Nostalgia, authenticity and the culture and practice

of remastering music

Stephen Bruel

MMus, GradDipEd (Music), GradCertJourn, BEcon

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Creative Industries Faculty

Queensland University of Technology

2019

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Keywords

1980s, aca-fan, aesthetic, artist, audio, authenticity, band, creativity, cultural heritage,

demo, demo recordings, digital convergence, engineer, fandom, guitar-pop,

mastering, mixing, music, music nostalgia, personal heritage, production, recording,

remastering, scholar-fan, simulacra, simulation, sound, Sydney, systems model,

Sunnyboys, technology.

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Statement of Original Authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet

requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best

of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or

written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature: QUT Verified Signature

Date: April 2019

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Acknowledgements

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Principal Supervisor Dr Gavin

Carfoot for his continuous support of my PhD study and related research, patience,

motivation and immense knowledge. I would also like to thank my External

Supervisor Professor Andy Arthurs for his guidance through the early stages of this

research and my Assistant Supervisor Dr John Wilstead for his help towards the end. I

also acknowledge the support received by the QUT Creative Industries Higher

Degrees Research team who guided me successfully through the PhD administration

process, and the financial assistance I received through my scholarship.

My research project would not have been possible without the participation and

enthusiasm shown by all case study participants. In particular I would like to thank

Sunnyboys’ band manager Tim Pittman, band members Peter Oxley and Richard

Burgman and remastering engineer Rick O’Neil for all of their time and commitment

shown towards my project. I would also like to thank Thomas Green, Darren Munt,

Andrew Wass, Con Shacallis and Paul Francis for their involvement. We all shared a

special moment of our adolescence together and the opportunity to reconnect after a

20-30 year period was a wonderful experience and result. I would also like to thank

the contributions from Col Freeman, Dr Peter Wadsworth, Greg White and Geoffrey

Lee who all provided depth and detail surrounding the production of the original

recordings.

Finally I would like to thank my family and friends for all of the love and support you

have given me during this four-year endeavour. In particular, I would like to

especially thank my wife and best friend Janice Holland who has been my rock and

whose unconditional love made it possible for me to see this project through unto the

end.

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Table of Contents

KEYWORDS ................................................................................................................................. 2

STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP ............................................................................ 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................. 5

TABLE OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. 7

TABLE OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... 8

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... 9

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 10 PERSONAL BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................................... 10 THESIS PLAN – OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS ........................................................................................................... 13

CHAPTER 1 – LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................... 17 MASTERING AND REMASTERING – WHAT IS IT? .................................................................................... 17 REMASTERING IN FILM ..................................................................................................................................... 19 LIMITATIONS AND GAPS IN THE PREVIOUS RESEARCH ................................................................................ 23 REMASTERING AS AN ARTISTIC AND CREATIVE PROCESS ................................................................. 24 AUTHENTICITY IN CONTEMPORARY MUSIC ............................................................................................. 31 TECHNOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOACOUSTIC CONSIDERATIONS AND PROCESS ............................. 38 COMMERCIAL CONSIDERATIONS AND THE ‘LOUDNESS WARS’ ....................................................... 42 DO LISTENERS NOTICE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORIGINAL AND REMASTERED RELEASES? 44 FANDOM ................................................................................................................................................................. 46 DEMO RECORDINGS ........................................................................................................................................... 48 NOSTALGIA ........................................................................................................................................................... 56 LITERATURE REVIEW CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 60

CHAPTER 2 – THEORY ............................................................................................................. 63 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................... 63 CREATIVITY AND ITS APPLICATION TO AUDIO REMASTERING ........................................................ 63 DIGITAL CONVERGENCE .................................................................................................................................. 69 SIMULACRA AND NOSTALGIA ....................................................................................................................... 73 AUTHENTICITY, AESTHETICS IN POPULAR MUSIC, FANDOM AND INSIDER RESEARCH .......... 78 THEORY CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................................... 85

CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 87 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................... 87 METHODS AND PROJECT DESIGN ................................................................................................................. 88 CASE STUDY METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 101 CREATIVE PRACTICE ....................................................................................................................................... 103 ETHNOGRAPHIC METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 110

CHAPTER 4 – CASE STUDY: SUNNYBOYS – RESEARCHER AS SCHOLAR-FAN .......... 115 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................. 115 SUNNYBOYS – THE BAND .............................................................................................................................. 117 SUNNYBOYS – THE ALBUM ............................................................................................................................. 118 NOSTALGIA AND FANDOM ............................................................................................................................ 122 CULTURAL HERITAGE AND MEANING ...................................................................................................... 128 ORIGINAL 1981 RECORDING OF SUNNYBOYS ......................................................................................... 134 ORIGINAL 1981 MASTERING OF SUNNYBOYS FOR VINYL .................................................................. 140 REMASTERING SUNNYBOYS IN 1991 FOR CD ......................................................................................... 143 REMASTERING SUNNYBOYS IN 2014 FOR CD ......................................................................................... 145

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REMASTERING PROCESS .................................................................................................................................... 148 LISTENING COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................. 156 DIGITAL AUDIO ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................ 160 SUNNYBOYS CASE STUDY CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 171

CHAPTER 5 – CASE STUDY: DEMO RECORDINGS - RESEARCHER AS

ARTIST/PRODUCER/FAN .................................................................................................. 175 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................. 175 JUMBLE SALE – THE BAND AND THEIR 1986 DEMO RECORDING .................................................. 178 THE LYRES – THE BAND AND THEIR 1988 AND 1989 DEMO RECORDINGS ............................... 182 BEN’S CALF – THE BAND AND THEIR 1995 DEMO RECORDING .............................................................. 185 NOSTALGIA, FANDOM AND NAVIGATING THE PAST........................................................................... 189 AUTHENTICITY AND MEANING ................................................................................................................... 197 REMASTERING THE DEMO RECORDINGS FOR CD ................................................................................ 201 LISTENING COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................... 207 DIGITAL AUDIO ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................ 214 DEMO RECORDINGS CASE STUDY CONCLUSION .................................................................................. 227

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND FURTHER DISCUSSION .............................................. 236

REFERENCE LIST .................................................................................................................... 243

APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................... 268

APPENDIX B ........................................................................................................................... 269 DETAILED REMASTERING PROCESS FOR THE COLOUR OF STONE ......................................................... 269

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Table of Figures

FIGURE 1 - OFFICIAL SUNNYBOYS PHOTOS (KING, 1983; KING, 2014) ................................................................ 118 FIGURE 2 - SUNNYBOYS ALBUM 1981 ........................................................................................................................ 119 FIGURE 3 - SUNNYBOYS' MANAGER TIM PITTMAN IN THE FEEL PRESENTS OFFICE SYDNEY ................................ 133 FIGURE 4 - REMASTERING ENGINEER RICK O'NEIL AT TURTLEROCK MASTERING, SYDNEY ................................ 150 FIGURE 5 - SUNNYBOYS 1981 ALBUM BEING DIGITALLY TRANSFERRED ON AVID TURNTABLE AT TURTLEROCK

