I.B History – Paper One Peacemaking, Peacekeeping and International Relations

1918-36

B. Kiff

Treaties (Wartime)

Wartime treaties:

Treaty of London (1915)

o Brought Italy into the war, in exchange for the promise that in the case of Allied victory, Italy would

receive a large amount of land.

McMahon Declaration (1915)

o British promised to support Arab independence if they rebelled against the Turkish

Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916)

o France and the UK defined their spheres of influence in the middle east

Britain – Mesopotamia

France – Syria

Shared/international – Palestine

Balfour Declaration (1917)

o British Foreign secretary wrote to the British Zionist Federation, promising support for a national home

(in Palestine) for the Jews.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Mar. 1918)

o Russia-Germany

Russia gives up Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Finland, Poland, Ukraine and Georgia.

o Following German defeat, most become independent states.

Britain:

Lloyd George wanted

o Germany to return all

territory seized in the war

o An independent state

should be created for the

displaced Poles

o Autonomy for nations

within the Austria-

Hungarian Empire, and all

non-Turkish nationality’s

under the Ottoman

Empire.

The aims of the big 4

France – Weaken Germany; Financially, territorially, Militarily

Clemenceau wanted

o Return of Alsace-Lorraine (taken in 1871)

o Rhineland to become an independent state.

o Demilitarization of Germany

o Reparations

USA – “To make the world safe for Democracy” – Wilson

Wilson wanted:

o Nationalities choose who they are ruled by

o Disarmament

o Freedom of navigation

o Free Trade

WILSONS 14 POINTS. LEARN THEM ALL.

1. Open Covenants of peace, openly arrived at...

2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the sea… in peace and war…

3. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions…

4. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with

domestic safety.

5. A free, open minded, absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims… the interests of the populations concerned

must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose is to be determined

6. The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and

freest co-operation of the other nations of the world…

7. Belgium… must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty, which she enjoys in common

with all other free nations...

8. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871

in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine… should be righted.

9. A re-adjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.

10. The peoples of Austria-Hungary…should be accorded the freest opportunity of autonomous development.

11. Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territory restored: Serbia accorded free and secured

access to the sea; ….

12. The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities,

which are now under Turkish rule, should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested

opportunity of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be permanently opened…. Under international

guarantee.

13. An independent Polish state should be erected… which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea…

14. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual

guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.

Countries responses to the points:

France – Sceptical that the LoN would work, Clemenceau found Wilson annoying.

Britain – HATED point #2

Italy – Italy was promised land in which many non-Italian nations lived, which disagreed with the points.

All agreed to sign despite this, as they feared the US would seek a separate treaty with the Germans.

The Treaty of Versailles – Germany (June 1919)

Considered as a ‘Diktat’ by the Germans – saw it as a ‘dictated peace’.

The Terms:

Territory Lost:

1. Alsace-Lorraine to France

2. West Prussia and Posen to Poland

3. North Schleswig to Denmark

4. Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium

5. Danzig becomes an international City, while only Poland may use it as a port.

6. The Saar placed under LoN control for 15 years. French had the coal-mines for 15 years. A Plebiscite would

be held in 15 years.

7. Upper Silesia – Voted in a Plebiscite, Poles receive ½ the land, containing 2

3 of mines.

Also lost all colonies in Africa/China/Pacific

Economic stuff:

Germany lost 10% of industrial capacity, but some hit much harder – e.g. the Iron Ore industry lost 48%

Later (1921) Reparations instated

o Germany ordered to pay £6,600 million

o To be paid in instalments, not only in gold but also in raw goods e.g. pig iron, foodstuffs

War Guilt:

Article 231

o The Allied and associated governments declare, and Germany accepts the responsibility for, all the loss

and damage suffered by the Allied and associated governments as a consequence of the war imposed

upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.

