

leader-select, 21, 44leadership, 2, 8, 9, 35, 37, 39, 40, 43,

44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 51, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 79, 82, 91, 95, 119, 147, 148, 154, 159, 164, 167, 170, 171, 172

legal differentials, 108legal diversity, 108legal reasoning, 73, 115, 124, 144, 145

ijtihād, 98legal rules, 111, 112, 135, 144legislator, 39legitimacy, 4, 8, 12, 15, 20, 21, 22,

36, 39, 48, 59, 68, 73, 75, 97,

99, 148, 158, 160, 170, 171, 172

legitimate, 9, 39, 42, 50, 58, 59, 60, 62, 66, 79, 99, 101, 103, 142, 159, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172

Libya, 3, 8, 38, 69, 72, 76, 77, 149, 161licentious, 89linguistic definitions, 50lutf, 41

mā dhahab ilayhi aṣḥābunah, 111ma’ṣiyah, 98, 141madhāhib, 110, 114, 126, 135, 167,

168, 170madhhab, 109, 110, 111, 113, 119,

124, 171madhāhib, 110

Madīnah, 5, 6, 16, 22, 23, 24, 25, 29, 31, 32, 33, 62, 65, 67, 90, 91, 93, 94, 108, 114, 115, 141

mafḍūl, 75, 76Maghāfirī, 68, 77, 82Maḥbūb, 115, 123, 125, 129Mahdiyyah, 76majority, 2, 6, 12, 21, 38, 44, 45, 48,

54, 58, 60, 61, 75, 81, 101, 102, 104, 107, 112, 117, 127, 140, 141, 154, 155, 159, 161, 164, 169, 171

Mālik, 59, 62, 110, 118, 132, 134, 135, 137, 138, 143, 168

Malzūzī, 82manslaughter, 28mansūkh, 142Maqālāt al-Islāmiyyīn, 53marāji`, 9, 171marāsīl, 142Marwān Ibn al-Ḥakam, 67mas’alah, 121, 136, 144masalik al-din, 49masālik al-dīn, 49matn, 120, 142mawali, 111Māwardī, 22, 110mawqūfah, 142Mecca, 23, 24, 31

225I n d e x

Memluk, 37minarets, 35, 85minority, 48Morocco, 38mu’āmalāt, 123mu’askar al-baghy, 104Mu’āwiyah, 35, 43, 58, 59, 60, 66, 68,

69, 73, 79, 80, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 91, 101, 104

Mu’awiyyah, 35, 36, 37, 43mu’min, 70, 97Mu’tazilah, 97, 98Mu’tazilism, 53, 98, 109, 112Mu’tazilite, 45mudawwanah, 74, 108, 115, 116, 117,

118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 133, 167, 168

mufīdah, 98muhājirīn, 62, 91muhājirūn, 42, 62muḥakkimah, 54, 58, 61, 62, 63, 65,

69, 80Muhammad Ibn Ḥarb, 54mukhālifīhim, 54mukhālifīnā min ahl al-qiblah, 56munāfiqūn, 69munāsabah, 122mushabbihah, 57muṣḥaf, 6, 80, 136mushrik, 64, 69, 77mushrikīn, 54mushrikūn, 74mushrikūn, 69muslim, 69, 96, 97Muslim Ibn Abī Karīmah, 66, 71Muslim world, 37, 38musnad, 71, 143mustajir, 23muta’āriḍah, 143muwaṭṭa’, 109, 134, 143

Naffāth, 76Nāfi’, 61, 63, 64, 66, 90, 143Nahrawān, 59, 60, 66, 68, 69, 73,

80, 82Najāshī, 62

najdāt, 63, 64. See also kharajite subgroups

najis, 78Nakkār, 75, 76Nakkāth, 76nāsikh, 142nationalist movements, 37nation-states, 38, 134NATO, 1Nfusah, 72, 76, 77, 136, 151ni’mah, 63, 65, 70nifāq, 90, 95nikāḥ, 72, 116, 136noncombatants, 63, 83, 138, 168normative declarations, 61Nukhaylah, 68, 69, 73

occultation, 9, 172Oman, 9, 11, 71, 91, 102, 104, 105,

116, 136, 147, 148, 154, 155, 158, 159, 160, 161, 164, 165, 171

orthodoxy, 19, 42, 96, 98, 111, 163, 164, 172. See also political

Ottoman Empire, 8, 37, 112, 135

Pakistan, 38political leadership, 9, 39, 45, 66, 68,

109, 125, 161, 169political power, 9, 15, 18, 19, 20, 43,

51, 159, 164, 165, 171. See also power

Portugal, 37poverty, 38, 165power, 23, 31, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41,