MASTERING ....................................................................................................................................................... 161 FIGURE 6 - WAVEFORM VIEW OF 1981, 1991 AND 2014 SUNNYBOYS RELEASES ............................................... 163 FIGURE 7 - SPECTRUM ANALYSIS IMAGE FOR HAPPY MAN - 1981 (BLUE), 1991 (PINK) AND 2014 (BROWN) 168 FIGURE 8 - SPECTRUM ANALYSIS IMAGE FOR ALONE WITH YOU - 1981 (BLUE), 1991 (PINK) AND 2014

(BROWN) SUNNYBOYS ....................................................................................................................................... 169 FIGURE 9 - SPECTRUM ANALYSIS IMAGE FOR I’M SHAKIN’ - 1981 (BLUE), 1991 (PINK) AND 2014 (BROWN)

SUNNYBOYS ........................................................................................................................................................ 170 FIGURE 10 - JUMBLE SALE PERFORM AT A PARTY IN 1986 L-R ANDREW WASS AND STEPHEN BRUEL ............. 178 FIGURE 11 - JUMBLE SALE PERFORM AT ST GEORGE ROCK ROOM, MORTDALE IN 1986 L-R ANDREW WASS,

CHRISTIAN FISHER, STEPHEN BRUEL AND PETER JACKSON.......................................................................... 180 FIGURE 12 - THE LYRES IN 1988 L-R SCOTT EGGINGTON, PAUL FRANCIS, JOHN VARIPATIS AND CON SHACALLIS

............................................................................................................................................................................ 182 FIGURE 13 - THE LYRES IN 1989 L-R PAUL FRANCIS, CON SHACALLIS, JOHN VARIPATIS AND SCOTT EGGINGTON

............................................................................................................................................................................ 183 FIGURE 14 - BEN'S CALF IN 1992 L-R DARREN MUNT, STEPHEN BRUEL, THOMAS GREEN AND DAVID PRAGNALL

............................................................................................................................................................................ 185 FIGURE 15 - THE CONDUCTORS PERFORMING AT THE OLD WINDSOR TAVERN, SYDNEY IN 1989 L-R ANDREW

WASS, STEPHEN BRUEL, DARREN MUNT AND MICHAEL BUROKAS ............................................................. 186 FIGURE 16 - A VILLAGE IDIOT PERFORMING AT MARTIN PLACE, SYDNEY L-R ANDREW WASS, STEPHEN BRUEL,

DAVID PRAGNALL AND DARREN MUNT .......................................................................................................... 186 FIGURE 17 - JUMBLE SALE PRODUCTION SPREADSHEET........................................................................................... 203 FIGURE 18 - WAVEFORM VIEW OF 1986 AND 2016 JUMBLE SALE RECORDINGS ................................................. 214 FIGURE 19 – WAVEFORM VIEW OF 1988 - 89 AND 2016 THE LYRES RECORDINGS ............................................ 215 FIGURE 20 - WAVEFORM VIEW OF 1995 AND 2016 BEN'S CALF RECORDINGS .................................................... 216 FIGURE 21 - SPECTRUM ANALYSIS IMAGE FOR RED FLASH BY JUMBLE SALE - 1986 (BLUE) AND 2016 (GREEN)

............................................................................................................................................................................ 221 FIGURE 22 - SPECTRUM ANALYSIS IMAGE FOR MIDNITE TOWERS BY JUMBLE SALE - 1986 (BLUE) AND 2016

(GREEN) ............................................................................................................................................................. 222 FIGURE 23 - SPECTRUM ANALYSIS IMAGE FOR COME BACK BY THE LYRES - 1988 (BLUE) AND 2016 (GREEN)

............................................................................................................................................................................ 223 FIGURE 24 - SPECTRUM ANALYSIS IMAGE FOR SAD GIRL BY THE LYRES - 1989 (BLUE) AND 2016 (GREEN) ... 224 FIGURE 25 - SPECTRUM ANALYSIS IMAGE FOR THE COLOUR OF STONE BY BEN'S CALF - 1995 (BLUE) AND 2016

(GREEN) ............................................................................................................................................................. 225 FIGURE 26 - SPECTRUM ANALYSIS IMAGE FOR NEED BY BEN'S CALF - 1995 (BLUE) AND 2016 (GREEN) ........ 226 FIGURE 27 - THE SUNNYBOYS AND I BACKSTAGE IN 2017 L-R PETER OXLEY, BIL BILSON, STEPHEN BRUEL,

RICHARD BURGMAN AND JEREMY OXLEY ....................................................................................................... 241

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Table of Tables

TABLE 1 - DIGITISED AND REMASTERED FILE TYPES ................................................................................................... 95 TABLE 2 - TRUE PEAK LEVEL MEASUREMENTS SUNNYBOYS .................................................................................... 164 TABLE 3 - RMS LEVEL MEASUREMENTS SUNNYBOYS ............................................................................................... 165 TABLE 4 - DYNAMIC RANGE MEASURED IN DECIBELS (DB) SUNNYBOYS ................................................................. 166 TABLE 5 - TRUE PEAK LEVEL MEASUREMENTS FOR DEMO RECORDINGS ................................................................. 217 TABLE 6 – RMS LEVEL MEASUREMENTS FOR DEMO RECORDINGS........................................................................... 218 TABLE 7 - DYNAMIC RANGE MEASURED IN DECIBELS (DB) FOR DEMO RECORDINGS ............................................. 220

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Abstract

The emergence of digital audio production technologies has transformed the

traditional technical role of mastering and remastering to a more creative one. As the

final stage in the music production process, this practice has a significant impact on

the final musical product. Despite this critical role, remastering remains largely

unstudied and along with mastering are often referred to as the ‘dark arts’ (Shelvock,

2012, p. 11). This project examines remastering through a number of lenses,

including: remastering practice in music and film; cultural and authenticity concerns;

remastering as a creative process; technological, commercial and psychoacoustic

considerations; remastering workflows for lo fi and hi fi recordings; and the

implications of nostalgia and perceived sonic differences between remastered and

original recordings. Undertaking a case study of successful and iconic Australian

band Sunnyboys, this research explores the social and cultural implications

surrounding remastering practice, cultural heritage and fandom. The results of the

Sunnyboys case study are then applied to a selection of lo-fi demo recordings from

lesser-known Australian bands Jumble Sale, The Lyres and Ben’s Calf – all of whom

emerged from a similar genre, time and place as Sunnyboys – in order to determine

how the culture and practice of remastering is enacted in these kinds of lo-fi

recordings.