Military Restrictions:

1. German Army limited to 100,000 volunteers, enlisted for 12 year periods of service. Conscription forbidden.

2. Germany’s general staff was abolished

3. No air force, only 6 battle battleships, no submarines tanks or heavy artillery.

4. Germany was ordered to surrender its entire Fleet – Consequently, the German navy chose to sink its entire fleet,

rather than hand it over to the French of British.

5. Permanent Demilitarization of the left bank of the Rhine, and within 50 kilometres of its right bank.

6. Occupation of the Rhineland by Allied military forces for 15 years.

The Treaty of St. Germaine – Austria (Sept. 1919)

Recognised the new independent states

Refused to recognise the new Government as a ‘new-state’,

o As such still had to:

Pay Reparations

Accept War Guilt

Military Limitations

Italy received nearly all the land promised in the Treaty of London

Territorial losses:

1. Bohemia and Moravia went to Czechoslovakia

2. Dalmatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina went to Yugoslavia

3. Istria, Trentino and South Tyrol was given to Italy

4. Galicia went to Poland

5. Bukovina was given to Romania

Total Population Change: 22 Million => 6.5 Million

The Treaty of Neuilly – Bulgaria (Nov. 1919)

Was forced to accept:

Reparations

Military limited to 20,000 men

Lost access to Aegean Coastline

The Treaty of Trianon-Hungary (June 1920)

The treaty was delayed until 1920 due to civil unrest including:

A war with Romania in 1919 Eventually signed after elections in January 1920

Communist takeover in 1919 Obligatory order of having to pay reparations Military limit: 35,000

Territory Losses:

1. Slovakia and Ruthenia => Czechoslovakia

2. Croatia and Slovenia => Yugoslavia

3. Transylvania => Romania

4. Burgenland => Austria

The Treaty of Sèvres (August 1920)

1. Straits of Dardanelles placed under control of an international Commission, open for all countries to use as a shipping

lane.

2. Turkey lost all rights to Sudan and Libya, forced to recognise French Morocco and Tunis, British Egypt and Cyprus.

3. Saudi Arabia became independent

4. Syria, Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Palestine became LoN mandates

5. Greece received Turkish Aegean Islands and Eastern Thrane. Also to administer the area around Smyrna, for 5 years.

Kurdistan was to become autonomous; Armenia was to become independent.

Territory losses:

1. North Macedonia was given to

Yugoslavia

2. Western Thrace, given to Greece

3. Dobrudja given to Romania

Total population change: 21 Million => 7.5 Million

All mandates were allocated in May 1919. Countries

entrusted with Mandates had to report every year to the LoN,

but the Mandates Commission had limited powers and could

only ask for written evidence.

The Mandate System

The states that became mandates were previous colonies or annexed areas which had belonged to the form Ottoman and

German Empires. Rather than be perceived as simple imperialism, they were given to the LoN, who then distributed the

countries amongst member states.

Three Categories of Mandate:

A. Most developed areas – Given provisional independence but were subject to the administrators control until they were

capable of full independence.

Syria –> France. Subsequently divided into two Mandates, Syria and Lebanon.

Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Palestine -> Britain. In 1921 the state of Transjordan was created.

B. “Trusteeship” status. The administrators had direct control of the state, but were subjet to certain regulations which

were aimed to safeguard the rights of the indigenous people.

Tanganyika -> Britain. Became independent in 1960

Togoland and Cameroons -> France. Both became independent in 1961.

Ruanda-Urundi -> Belgium. Rwanda and Burundi given independent in 1961.

C. “Integral portions” of the territory of the mandate power, i.e virtual annexation. This was determined because of the

sparseness of population, isolation or simple size.

South West Afruca (Namibia) -> S Africa.

New Guinea -> Australia.

Western Samoa -> New Zealand

Islands north of Equator in the Western pacific -> Japan.

The Middle Eastern Mandates:

The only Arab territory to be granted total independence was in 1920, the area that later became Saudi Arabia and was

ruled by Sherif Hussein.

Considered by the Arabs as a thinly veiled takeover of the region by Britain and France.

o Violent Arab protests occurred through 1920/21. In order to appease, Britain instated Hussein’s sons, Abdullah

and Feisal as amirs of Transjordan and Mesopotamia, but these were not independent.