42, 43primary materials, 12, 47, 125probity, 19, 21, 41, 44, 50, 86, 100,

117, 145prominence, 81, 82, 84, 109, 114, 136Prophet Muhammad, 23, 24, 31, 32public trust, 48publicly endorsed, 43

qabla al-sā’ah, 93qadar, 54, 74, 97qadariyyah, 57, 97

I n d e x226

qādiyan, 144qalladū, 94Qayrawān, 76Qays, 80, 90, 92qiblah, 138qiṣāṣ, 126, 127, 129qiyās, 115, 118, 121, 122, 169qur’ān, 6, 7, 8, 23, 24, 41, 45, 60, 62,

66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 86, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98, 99, 100, 117, 118, 120, 123, 124, 129, 131, 133, 134, 136, 137, 139, 140, 143, 144, 149, 150, 151, 155, 157, 159, 167, 169, 171

Quraysh, 6, 7, 9, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, 43, 45, 48, 61, 62, 65, 67

Rabī’, 71, 74, 75, 76, 115, 116, 117, 120, 122, 125, 128, 129, 130, 143

Rāched al-Ghannouchi, 30, 162. See also Rachid Ghannouchi, 30

radical, 10, 16, 45, 49, 50, 57, 73, 79. See also Change

radical changes, 45radicalized, 67, 73Ramadan, 80, 97Rāsibī, 61, 66, 69, 82rational choice, 40Rawāfiḍ, 57rebellion, 4, 7, 8, 10, 12, 15, 47, 48,

49, 50, 51, 52, 62, 63, 68, 79, 99, 101, 102, 104, 105, 138

rebellious movements, 33, 45, 73rebels, 1, 3, 8, 16, 23, 30, 37, 48, 59,

60, 66, 69, 79, 97religious authority, 9, 15, 18, 19, 20,

29, 39, 104, 135, 155, 159, 161, 163, 164, 165, 169, 170, 171

religious ethics, 48religious imperative, 40retribution, 26, 29, 129, 130revolt, 21, 35, 60, 68, 76revolution, 4, 12, 16, 36, 47, 50, 51,

52, 67, 96, 99

Ribā, 116, 122, 123righteously guided caliphs, 37, 43

righteously guided caliphate, 37righteousness, 6, 67, 83, 88risālah, 110, 118Roman, 32, 33Roman Empire, 32, 33rule of law, 40, 165Rustum, 69, 75, 123

Sa’d Ibn Abi Waqqas, 34Sa’īd Ibn Nimrān, 59ṣadaqt, 97Ṣafar, 79Ṣaffār, 64ṣaḥābī, 65ṣāḥibukum, 88Ṣaḥwān, 90sakkākiyyah, 74, 77sanctuaries, 23Saudi Arabia, 3, 38, 49, 95, 161,

164, 165schools of thought, 22, 30, 31, 40, 67,

78, 96, 109, 110, 112, 115, 119, 135, 143, 152, 167, 168, 170, 172, 173

secessionists, 7, 37secondary literature, 12, 47, 109sectarian affiliations, 48sectarian division, 111sectarian dogma, 164sectarianism, 4, 8, 16, 53, 56, 58, 70,

73, 75, 104, 111, 154, 160, 162, 163, 167, 172

secularization, 39select a leader, 31, 44selection, 31, 32, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 58,

113, 125Seljuq, 37separatists, 37shabāb, 94Shāfi’ī, 94, 108, 109, 110, 112, 115,

118, 135, 142Shaghbiyyah, 76Shah, 38, 39Shahrastānī, 56, 60, 72

227I n d e x

Shām, 79, 91shar’iyyah, 142sharī’ah, 20, 21, 41, 45, 113, 122, 135Shī’ah, 58, 79, 93shī’at ‘Alī, 79Shi’i, 39, 53, 57, 61, 76, 79, 99, 100,