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Introduction

Since the inception of the compact disc format, there has been a push by record

companies to reissue digitally remastered versions of iconic studio albums in various

digital formats (Rumsey, 2012). Albums originally released on vinyl from artists

including The Beatles, Jimi Hendrix, Abba, The Rolling Stones and Led Zeppelin

have all been digitally remastered and rereleased through their respective record

companies (Benzine, 2006; Richardson, 1997; Vickers, 2010). This phenomenon has

led to discussion and research into the elements of remastering, including obvious

volume increases made possible through the technological aspects of the digital CD

format (allowing a greater loudness level on playback) and the inherent diminished

dynamic range as a result of increased loudness that has been well documented under

the terms ‘loudness wars’ and ‘hyper compression’ (Hjortkjaer & Walther-Hansen,

2014; Nielsen & Lund, 1999; Vickers, 2010; Walsh, Stein, & Jot, 2011). The research

presented in this thesis will investigate the social, nostalgic and technological

components of remastering practice and examine how this may influence cultural

heritage, meaning and authenticity associated with the original musical artefact

through its digital replication. The next stage involves applying this knowledge in

order to investigate whether the remastering process applied to old analogue

commercially released iconic studio recordings could be applied to old analogue non-

released studio demo recordings from unknown artists. I have positioned the scope of

the study within the specific framework of Australian rock music recording and

mastering to explore historical contexts of practice. This sets the tone for future

research to examine mastering in the digital and streaming age, as I have explored in

the conclusion.

Personal background

I am a fan of the Australian band Sunnyboys having first witnessed them perform

Alone With You on the ABC TV program Countdown in 1981 as a 13-year-old boy.

The next day I rushed off to the local record shop to purchase their self-titled 1981-

debut vinyl LP release Sunnyboys. I can still recall the euphoria and excitement I felt

when I first played the album on our family stereo system. I found the songs, music

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and lyrics mesmerising and a pattern soon developed that I would play this record

everyday as soon as I got home from high school, alone and it would magically wash

away all of the teenage angst, torment and anguish from the day. As I listened intently

to every word, chord, solo, bass line and drum beat, bullies would disappear and girls

would notice me. Although it was The Beatle’s film A Hard Day’s Night broadcast on

a Saturday afternoon on Australian TV in the 1970s that first got me interested in

popular music and the prospect of being in a band, it was Sunnyboys who made me

believe I could be in a band. I started guitar lessons shortly after, formed a band in

school, began to dress like them and tried to write songs like them. I even managed to

sneak into age-restricted venues with fake identification to see them perform live.

When I left school and Sunnyboys had sadly disbanded, I fully submerged myself into

the 1980s Sydney “Guitar-Pop” culture at the time decked out in my tight black stove

pipe pants, paisley shirt, winkle picker boots, Rickenbacker electric guitar, VOX AC-

30 amplifier and a mod haircut. I identified myself with this subculture and the music,

fashion and popular culture associated with this group still hold strong with me today

(Cartwright, Besson & Maubisson, 2013). Easton described this “Guitar-Pop”

movement as emulating a rising sense of Australiana where ‘clean, jangly guitars

soundtrack accented vocals that can celebrate or sardonically mock the extremes of

Australian culture’ (Easton, 2013, p. 45). I played in a band that performed our

Australiana brand of original music fresh from the Sutherland Shire in the sweaty

pubs and clubs of Sydney, often sharing the bill with contemporaries The Lyres. Like

the many fledgling original bands that performed on the same circuit as us the goal

was to attract interest from record companies and booking agencies for bigger and

better paying gigs and to secure that elusive record contract as we all chased the rock

and roll dream. As a result, my band Jumble Sale (and later Ben’s Calf) created demo

recordings or ‘rough tapes’ of a small selection of songs on a tight budget to distribute

alongside a band biography consisting of a brief background, photos and press

clippings intended for industry (Elliot, 2005). Alas, fame and commercial success as a

musician was not forthcoming and my rock and roll dream extinguished in 1995.

In 2014 a number of events occurred that led me to undertake this research project.

My then six-year old son innocently asked me about my collection of guitars and why

I had so many (as only kids can do) and why I did not appear (to him) to play them. I

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explained to him that I played in a band many years ago, had made some recordings

and he said he would like to listen to them. This harmless request had a profound

impact on me. I was immediately concerned by the sonic quality of these old cassette

tape recordings and apprehensive that they would sound poor in comparison to

modern recordings played on our home sound system. Consequently, I feared that my

son might judge my music as sonically inferior. Around this time, Sunnyboys was

digitally remastered and rereleased on CD. The last time I had seen Sunnyboys

perform live was at the Annandale Hotel in Sydney in 1991 as part of a small reunion

tour, the last band activity until the remastered CD release in 2014. This series of

coincidental events occurring within a short time frame led me to consider the

following research question:

Do remastered music recordings impact cultural heritage and authenticity

attributed to the original musical artefact?

This then led to the following set of sub questions:

What is remastering and what impact does this process have on the sound of

Sunnyboys?

How do the band members’ of Sunnyboys feel about having their original

album remastered?

Can the process for remastering Sunnyboys be adopted and applied to my old

demo recordings stored on cassette tape and what would be the result?

Is there a difference for remastering from a digital audio tape (DAT) source

as opposed to cassette tape?

If I was to produce the remastering of another band’s demo recordings – as

opposed to my own demo recordings – how might this process differ?

This list of initial questions were further developed to consider the social, cultural and

technological elements of remastering practice, and the critical interactions and

relationships between the artists, producers and engineers involved in the remastering

process. In addition the concepts of nostalgia, authenticity and fandom were also

included through the process of remastering musical artefacts from my adolescence.

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Thesis plan – outline of chapters

In Chapter One I start by offering a broad definition of remastering, position the

practices of audio remastering alongside the issues and contexts of film and discuss

limitations in previous research in this area. From there I examine the specific cultural

considerations that come into play in audio remastering, with reference to ways that

the meaning and cultural heritage of an existing iconic musical artefact is transformed

through the creation of a new digital replica. I then study technological change and

the development of digital tools that have led to the evolution of remastering from a

traditional technical role of audio correction to a more creative role. I then explore the

commercial demand for remastered releases, the ‘loudness wars’, and whether

listeners notice sonic differences between original and remastered versions. Finally, I

offer insight into the role and history of demo recordings and why they are culturally

and socially significant for those involved in their creation, paying particular attention

to the concepts of nostalgia and authenticity.

In Chapter Two I explore theoretical concepts that are relevant to remastering, noting

how these concepts provide an underpinning theoretical framework for my research. I

begin with the notion of creativity and examine how remastering is an example of

representational creativity and how it is positioned in Csikszentmihalyi’s systems

model theory (2015). The next step involves investigating theories of digital

convergence and participatory culture, and how these areas have changed the

dynamics of traditional business models in the production and distribution of recorded

music. From there I examine Baudrillard’s simulation and simulacra theory,

remastering practices of repetition and duplication, and the relationship between these

concepts and the role of nostalgia in remastering (1983). Finally, I explore the concept

of authenticity within remastering and offer insight into how the scholar-fan can

produce authentic research.

In Chapter Three I outline my ontological premise as constructivist and my

epistemological position as a generator of research; a self-observer through reflection

on action and observer of others, thus situating my contribution to knowledge in

context. From there I offer a broad definition of creative research and an examination

on how remastering my existing recordings constitute a new creative work, and how

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this process can assist in identifying and expressing new knowledge. I then examine

case study methodology, in particular why triangulation is a suitable approach for my

research project and is likely to yield useful results. I then study ethnographic

methodology including a description of the different types, the role of fandom within

research and why an autoethnographical approach is the most appropriate type for my

research. Finally, I describe my roles as producer/researcher and artist/researcher and

identify and discuss the methods I used in the research project including data

sampling and collection, interviewing, fieldwork participant/observation, data

generation, audio analysis and the final write up and presentation of findings.