Transjordan – Recognised in 1923 as an independent state ruled by Amir Abdullah, but still under British authority.

o Throughout the 1920s/1930s, Britain allowed more independence while retaining influence over the

government and military. Formally granted full independence in 1946, Abdullah as king.

Iraq – In 1930, in preparation for the ending of the Mandate, Britain signed an Anglo-Iraqi treaty with King Feisal. This

provided a 25 military alliance and retention of British air bases in Iraq. In 1932 Iraq became independent.

Syria and Lebanon – France was much more reluctant to hand over independence, as it feared this would lead to French

Northern African colonies to expect the same treatment.

o In 1936, the French Government drafted treaties with both, which granted independence provided that France

was still consulted for foreign policy issues and that France could retain military bases.

o This was not ratified by the French Chamber, so independence was delayed until 1946 with Britain pressuring.

Arab Jewish tensions in Palestine:

Tensions escalated in 1920

o Dissapointment of both sides of the failure by Britain to keeps its WW1 promises.

o Rapid growth and prosperity of Jewush settles. In 1918: 60K Jews/500K Arabs. In 1928: 150K Jews/600k Arab.

Mounting violence post WW2, coupled with Britains financial position led to Britain deferring the issue to the United

Nations in 1947.

o The UN decided to partition Palestine into separate Arab and Jewish states.

o However, when the British pulled out in 1948, War broke out between the new state of Israel and its Arab

neighbours.

The Council –

o Met three or four times a year

o Had several permanent members, originally 5 –

FR, GB, ITA, JP and USA but;

USA never joined

Ita and Japan withdrew

Germany and USSR fluttered.

o Also had a number of rotating members;

originally 4 then: 6 – 1922, 9 – 1926 and 11 - 1936

The Assembly

o Met once a year in September

o Original membership was 42 [1920], grew to 55 in

1924.

63 countries were members at some point in

time.

o Each member state had one vote, the Assembly

could discuss any problem, but was influenced by

Council advice.

o Decisinios were passed to The Secretariat

The Secretariat

o The League’s civil service. Headed by the

Secretary-General. The Secretariat tried to

include representatives of all member nations. It

would announce decisions to the world.

Departments

o International Court of Justice – Established at the

Hauge in 1922, international bench of 11 judges

o International Labour Organisation – aimed to

abolish social and economic injustice.

Article 10 – “Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the

territorial integrity and existing political independence of all members of the League. In case of any such aggression

or of any threat or danger of such aggression the Council shall advise upon the means by which this obligation shall

be fulfilled. “

Article 11 of the Covenant allowed the LoN to consider threats to peace.

Article 12 of the Covenant provided for settlement of international disputes by:

I. Arbitration by a neutral power.

II. Individual settlement by the International Court of Justice.

III. Inquiry by the Council of the League.

Article 15 of the Covenant provided for the peaceful settlement of disputes.

Article 16 of the Covenant outlined three methods of persuasion or sanctions open to the Council to recommend to

the League’s members:

“Members undertake to combine, by diplomatic pressure, suspension of trade, or if necessary armed force, to

prevent a resort to war in breach of the above agreements. It shall be the duty of the Council to recommend

what steps members shall take in such circumstances, and it shall be the duty of members to support one

another against any reprisals taken by the state against whom action is being taken .

The League of Nations

Aims of the league:

To promote international co-operation

To end war by promoting disarmament; by the

preservation of its members from aggression and

by the settlement of international disputes by

peaceful means.

Structure of the league:

Principles of collective security:

Mostly enshrined in articles 10-17 of the Covenant :

Attempts to strengthen peacekeeping – The Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance (1924) and Geneva Protocol (1924-25):

French led initiative, in both cases the aim was to revise some League procedures, and introduce guaranteed military

support from the rest of the League. Rejected by Britain and its Dominions who didn’t want a national security pact.