103, 116, 118, 119, 123, 124, 126, 127, 139, 140, 144

Shi’ite, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45shirā’, 82, 83, 168shirk, 53, 70, 95shura, 31, 43, 44, 45shūrā council, 43, 44, 45, 149, 152,

169, 171shurāh, 83Ṣiffīn, 58, 59, 79, 88, 89. See also

Islamic civil warsṢiyām, 136ṣiyāṭ, 132social history, 10, 49social stages, 50state of anarchy, 40state of sustained enlightenment, 41succession of the Prophet, 40, 41successor, 32Sudan, 38Sudūsī, 74, 119sulṭān, 37, 38, 39, 102, 103, 104, 138Sunnah, 7, 28, 29, 30, 42, 45, 58, 66,

68, 70, 75, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 86, 90, 92, 93, 94, 99, 100, 115, 118, 120, 123, 124, 133, 134, 136, 139, 140, 143, 144, 157, 167, 169, 171

Sunni, 2, 4, 8, 9, 11, 22, 39, 40, 41, 44, 45, 53, 57, 61, 66, 79, 84, 85, 96, 99, 100, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 116, 117, 118, 119, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 133, 134, 139, 140, 143, 144, 161, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172

Syria, 38

Ṭā’ī, 71tabarru’, 74tabghiya, 86Tābi`ī, 65

tafsīr, 120taḥkīm, 57, 61, 65, 66, 84taḥkīm al-rijāl, 57taḥqīq al-manāṭ, 122takfīr, 61, 65takhṣīṣ, 62ṭalāq, 116, 136Ṭalḥah, 34, 35, 66, 68, 69, 79, 88, 91Tamīmī, 73, 80tanāsukhiyyah, 57tanqīḥ al-manāṭ, 122tansib, 43tashrīk, 61tawḥīd, 102Tehirt, 69term limits, 45textual interpretation, 153the first four caliphs, 39, 40, 171theocracy, 18, 42third world, 38torture, 29Ṭrābulsī, 77transferability, 29transgressions, 48transition, 52, 105Tripoli, 72ṭughāt, 70Tunisia, 3, 8, 38, 69, 76, 149, 162, 163Turkey, 37, 38Turkish Republic, 163twelver shi’ites, 39

Umayyad caliph, 35Umayyads, 36, 41ummah, 9, 17, 20, 21, 25, 29, 33, 34,

35, 37, 39, 40, 41, 45, 55, 56, 58, 70, 78, 82, 84, 102, 103, 117, 118, 171, 172

unjust rulers, 65, 73, 84, 104uprightness, 20, 24, 28, 29, 159uprisings, 45, 51, 52, 62, 79, 97Usama, 33uṣūl al-dīn, 96

violence, 4, 23, 25, 43, 50, 51, 52, 96, 158

I n d e x228

wa’d wa-‘l-wa’īd, 92Wadā’ Abū ‘Ubaydah Muslim, 66Wahhabism, 95, 161, 164wahhābiyyah, 95waḥy, 6, 30Weber, 51Western countries, 37Western modernization, 38Western thought, 47wilāyah, 99wilāyat ahl wilāyat allāh, 92will of the ummah, 41wuqūf, 101wuqūf, 95

Yaḥyā Ibn Kāmil, 54Yamāmah, 63, 64

yarjūn, 98Yazīd, 53, 54, 61, 62, 63, 75, 76, 90,

135. See also Umayyad caliphYazīd Ibn Mu’āwiyah, 61, 62Yazīd Ibn Unaysah, 53Yemen, 2, 38, 59, 68, 92, 109, 115, 137yūqifā, 143

ẓāhir, 90zakāh, 16, 32, 33, 34, 76, 78, 79, 91,

97, 116, 131Zayd Ibn Unaysah, 55Zaydis, 40Zenatah, 72Zubayr, 62, 65, 66, 68, 69, 79, 88, 91,

101ẓuhūr, 81, 82, 84, 149

Documents

Notes - Springer978-1-137-37911-5/1.pdf · Press, 2010), Patricia Crone and Martin Hinds, God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (Cambridge: U niversity