In Chapter Four I examine the artistic, social, cultural and technological elements of

digital remastering practice regarding the digital remastering and CD release in 2014

of the iconic 1981 vinyl LP release Sunnyboys. The Sunnyboys’ case study examines

the process for remastering hi-fidelity, iconic analogue recordings in order to gain a

better understanding of this practice, to provide new knowledge, and to benefit others

interested in remastering practice, and through using ‘typical triangulation methods in

case studies including context-specific interviews, document analysis, and

observations’ (Pearson, Albon & Hubball, 2015, p. 3). It explores the various

elements of remastering as described in the literature review from the reflective

perspective of the artist, artist manager and remastering engineer in an effort to

provide ‘information-rich, critical and unique’ outcomes regarding remastering

practice (Johansson, 2007, p. 51-52). From there I implement a comparative digital

audio analysis to help determine whether the perceived sonic differences experienced

and claimed by the case study participants between the original and remastered

versions were consistent with their statistical representation (Paton & McIntyre,

2009). This case study also allows me – in the role of researcher/fan – to provide an

autoethnographic reflective assessment of fandom and nostalgia that can ‘provide a

detailed, in-depth description of everyday life and practice’ (Hoey, 2016, para. 1).

In Chapter Five I apply the perspective drawn from the Sunnyboys case study to a

collection of analogue studio demo recordings from a similar era featuring Jumble

Sale, Ben’s Calf and The Lyres. In the role of researcher as artist/producer for my

previous bands Jumble Sale and Ben’s Calf, I examine remastering practice in real

time as applied to my pre-existing musical artefacts. Furthermore, I examine my

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position as producer/fan in The Lyres case study and the decision-making process

from this perspective, which forms a contrast with my investigation of Pittman’s role

as producer of Sunnyboys. From there, I develop a personal, reflective account of

remastering practice including the phenomenon of social and professional interaction

as mature men working on past artistic creations produced as adolescent males, as

well as the responsibilities of being a band representative during remastering with no

connection to the original recording. Additionally, I investigate the artistic choices

underpinning the perception of authenticity (see Chapter One in this thesis pp 31 –

38) and meaning of the original work in its digital replication, given the modern

digital tools available for adjustment. It is through this perspective and the application

of remastering practice from the Sunnyboys’ case study towards my own creative

work and the work of The Lyres that I aim to demonstrate that when ‘new learning

and knowledge are applied in practice, it can have utility for others’ (Harland, 2014,

p. 1114). Furthermore, by employing a multiple case study approach, I intend to

develop a stronger understanding of the phenomenon of remastering as well as

produce research outcomes of use to others (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2014).

In Chapter Six I conclude and disclose the findings of my research project. This

includes revealing the artistic, social, nostalgic and technological elements of digital

remastering practice and determining how cultural heritage, authenticity and meaning

are affected during the creation of its digital replica. From there I identify limitations

to the study, including the relative small sample of case participants, issues related to

musical genre and the specific recordings analysed, and the lack of a controlled studio

environment for the case study listening tests. The final stage involves suggesting

further areas of research, such as a comparison between remastering results achieved

in a professional studio as opposed to a home studio; the contrast between results

achieved by a skilled remastering engineer using professional mastering outboard

studio equipment as opposed to their digital plugin replicas; and a comparison of the

results attained by a number of alternate remastering engineers on a small collection

of recordings.

In the Appendix I have included links to a sample of the original and remastered

recordings used for comparative analysis as well as a detailed account of the

remastering engineer’s technique for the song The Colour Of Stone.

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Chapter 1 – Literature Review

Mastering and remastering – what is it?

Due to limitations in existing scholarly investigation and research, the practice and

objectives of mastering and remastering can be challenging to define (Shelvock,

2012; Nardi, 2014; Deruty & Tardieu, 2014). Mastering occurs at the final stage of

the music production process, after the music recording and mixing stages, to make

the final product and has been defined as the ‘last creative step between mixing and

replication’ (Katz, 2007, p. 9). The traditional role of mastering was to correct and

make adjustments to the final mixed music recording, mainly focused on equalisation

(EQ) and dynamics, as it was being transferred or cut from analogue tape to a record

master that would then be used to stamp or press vinyl records for distribution. This

was to ensure the vinyl records made commercially available to the public played

back correctly on their home record players and sound systems both sonically as well

as physically, for example, ensuring the stylus remained within the groove boundaries

of the vinyl record (see Chapter Four in this thesis p 143). Although this process

appears an important factor of music production, Temmer refers to it as insignificant

in nature by comparison to the final musical product and merely a means to an end

(1984). Alternatively, Nardi describes modern digital mastering practice as significant

in determining musical production outcomes and a creative process, based primarily

upon the ability of modern playback devices to better accommodate manipulation of

EQ and dynamic range (2014).

Remastering is the practice of manipulating older recordings to make them sound

optimal using modern playback systems and evolved through the introduction of the

digital CD as a replacement for the analogue vinyl record format (Nardi, 2014).

Initially record companies simply transferred or stamped the original master tape used

for vinyl reproduction on to the CD with minimal intervention believing this was

adequate (Sexton, 2009). However, as digital modern mastered recordings evolved

alongside digital playback devices to produce a sonic quality consisting of a stronger

emphasis on EQ and dynamics to optimise the format, early digital remasters of older

recordings appeared to be lacking in these areas. As a result remastering developed

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into the practice of using modern digital tools on older recordings to make them

sound less lacking in these areas and sit more comfortably sonically beside the

modern mastered ones. Remastering could therefore be described as the practice of

creating a new digital replica or creative work from an existing analogue music

artefact. When we consider the original musical artefact may be rich in musical

history with an associated sense of cultural heritage, the amount and type of

manipulation undertaken to create the digital replica becomes of crucial importance,

particularly if the aim is to maintain the context, meaning and significance of the

original work. There is also often the added pressure of the original work showing

signs of degradation with a need to create a digital replica in order to preserve the

original piece.

The 2009 CD remaster project of The Beatles’ catalogue is a useful case study to

assist in defining remastering practice and to understand the complexity regarding the

decision making process and significance of input afforded to the remastering

engineers. The Beatles’ original commercially released albums, arguably rich in both

musical history and cultural heritage, were remastered at Abbey Road Studios in

London and released commercially on CD digital format. Abbey Road engineer and

preservationist of The Beatles’ recordings Allan Rouse described his remastering

team’s minimalist approach to intervention below, particularly with respect to

maintaining the context and meaning of the original recordings in line with how the

public originally received them. As he writes;

We'd already agreed that if we thought a 'mistake' was in any way connected

with the performance, we weren’t going to touch it,' he says. 'Breaths, Ringo's

squeaky bass drum pedal, the squeaky chair at the end of “A Day in the Life”,

coughs, (Lennon's) 'fuck' in the middle of “Hey Jude” - all of these things

were going to remain (Sexton, 2009, p. 24).