Early League successes:

The Aaland Islands (1920-21)

o League resolved the Aaland Islands dispute between Sweden and Finland, awarding them to Finland.

Mosul (1923-24)

o League settled a dispute between Turkey and Iraq over Mosul. Turkey accepted that it should remain part of

Iraq.

Greek-Bulgarian clash (1925)

o League helped avert a Balkan war between Greece and Bulgaria, fining Greece for a border attack on Bulgaria.

o In this case, the LoN acted very swiftly, coming into emergency session and passing a resolution insisting an

immediate end to hostilities.

Plebiscites:

The League successfully managed four blebiscites:

1911 Eupen and Malmédy Were awarded to Belgium

1920 Schleswig Was divided between Germany and Denmark

1920 Allenstein & Marienwerder Were largely awarded to Germany

1921 Upper Silesia Was partitioned between Poland and Germany. The LoN Council drew up a line for the border between Poland and Germany, and provided for free movement across the border so that Upper Silesia could remain an economic unit. Neither Germany nor Poland were satisfied, but both signed the agreement in May 1922

Early League failures:

Poland’s seizure of Vilna (1920):

o Fighting occurred in 1919-20 between Poland and Lithuania over Vilna. Poland won through force until 1922. The

LoN tried to get a polish agreement to hand over Vilna but failed.

o The Conference of Ambassadors awared Vilna to Polan in 1923

Russo-Polish War (1920-21)

o 1920-21 saw war between Poland and Russia. Poland made substantial gains, which were recognised by Russia in

The Treaty of Riga (1921). League was unable to exert any influence over the fighting.

Greek-Turkish War (1920-23)

o In a direct challenge to the treaty of Sevres, Turkey successfully waged war against Greece.

o The LoN was unable to play a role in ending the conflict; instead the Allies negotiated a revised settlement

[Lausanne] in 1923

Lithuania’s seizure of Memer (1923)

o Memel was a German speaking, East Prussian port, confiscated from Germany in the ToV. It was anticipated that

Lithuania would be handed the port.

o Lithuania lost patience in 1923 and occupied it. The Conference of Ambassadors attempted to negotiate an

agreement over Polish access and the German speakers, but Lithuania would not accept. Deferred to LoN

o LoN eventually created an agreeable conclusion, but Poland and Germany were unhappy.

“It was this critical collapse, rather than the provisions of the peace

terms themselves, which ensured that the Treaty of Versailles was never

fully accepted or enforced” – Ruth Henig

“Severe as the ToV seemed to many germs, it should be remembered that Germany might

easily have fared much worse...” - William Carr

Geopolitical and Economic Impacts of treaties.

Geopolitical

USA failed to join the League of

Nations (wasn’t ratified by congress),

and as such no military guarantee

between US and France came into

existence.

Generic “Treaty of Versailles caused Hitler” – it made the Germans angry, but didn’t weaken them enough to make

that anger futile.

The Genoa Conference (April-May 1922)

o International conference aiming to discuss disarmament and economic recovery. Conference didn’t achieve

anything, except forcing German and the USSR away, and eventually signing the Rapallo Pact.

Italian resentment at not getting Fiume or Dalmatia islands – Helped Mussolini come into power in 1922, by relying on

the heavily nationalistic sentiment of angry Italians.

The Treaty of Rapallo (1992) – Outcasts hug each other.

This was reinforced later in the Treaty of Berlin

o Trade and financial co-operation

o Secret military agreements, including provision for Germany to secretly test military equipment on Russian

soil, thus evading ToV restrictions.

o Co-operate against Poland, because both had lost land.

Locarno and the ‘Locarno Spring’ (1925) – Stresemann wanted a ‘security pact’ between Ger-Fra-Bri, in ordered to get the Treaty

of Versailles terms revised – put out ‘feelers’ in January-February of 1925. Ended up being between Bri-Fra-Ita-Ger and Belg

Took until Sept 1925 for meeting to come about, signed in London on December 1925.

1. Belgium, France and Germany accepted the western borders of Germany, including the demilitarized Rhineland, as

the ToV.