Rouse’s approach to creating a digital replica respects the meaning, integrity and

perceived cultural significance of the original performance and recordings even

though his team had the digital skills and tools to remove the mistakes he mentioned.

It appears to be consistent with the view of remastering as primarily a historical

restoration practice with the main purpose of using modern mastering and recording

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equipment to transform older noisier recordings, particularly 78rpm recordings, into

an acceptable state for listeners using modern playback equipment (Brink, 1992). The

original artistic artefact is therefore treated as an ‘audio information set’ where

information cannot be added; only altered (Brink, 1992, p. 14). Although Rouse

decided not to intervene within performance mistakes by members of The Beatles,

there was an attempt to chase and create a more modern sound of this iconic band.

Clayton-Lea states that although limiting was not used on the mono releases, it was

employed on the stereo masters in an effort to raise the overall level (2009). Therefore

a decision was made by The Beatles’ remastering project team to use limiting on the

stereo release but not the mono release. In the next section I examine remastering

practice as it relates to film to help further illuminate and define this concept.

Remastering in film

The study of film digital restoration and remastering is a useful reference when

examining the practice of digital audio remastering of music recordings as both

mediums and technologies have been in use over a similar time period. These creative

artefacts can form part of a nation’s cultural heritage and they share similar

remastering production goals of preserving and improving the quality of the original

without modifying the original artistic intent of the content (Croci, Aydın, Stefanoski,

Gross & Smolic, 2017). Indeed, the practice of remastering and adding a tonality or

specific colours to produce a certain feel or sound in music has been described as

similar to the ‘way that a movie film might be colorized by a professional whose job

it is to ensure a uniform hue that suits the mood of the film’ (Rumsey, 2011, p. 439).

Although in film literature the term ‘restoration’ appears to be primarily used as

opposed to ‘remastering’ – in reference to the digitisation process of preservation and

quality improvement – there is evidence to suggest both terms are used to portray

similar meaning, and that the term remastering was favoured primarily for marketing

purposes (Kurtilla, 2011; Mattock, 2010).

Film and music remastering are similar in practice as they both consist of a series of

steps or interventions within a workflow performed by industry specialists with

specialised digital tools (Croci et al., 2017). In film, these interventions primarily

20

consist of a digital scan and transfer of the original film into a digital format taking

into account chemical, physical and other damage to the original film materials,

digital manipulation to improve the image quality and aural content, and the export

and rendering of the final remastered product into a digital format and codec for

distribution and playback (Busche, 2006).

It is perhaps the cultural heritage and importance we place on film as a society that

has led both the International Federation of Film Archives (FIAF) and the Association

of Moving Image Archivists (AMIA) to develop a code of ethics to embrace

challenges surrounding film remastering (Mattock, 2010). In particular, the

importance and significance of the digitally remastered product from a historic film

artifact to ‘not affect our understanding of an object or the cultural identity of a group

of people’, improve the ‘readability of a work of art or its historical significance’ and

for the restorer to ‘avoid falsification at any cost’ (Busche, 2006, p. 4-5). For a

tangible example of this concern, when MGM announced plans to colourise 24 films

from their back catalogue in 1986, film institutions and practitioners including Woody

Allen and John Huston denounced the process as a ‘threat to the originality of the art-

work and the moral rights of the creator’ (Grainge, 1999, p. 622). Section 1.4 from

the FIAF Code of Ethics is quoted in full as follows:

1.4 When copying material for preservation purposes, archives will not edit or

distort the nature of the work being copied. Within the technical possibilities

available, new preservation copies shall be an accurate replica of the source

material. The processes involved in generating the copies, and the technical

and aesthetic choices which have been taken, will be faithfully and fully

documented (Mattock, 2010, p. 74).

The above statement provides a clear guideline for the remastering engineer to follow

with regards to achieving an accurate digital replica of the original and encourages

reflection and process through documentation. However, ethics in general only

provides ‘a point of reference to be used when dealing with complex ethical issues

and does not instruct the profession about the difference between right and wrong’

and merely ‘supports the reasoning’ as opposed to ‘explains what to do’ (Busche,

2006, p. 5). With an ethical guide to follow as opposed to a firm list of rules the film

21

remastering engineer’s level and amount of intervention in creating a digital replica of

an historic film artifact is open to their interpretation of what is required and how the

final digital replica should appear. Following are two case studies to assist in

understanding the role and practice of film restoration and remastering and how

interpretations of intervention can vary. While these examples are very different, one

a fictional Hollywood film and the other a historical archive, it is these differences

that make them appropriate case studies in remastering across different genres and

contexts.

Alfred Hitchcock’s 1958 film Vertigo was originally filmed in VistaVision (a double-

framed 35mm film format). As this became an obsolete format the photochemical

restoration team decided to transfer it to a 70mm film format. The original soundtrack

consisted of dialogue, music and sound effects all mixed together during

postproduction on to one mono channel. During the process the team discovered it

could not simply copy the soundtrack without significant sound degradation so they

decided to digitise the dialogue tracks only which meant the original Foley would be

lost and would have to be recreated. Apart from the aspect ratio, the restored and

remastered version of Vertigo was different to the original 1958 version in terms of

‘sharpness, contrast, colour balance, the number of sound changes, and their content’

and the end result ‘was not a version that audiences had seen in its original release,

but what Hitchcock had shot’ (Kurtilla, 2011, pp. 10-11). From a commercial

standpoint with regards to marketing reissued and remastered classic films there

appears to be a dual task that is applied; to achieve authenticity the reproduction must

be faithful to the original producer’s intentions while at the same time in order for it

to be marketable in the present it needs to be enhanced and remastered to take full

advantage of new technologies (Klinger, 2006).

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Apollo 11 Moon

Landing is arguably one of the most important historical pieces of film from the 20th

Century. Broadcast on July 20, 1969 to a worldwide audience, the famous black and

white grainy footage was digitally remastered to produce a clearer image by a team of

specialists with experience in remastering the iconic 1942 film Casablanca. This

procedure was not without its challenges in that NASA had erased the original video

of the live TV transmission as a result of cost savings, a policy which saw the erasing

22

and reusing of about 200,000 tapes which it mostly described as simple data tapes

(Borenstein, 2009). In order to create the remastered product the restoration team

worked from four copies they found across the world. One of the enhancements was

astronaut Neil Armstrong's face visor that in the original footage was fuzzy and the

remastered version depicts the visor clearly with a reflection in it. Additionally, the

remastering of the moon landing was to coincide with the 40th anniversary of the

event so one could argue there was a commercial element involved, similar to say

‘anniversary’ editions of remastered music releases (O’Malley, 2015). Remastering in

this instance arguably distorts the original context of the moon landing, in particular

the potential for unfair criticism towards the people and technology used to produce

the original grainy footage as compared against the perceived improvements of the

remaster. However, there is also a view that although the remastered copies of the

moon landing may look superior, ‘when dealing with historical film footage, you

always want the original to study’ (Borenstein, 2009, p. 2).