2. Britain and Italy acted as ‘guarantors’ of the Franco-German-Belgian borders. Breaches would mean Britain and Italy

to intervene.

3. Breaches of Franco-German-Belgian borders in the west would be referred to LoN.

4. Germany would not confirm its acceptance of Eastern frontiers. But signed arbitration treaties with Poland and

Czechoslovakia committing itself to settle disputes with her eastern neighbours peacefully.

5. France renewed its treaties with Czech/Poland in an attempt to soothe them.

6. Germany should enter LoN (took a seat on council in September in 1926).

Results:

Germany treated as an equal

Promised a period of international co-operation.

Treaty of Berlin – keep Russia on side

Foreign ministers of Ger, Fr and Bri got Nobel peace prizes.

Economic

Country Borrowed from USA Borrowed from Great Britain Borrowed from France France $3,991 million $3,030 n/a

Russia, Italy (+ other) $3,209 million $8,141 $3,463

Great Britain $4,661 million n/a n/a

America wanted its loans back – the EU complained that they needed the reparation money. Britain had also lent out money, but

promised to only collect as much as it needed to pay back the US – effectively halving most EU debt.

Ruhr Crisis (1923) – In December 1922, the Reparations Commission ruled that Germany had failed to keep to the agreed timber

deliveries.

Raymond Poincare decided to send in 60,000 French (and Belgian troops into the Ruhr.

The Ruhr contained 80% of Germany’s steel and 70% of its coal.

In response, the Germans ordered the Ruhr workers to commence “passive resistance” (strike), and

suspended all reparations.

Hyperinflation crisis (1922/1923) – German weak economy/print happy along with German response to the Ruhr. Government

printed lots of paper money.

In 1923 - 2000 printing presses were working constantly.

Schacht (under the order of Stresemann) introduced the retenmark (10,000,000,000,000 old marks).

The Dawes Plan – Came about after Britain suggested to US that a team of experts be formed to considerer the reparations

debacle. Consequently, a committee – under American Charles Dawes, met in Paris from Jan-April 1924 .

Dawes Plan was accepted at the London conference (July-August 1924)

1. Germany was to receive an initial loan of $200 million from USA and others.

2. The Dawes plan did not alter the total amount of reparations to be paid, but the payments were rescheduled,

starting at 1000 million gold marks in the first year, increasing to 2500 million from the fifth year onwards.

3. In order to ensure that Germany paid her instalments of reparations, specific German taxes and bonds were

identified and earmarked for that purpose.

4. A reparations Agency was established to supervise the new arrangements.

5. The French promised Germany that they would evacuate the Ruhr within a year.

The Young plan (1929) – After discussion by LoN, new plan to replace the Dawes Plan. Committee of financial experts, chaired by

Owen Young met in Paris in February 1929 – put forward its report in June 1929.

1. Reduced Reparations 132,000 million -> 121,000 million.

2. Germany was to pay an annual sum until 1988

3. Lowering of annual repayments

4. Reparations Agency abolished – replaced with a “Bank for International Settlements” in Switzerland who would

supervise.

5. Another foreign loan to Germany - $300 million

6. Agree for all Allied troops to be withdrawn from the Rhineland by June 1930. Britain was out by 1929.

Lausanne Conference (1932) – Suspended

reparations for 3 years, and lowered the bill to

just 2% of the original 1921 figure. When Hitler

came into power in 1933, he declared NO

MORE.

Results:

1. Constituted a

positive step towards

preventing naval

arms race.

2. 2. Signalled end of

British naval

dominance.

3. Partial withdrawal of

British from E. Asia.

4. Ships less than

10,000 tons not

restricted.

5. No enforcement

mechanism created.

Failed to stop

Japanese aggression

from 1931.

6. USSR was omitted,

significant because

the USSR had

potential to be super

powerful in pacific.

Disarmament

The ToV had two articles:

Article 8 – Plans are to be drafted by the Council for the general reduction of national armaments.

Article 9 – A permanent advisory commission on armaments is to be appointed.

Washington Conference (1921-22)

Conference of major naval powers met in Washington in November 1921

o Led to several treaties later on.

o Was an initiative of the US, who were worried about setting of China by

attacking during the ‘warlord era’.

Four-Power Treaty (USA, Britain, France & Japan); December 1921

a. Ended Anglo-Japanese alliance.

b. Agreed to recognise each other’s possessions in the Pacific and, in the

event of controversy, attempt to reach a diplomatic solution.

Five-Power Treat (USA, Britain, Japan, France & Italy); February 1922

a. Agreed to a total tonnage ratio in capital warships, fixed at 5-5-3-1.75-1.75

respectively

b. Introduced a 10-year ‘building holiday’ on capital ships.

c. The USA and Britain agreed not to construct a new fortresses or naval bases

in the Western Pacific.

Nine-Power Treaty (USA, Britain, France, Japan, Italy, Belgium, China, Netherlands &

Portugal); February 1922

a. Agreed to respect China’s sovereignty.

b. Agreed to the ‘Open Door’ whereby all countries were to have equal trading

rights in China.

c. Agreed to discuss problems of common interest.

The Geneva Disarmament Conference (1932-34) – Took five (5) years to prepare for...

The underlying issue was the balancing of forces between Germany and France

o Germany demanded parity, either France reduce from 600,000 to 100,000 – or Germany can even up.

Britain and the USA were sympathetic to Germany, but did not want to give France all the restrictions on Germany.

Several adjournments followed, including a German refusal to take place.

Another meeting takes place, to convince Germany to come back – agree “equality of rights in a system which would

provide security for all nations”

Germany re-enter talks, but Hitler has taken power.

October 1933 – Germany walks out, using the “We want Parity”, and says they’re leaving the LoN.

London Naval Conference (1935-36)

Wanted more extensions, but Japan wanted parity

with US and Britain, and then walked out.

o US Britain and France agreed to a

further 6 year ‘no build light

cruisers’.

London Naval Conference (1930)

Sought to extend the Washington Naval treaties

o Agreed to extension for a further 5 years.

Agreed on regulation of submarines but Ita&Fra

argued over destroyers and cruisers.

o Eventually USA,GB and JP agreed on a

10:10:6 ratio.

The Great Depression

Wall Street Crash (October 1926) –

Started on 29th October 1929 – 16 million shares are greatly reduced

prices.

Prices continued to fall until July 1933, stop prices were at 15% of

their value in October 1929

o Estimated losses of $74 billion (UK billion or US? - Doesn’t

say.)

In 1931-1933, banking crisis hit USA and a lot of Europe – banks collapsed. (Northern Rock).

Governments tried to protect themselves through ‘Protectionism’

o Raising Tariff barriers against imported goods.

This started a ‘Tariff War’ – Britain in 1932 created an ‘Imperial Preference System’

o World trade fell by about 2

3 from 1929-1931, and even by 1938 it was only 40% of the 1929 value.

Impacts:

Worldwide confidence drop in capitalism and in parliamentary democracy.

o Germany and Japan hit hardest (they went war crazy – LINK)

“Caused Hitler’s uprising” – Germany

o Germany was reliant on US loans – capitalist democracy.

o The year before great Depression, Nazis had 3% of vote. As unemployment rose, the Nazis

gained 17% of the seats and became second biggest party.

o At the unemployment pea in 1932, Nazis had 37% of seats in Reichstag – President Hindenburg

thus appointed Hitler chancellor in January 1933.

Japan get pissed – foreign policy change

o Up to the Wall St. Crash – Japan was expansionist, taking Taiwan from China and Korea from

Russia in 1905. Also had held a good relationship with west; LoN, Naval Treaties, even nice to

China.

o Post-Crash – Radical change in foreign policy, move into authoritarian style of politics;

undermining of parliamentary system and growing influence of the military.

o Results – Silk prices dropped to 20% of the 1923 figure, half of Japanese farmers reliant –

blamed the government, and decided working with the West would be counterproductive.

o Instead, they decide imperial aggression is the best course of action

Invasion of Manchuria – 1931

Full scale China invasion – 1397

Occupation of Indo-China – 1940

Pearl Harbour – 1941, which made our sugar daddy (USA) join WW2.