The Vertigo and NASA Apollo 11 Moon Landing film restoration and remastering

case studies highlight the vast differences in approach to remastering practice

dependent on the outcome. In the case of digitally remastering Vertigo it was

determined to make significant interventions to the original film including aspect

ratio, sharpness, contrast and colour balance as well as to recreate the Foley discarded

during the digitisation process to deliver a version of the film that is different to what

the original audience would have experienced but compliant with current technology

for playback and preservation. This significant level of intervention and artistic

choices implemented, particularly the newly created digitised Foley, is consistent with

the view that ‘film restoration will remain a very interactive art, where experience and

intuition of the conservator play a decisive role, especially for very old and heavily

degraded material’ (Croci et al, 2017, p. 13). The digital remastering of the NASA

Apollo 11 Moon Landing film appears to depict a more technical approach where the

original footage was enhanced visually to improve what the original audience would

have seen without the recreation or introduction of new elements such as Foley for

example. This approach is consistent with the view that ‘a restoration is a critical

interpretation, not an artistic enhancement of the object’ and is also aligned with the

significance of historical film footage for study purposes as opposed to interpretation

from a remastered version (Busche, 2006, p. 8).

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Limitations and gaps in the previous research

A number of key studies into remastering have suggested that there is a lack of

scholarly material surrounding not only mastering but also remastering (Deruty &

Tardieu, 2014; Nardi, 2014; Shelvock, 2012). Often referred to as the ‘dark arts’ due

to the lack of research undertaken and information disclosed, Shelvock states that the

‘cultural ramifications of re-mastering may also be a worthwhile lacuna for

examination’ (2012, p. 57). This lack of cultural examination concerning remastering

is further evidenced in the study undertaken by Bottomley who suggests ‘relatively

little scholarship exists that examines how the resurrection of these old musical texts

affects their meaning and value’ and that ‘the phenomenon of reissues has been

almost entirely overlooked in the fields of popular music studies, media studies, and

musicology’ (2016, p. 151 - 153). Nardi laments ‘an apparent lack of scholarly

attention’ in the field of remastering and mastering and one whose ‘influence is rarely

acknowledged if not even noticed at all by both music listeners and music scholars’

and stated mastering was ‘as a crucial gateway between production and consumption

insofar as it consists of the final step of sound manipulation before a product is

released for sale, and as such it deserves wider consideration’ (2014, p. 10). Deruty

and Tardieu qualify their research on mastering by stating that it ‘does not deal with

the practice of remastering, which has been criticised for altering the original content

of classic tracks and would require a dedicated study’ (2014, p. 43). Although

O’Malley’s study provided a comprehensive and detailed account of remastering

practice through its focus on a selection of classic albums, there was no mention in

the scope of the study on how this process might be applied to non-classic releases or

analogue demo recordings (2015).

While excellent scholarly research into the area of mastering and remastering exists,

there is evidence that perhaps there is a need for more research into this topic,

particularly in the matter of manipulating original recordings and the considerations

around this process (Deruty & Tardieu, 2014; Nardi, 2014; Shelvock, 2012).

Furthermore, there appeared to be very little (if any) scholarly or non-scholarly

attention paid to the question of whether the remastering process applied to well-

known and iconic studio recordings could be applied to demo recordings and what

would the likely outcome be (Lewis, 2006; McLeod, 2014; Perone, 2013). It is

24

therefore one of the key aims of this thesis to contribute information to the field of

study of not only the process of the digital remastering of classic albums, but also the

application of this remastering process on analogue non-released self-financed demo

recordings emanating from similar time periods (Brett, 2013; O’Malley, 2015). It is

envisaged this research project will provide critical, scholarly and practical

information to assist artists and researchers with similar aspirations to remaster and

modernise older analogue recordings to manage expectations when determining

whether this would be a worthwhile pursuit; what are the likely outcomes sonically;

what are the specific roles of the artist, producer and remastering engineer during the

process and how they interact professionally and socially; and what are the possible

aspects of nostalgic and authenticity considerations that may need to be addressed.

This project consists of a written thesis comprising qualitative and quantitative data

analysis with the researcher in the role of producer and artist. It also includes links to

a collection of original and remastered recordings used in this research for sonic

comparison.

Remastering as an artistic and creative process

As defined previously, the traditional role of mastering was of a corrective and

technical nature and primarily through the evolution of digital technology and tools

available to the modern mastering engineer has transformed into a more creative

practice (Nardi, 2014; Rumsey, 2011). Elements concerning musical taste including

sequencing, spacing, fading, equalisation and the choice to normalise an entire album

to deliver slow ballads and faster more energetic rock songs at the same perceived

loudness, could all be argued to be artistic decisions as opposed to technical ones

(Shelvock, 2012). While the traditional aspects of the role may still exist, and there is

an argument that the limited functions of mastering continue to be more correctional

than creative, current research is demonstrating mastering as a creative dimension.

If we view the modern studio as more than simply a means to capture an artist’s live

sound, a creative environment with tools to digitally manipulate recordings, we place

the mastering engineer at the ‘intersection of what is widely acknowledged as the

moment of creation, which is normally identified with songwriting, arranging and

performance’ (Nardi, 2014, p. 11). The concept of modern mastering as creative

25

practice is also embodied in O’Malley’s interview with producer and engineer Jeff

Lynne, perhaps best known for his work with the Electric Light Orchestra (ELO) and

production work on The Beatles 1995 single release of Free as a Bird and Real Love.

As he writes;

Lynne often knew how he wanted the finished product to sound, and would

drive every element of the process by personally overseeing the mastering

sessions, and by adjusting EQ and compression to get the sound exactly as he

wished. Lynne expressed a liking for the sonic quality that the inherent nature

of vinyl imparted onto the sound of the master, sometimes feeling that a flat

sounding mix was given a bit more punch by the process (O’Malley, 2015)

Lynne’s partiality for the process he describes above highlights the creative and

artistic options available to the modern mastering engineer. The mastering engineer

must therefore decide whether to ‘transfer as much as possible of the sound of the

digital master onto the vinyl disc or whether to enhance it in some way’ and if the

latter is decided this often results in creative discussion and consultation with others

(Rumsey, 2014, p. 559). The remastering engineer operating within the digital

environment appears to share the same artistic responsibilities as the modern

mastering engineer, particularly with reference to working with vinyl, and often needs

to apply these artistic and creative decisions to iconic analogue music recordings.

There is evidence to suggest that the creative and artistic choices available to the

mastering and remastering engineer can influence musical attributes within a piece of

recorded music through intervention. With French electro-house music for example,

there is a tendency to ‘maximize average amplitude and reduce dynamic range’

during the mastering stage with an additional maximization of lower end frequencies

to ideally suit the large sub-woofer speaker systems of the clubs and venues it will be

played at (Shelvock, 2012, pp. 11-12). The ability to maximise average amplitude

through dynamic signal processing onto the digital CD format has also been identified

as a significant element of the grunge music genre of the late 1980s to early 1990s.

Nirvana’s Smells Like Teen Spirit for example has been described as being

‘distinguished by an increase in volume as much as anything else’ (Vickers, 2010, p.

6). However, it is not just dynamic manipulation at the mastering and remastering

26

stage leading to increases in volume, maximised average amplitude or reduced

dynamic range of the remastered versions that can impact music genre. Digitally

cutting and boosting certain frequencies at the mastering and remastering stage can

also relate to genre, for example bright sounding for country and a reduced brightness

for reggae (Shelvock, 2012). Additionally, it is likely that many musicians will object

to tape hiss and other noise introduced through production long before they object to

distortion added during the production process, which may be a desired feature in

certain musical styles and genres and an artistic decision (Lagadec & Pelloni, 1983).

The creation of new digital formats has also led to further artistic and creative

opportunities for mastering and remastering engineers, similar to the impact and

introduction of the CD format to accommodate an increase in loudness unattainable

on vinyl record production. Traktor Remix Sets for example is a digital format that

allows DJs to mix, loop and process a stem master with isolated tracks which would

not be possible with a stereo mix. This new format ‘encourages new practices among

mastering engineers, whose targets are not only music listeners but, specifically,

music performers as well’ (Nardi, 2014, p. 9). The role of the mastering and

remastering engineer has therefore evolved with technology to accommodate the

changes in musical tastes of the public and artists, and the manner in which recorded

music is consumed. This evolution in mastering and remastering practice supports the

view that modern mastering and remastering consists of two main parts; an aesthetic

one and a technical one (Ojanen, 2015). However, the distinction and separation of

technology and art in audio mastering appears impossible as both elements are

intermittently entwined (Nardi, 2014).

Cultural and personal heritage in contemporary music

Within the fields of rock and contemporary music there appears to be an initial

challenge of associating and classifying the cultural and heritage significance and

impact using traditional definitions. These traditional definitions include the idea that

the cultural artefact contains ‘representations of custom, tradition and place that

coalesce within the cultural memory of a particular national or regional context and

fundamentally contribute to the shaping of the latter’s collective identity’ (Bennett,

27

2009, p. 476-477). The mass-produced commercial properties of rock music appear

to be in contrast to these traditional definitions, however it can be argued that with

regards to an ageing baby-boomer generation, rock and contemporary popular music

is embedded within its cultural memory and generational identity (Bennett, 2009).

There appears to be a need to digitally archive popular music recordings to protect

local histories (Baker, 2018) and cultural heritage as well as provide new ways to

interact with the art (Long, 2013). This digital archive practice therefore provides a

link and continuity to the musical past (Cohen, 2016) in order for communities to

have a close relationship to their music culture and heritage (Leonard, 2017).

This is evidenced by reference to the remastering engineers who worked on the 2009

Beatles remastered CD release as having ‘been bestowed with the onerous task of

sonically cleaning what is surely not just pop music but cultural heritage’ (Clayton-

Lea, 2009, p. 2). Another tangible account of the cultural heritage and significance of

rock and popular music was the recent ‘listed building’ status afforded to the

pedestrian crossing at Abbey Road (immortalised on the cover of The Beatles album

of the same name) by the official authorities (Roberts & Cohen, 2013).

Unlike in film restoration and remastering where there is a clear attempt by industry

(FIAF and AMIA) to develop a code of ethics to guide behaviour of practitioners to

ensure any digital replica of a historical film artifact will enhance and not diminish

our understanding of its original intended meaning and protect its perceived cultural

heritage, music remastering practice appears devoid of an industry affiliated code of

ethics (Mattock, 2010). This lack of a reference and benchmark for remastering

engineers appears problematic, particularly when you consider the significance of

their input into the creation of digital replicas and the constantly evolving array of

digital tools and techniques available to them. Therefore, the capacity of the

remastering engineer to falsify the original meaning and diminish cultural heritage of

an original music artifact through its digital replication is arguably more likely in

music as opposed to film, as there are no industry affiliated benchmarks or guidelines

to reference and adhere to (Busche, 2006). To assist the music remastering engineer to

deliver an acceptable digital replica there is a belief that it would be beneficial to

‘have information about what effects have been applied originally and how, in order

to produce a remastered edition that sounds better, and not different from the original

record’ (Barchiesi & Reiss, 2010, p. 563). However, it is arguable that a technical

28

blueprint regarding all of the nuances of the original production would be helpful

considering there exists a pre-meditated approach amongst some practitioners to

mainly focus on manipulation of the upper and lower ends of the useful spectral range

only, when these are sometimes not the most needed adjustments (Brink, 1992).

With reference to the creation of a significantly different sonic and cultural digital

representation of an original music artifact, it is important to define the practice of

remixing, often confused with that of remastering (Bennett, 2009). Remixing,

sampling and mash-ups all involve using digital technology to extrapolate sections

and elements of an original music artifact in order to produce a new creative work.

Therefore remixes often bear little resemblance to the original musical artifact and

purposely challenge Western conceptions of art and any sense of cultural heritage

associated with the original iconic music recordings (Barham, 2014). The difference

between the two practices and their respective impact on cultural heritage is portrayed

in Bennett’s interview below with record label Songworks’ founder Mike (surname is

not disclosed) using the Sistine Chapel painted ceiling as an analogy (2009). As he

writes;

A.B.: Do you remix albums before putting them onto CD?

Mike: We re-master, we don’t remix. . .I think remixing is tampering with

history. It’s like nipping down to the Sistine Chapel and changing the colour

scheme of it, y’know, as opposed to just cleaning it up.

A.B.: So you never do anything like that. . .even when the sound quality could

be better by. . .

M: Well that’s re-mastering, not re-mixing. You’re asking me about two

different things. That’s why [I use] the analogy with nipping down the Sistine

Chapel. If you clean it up you can see it better that would be like re-mastering.

But you don’t change the colour scheme, ‘cause that would be like re-mixing

(Bennett, 2009, p. 485).

Remastering engineer Mike is adamant that remixing alters the meaning of the

original work and interferes with the cultural heritage, identity and significance

associated with the original work. Alternatively, Mike viewed remastering as

primarily a restoration service used to enhance the cultural value and meaning of an

29

original music artifact by making a digital replica that is more assessable modern

playback devices and with less noise and other sonic interference. However, choosing

to remaster or remix an iconic analogue recording is not always a mutually exclusive

exercise. Artist Jeff Lynne recently revisited his back catalogue of recordings and

decided to rerecord, remix, remaster and rerelease various recordings to digitally

improve performance and sonic elements (O’Malley, 2015). Lynne’s decision to

remix as opposed to remaster existing released songs from his back catalogue appears

to challenge the artist’s and listener’s need or desire to maintain the original meaning

and cultural heritage associated with the original recording. Furthermore, Lynne’s

choice to re-record and re-release various songs previously recorded and released,

completely removing the original musical artefact from the production process,

therefore could be argued removes perceived cultural heritage aligned with the

original recording. The perceived desire by listeners and artists to maintain a sense of

cultural heritage and meaning associated with an original musical artefact through

digital replication is therefore not conclusive.