“The economic crisis… did more than

anything else to sour relations between the

major states…” – Richard Overy

Hitler aggression – Not very much Paper 1, but we can link.

Hitler’s foreign policy aims –

Re-armament of Germany

Lebensraum – Living space for the ‘German Master Race’,

Grosswirtschaftsraum – Greater Economic Space

o Hitler envisioned German dominion over the whole of Eastern Europe and the West part of Russia. The Slavs

would work as Slaves for the Super-Saiyans (Arians).

‘Revisions’ of the Versailles Treaty (1935-1936) – Britain were being sympathetic to the ‘hardships’, hurray appeasement.

Reunion with the Saar (January 1935).

o Inhabitants of the Saar, run by the LoN since 1920, voted a vast majority in favour of reunion with Germany.

Reintroduction of conscription and Hitler’s announcement of rearmament (March 1935).

o Announced intention to create an army of 550,000 men, and that he was already building an air force.

o Britain and France alarmed, meet in April 1935 for a ‘Stresa Front’, saying “We’ll fight if he breaks any more rules,

right?”

This fell apart after the Anglo-German Naval Convention (look down) and the Abyssinia Crisis.

Anglo-German Naval Convention (June 1935)

o Agreed that Germany could have a navy which was 35% the tonnage of the British one. This was a direct violation of

the ToV terms.

Re-militarising the Rhineland (March 1936)

o Encouraged by fall apart of Stresa Front, and international focus on Abyssinia.

League of Nations condemned, but neither France not Britain did anything.

Lytton Report (October 1932)

Released in October 1932, the Lytton

Commission concluded Manchuria should be an

autonomous state but remain under Chinese

sovereignty.

The league took until February 1933 to vote to

accept the report.

Instead of trying to force Japan out, the LoN

voted for the policy of ‘non’ recognition.

Manchuria/Mukden Incident – 1931-33

Growth of militarism in Japan

Following the impact of the Great Depression, Japanese nationalists saw Manchuria as a tempting target – large, heavy

amount of minerals, and most important – Japan already had troops there.

o Unemployment at 2.6 Million in 1930, exports halved.

o Since the 1904-5 Russo-Japanese War, Japan had control of Korea, by late 1920 also held the South Manchurian

Railway, and the Southern Peninsula; Liaodong.

Japan were worried that the Nationalist government of China, led by Chiang Kai-Shek would end their concessions in

Manchuria because the Nationalists were… nationalistic. The Warlord running Manchuria, Zhang Xueliang really wanted

the Japanese expelled.

The Mukden Incident – Sept 1931

In September 1931, the Japanese area in Manchuria (known as the Kwantung Army) staged ‘The Mukden incident’,

blowing up part of the South Manchurian Railway whilst blaming on the Chinese.

The Kwantung Army then occupied most of Manchuria, as obviously this was an act of war.

Fighting escalated briefly in January 1932 when skirmishes broke out in Shanghai between Chinese troops and Japanese

Marines (The Marines were defending Japanese people/stuff in the international quarter). The Japanese used aerial

bombing.

The incident was not backed the government, but was decided by Kwantung officers, with the loose go-ahead from some

upper officials.

In May 1932, nationalist officers assassinated Prime Minister Inukai who had been attempting to reach a diplomatic

solution, which would have ended in China regaining sovereignty over Manchuria.

Responses:

Japanese blocking Council’s Resolution

The council eventually ruled that Japan should withdraw

her forces to the area around the South Manchuria

Railway, however Article 11 of the League Covenant

allowed a council member the right to veto a Council

resolution, which Japan used.

In a time delay act, Japan requested an official enquiry,

which was heading by English aristocrat Lord Lytton in

December 1931.

Establishment of Manchukuo:

In March 1932 China appealed to the LoN using Article 15,

hoping that an outcome could be found that was acceptable to both parties.

In February and March 1932, the LoN passed resolutions that stated simply “members of the league should not recognise

changes in the status of territory resulting from the use of force”

Japan recognised the ‘new state’ of Manchukuo, claiming it as an independent country, and instated a puppet leader –

Pu Yi (the old Chinese emperor who abdicated in 1912).

o Japan walked out of the LoN in March 1933.

China –

Little resistance, Chiang Kai-shek ordered

Zhang Xueliang to withdraw his forces.

A truce was eventually signed in May 1933

LoN –

Slow and weak, due to ‘the complex nature’ of

china.

Little EU sympathy for China, Chiang Kai-Shek

was trying to Curb European influence.

Results of Abyssinian War:

1. Italy took Abyssinia.

2. LoN shown to be weak.

3. Hitler re-occupied

Rhineland

4. Stresa Front (1935) fell

apart.

5. Mussolini and Hitler

became friends; in October

1936 the Rome-Berlin Axis

was signed. Friendship and

trade.

6. Mussolini withdrew Italy

from LoN.

Abyssinia 1935-36

Mussolini’s aims in invading France:

1. To link up Italy’s existing colonies in North-East Africa (Eritrea and Italian Somaliland).

2. To gain revenge for the Italian defeat at Adowa (1896)

3. To satisfy the Italian nationalists who had been angry at Italy’s failure to acquire colonial rights in the 1919-20 Peace

Settlement

4. To be able to claim to be recreating the glories of the ancient Roman Empire in North Africa

Mussolini thought France and Britain wouldn’t care because:

1. Pierre Laval, French Foreign Minister, had in January 1935 said that France had no interests in Abyssinia

2. In June 1935, Anthony Eden, British Foreign secretary had visited Rome and proposed a deal between Abyssinia and Italy,

which would give Italy the Ogden region, in exchange for Abyssinia receiving some of British Somaliland, and hence

access to the sea.

3. The Stresa Front (1935) – They thought they were bezzies, and Mussolini knew that France/Britain would not want to

jeopardise losing an Ally against ze Nazis.

The Wal-Wal Incident (December 1934)

A small military clash at Wal-Wal in December 1934. (Seriously...)

Initially Italy referred the incident to the LoN, which led to arbitration.

Throughout this he built up forces.

Eventually, Italy got bored and in October 1935 marched Italian troops, tanks

and planes and invaded from Eritrea in the North. Before the invasion Emperor

Haile Selassie had appealed 4 times to the LoN for help, but he was ignored.

The League takes action –

October 1935, both the League Council and the Assembly condemned

Italy’s invasion, 50/54 members voted in favour of economic

sanctions.

o Banned the sale to Italy of: arms, rubber and certain metals.

o Loans to Italy and the importing of Italian goods also banned.

Why these ‘sanctions’ failed.

1. Not introduced for 6 weeks after Mussolini invaded. (18th November 36)

2. Did not include the materials Mussolini wanted – oil, iron, steel and coal.

a. Britain/France wanted to apply sufficient pressure without causing Mussolini to throw a strop and break all ties.

3. Non LoN countries (USA, Germany, and Japan) traded anyway.

4. Took time to come into effect, not until early 1936 did Italy even notice.

The Hoare-Laval Pact – December 1935

Sir Samuel Hoare (Britain) and Pierre Laval (France) reached a secret agreement in Paris that about two-thirds of Abyssinia could

be offered to Italy in exchange for land from elsewhere. This was leaked however, and French-British outcry led to both

politicians being sacked.

Mussolini conquered Abyssinia in May 1936; the LoN ended its sanctions on Italy in July 1936.

“The invasion of Abyssinia was an attempt to

divert the Italian public’s attention from

domestic issues” - Denis Mack Smith

“The invasion was an outgrowth of Facism itself, its need to

fight and win battles” – Martin Blinkhorn, representing the

‘intentionalist’ Historians