Apart from the improvement of performance and sonic elements, another potential

motivation for remastering would be to protect the original artefact from degradation,

and hence guard against any loss of cultural heritage and meaning associated with the

eventual demise of the original artefact (O’Malley, 2015). The original gates from

Strawberry Fields, the Salvation Army children's home in Liverpool, UK, which

inspired The Beatles’ song Strawberry Fields Forever, have been replaced with

replicas to produce an authentic experience without the risk of damage to the original

artefact (Roberts & Cohen, 2013). The decision to replace these iconic gates to protect

the original ones, to in a sense maintain a level of cultural heritage and meaning of the

original artefact through a replication with no physical link with the original, tends to

support the view that the community is satisfied culturally with this concept.

Another consideration in determining the cultural heritage and significance of an

original musical artefact is the commercial push, often from record companies, to

market and promote a digital replica or remastered release as somehow being superior

in some way to the original release. In his study of The Beach Boys iconic album Pet

Sounds and their record company’s marketing strategy for the remastered release,

Bottomley suggests that their approach relied on the idea that ‘the original was

30

somehow flawed’ and these flaws were rectified through ‘remixing or remastering,

reordered track lists and different artwork’ (2016, p. 160). Furthermore, Bottomley

states that the ‘paratextual (cover art, liner notes, advertisements) materials suggested

that the re-release version is actually offered as being better—and more authentic—

than any of its predecessors, including even the original’ (2016, p. 160). If the digital

replica is viewed as a superior product by comparison to the original music artefact,

then cultural heritage, significance and meaning linked to the original artefact, is also

somehow flawed or diminished. However, as this was primarily a marketing

campaign for commercial gain, the notion of the consumer perceiving digital replicas

to be superior to the original is not clear. In an analysis of Swedish popular music

sensation ABBA, it was stated that there was no conclusive evidence that the

remastered product was superior to the original and in fact ‘the irony is that the

remastering of ABBA’s catalogue has, with respect to dynamic range, probably gotten

further from the master tapes with each new release’ (Vickers, 2010, p. 7). Therefore

the ABBA remasters’ format and sonic shape are also further away culturally with

respect to the heritage, significance and meaning attributed to the original musical

artefacts.

This attribution of meaning by the public to original music artefacts can be broken

down further into what has been termed personal heritage. Barratt states that personal

heritage was the creation of an archive of personal experience by ordinary individuals

providing a deeper dimension to the historical event (2009). As he writes;

For example, the reality of the First World War suddenly made sense when

viewed through the surviving letters, photographs, service record and

associated unit war diary of a great grandfather who had left his home and

family to fight in the trenches, rather than a depressing list of statistics, battles

and political maps outlining the course of the war. (Barratt, 2009, p. 10)

If we were to place this example in musical terms a relative delivering a detailed

account of attending a Beatles’ concert amidst the euphoria of Beatlemania

accompanied by a collection of photographs and ticket stubs potentially becomes

more ‘alive’ and ‘real’ than perhaps witnessing a clip of the band performing the

same concert on YouTube. Furthermore, personal heritage does not necessarily need

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to involve celebrities or well-established artists to be of use. According to Barratt,

historians lament the lack of personal accounts of ordinary daily lives in medieval

times to achieve a greater understanding of the conditions of life and encouraged

‘people to keep track of their lives, so that their memories and stories are passed on to

the next generation, and in many ways the internet offers the freedom, scope and

technology to do so’ (2009, p. 13). Therefore, digital technology offers musicians and

artists, whether commercially successful or not, the opportunity to archive and

distribute their experiences and recordings on various digital formats through digital

media. Timothy concludes that ‘people need the past to cope with the present, because

patterns in the world make sense if we share a history with them’ and the concept of

personal heritage, particularly digitised personal accounts that are able to be

distributed quickly and easily online, appears to allow that (1997, p. 752). It is

therefore feasible to suggest that digital personal heritage can assist in the delivery

and preservation of cultural heritage associated with established artists regarding time

and place, particularly if a pre-digital era is examined. For example, if we explore the

early career of The Beatles before they became famous it is likely there would be less

imagery and recordings available as opposed to when they became successful,

primarily due to the prohibitive (by today’s standards) cost and cumbersome nature of

photography and recording of the time. Therefore, through distributed digitised

personal heritage collections of ordinary citizens who may have seen the band

perform, played in a similar looking and sounding band, performed in comparable

venues or lived in the same neighborhood at the time, these materials arguably assist

in creating a greater understanding of what life was like for the pre-famous Beatles.

Authenticity in contemporary music

The collection of alternate definitions and approaches regarding authenticity in

contemporary music literature suggests a complexity of understanding and challenge

of agreement amongst scholars. For Wu, Spieß and Lehmann, authenticity in music

depended upon music genre, the era of performance, the social reference group and

comprised value indicators including ‘credibility, fidelity, traditional and original,

pure, real, serious, uniqueness, historically correct and being true to oneself ‘ (2017,

p. 443). Douglas claims that ‘cultural constructions such as race, gender, and age all

32

contribute to definitions of authenticity’ (2016, p. 194). Authenticity therefore appears

closely associated with time and place, particularly regarding era, race, age and social

reference groups. Although these common themes concerning authenticity have been

identified, Speers proposes that ‘there is little agreement over what it is or, indeed,

whether it even exists’ (2017, p. 16). Furthermore, van Klyton concludes that

although authenticity is often used to represent and determine the value of music, it is

‘a conceptualisation of elusive, inadequately defined, other cultural, socially ordered

genuineness’ and like most social values, subjective (2016, p. 107). Despite Speers’

initial proposition of a degree of difficulty in understanding authenticity and

agreement within scholarship, she defines three different approaches or ideologies

concerning authenticity in music; the first where authenticity is inherent within the

‘person, object, event or performance’; the second where authenticity is a ‘socially

agreed upon construct’ and the third where authenticity is ‘produced through cultural

activity and living them out’ (2017, p. 16). Closely aligned to the ideology of

authenticity as a social construct, Moore describes authenticity in contemporary music

as being ‘ascribed to rather than inscribed’ that would suggest a causal connection

between performer and audience. (2009, p. 220). Furthermore, Moore states that it

was perhaps more worthwhile to therefore identify ‘who rather than what was being

authenticated’ (2009, p. 220). To identify who was being authenticated Moore

proposes that there are only three responses possible; ‘the performer herself, the

performer’s audience, or an (absent) other who is being authenticated’ (2009, p. 220).

This ideology was developed further in Moore’s study of authenticity as

authentication, where he advises that authenticity in music can be broken down into

three elements; authenticity in the first person, the second person and the third person

(2009).

First person authenticity ‘arises when an originator (composer, performer) succeeds in

conveying the impression that his/ her utterance is one of integrity, that it represents

an attempt to communicate in an unmediated form with an audience’ (Moore, 2009, p.

214). In essence the artist’s performance conveys a sense of truth and honesty of their

condition and circumstance and it is then up to the audience to either accept or reject

this representation of authenticity. Wu, Spieß and Lehmann refer to this

representation as ‘personal authenticity’ that ‘addresses the relationship between

musician and music’ (2017, p. 446). Moore provides the example of artist Paul

33

Weller’s performance of The Changingman whereby ‘he employs gravelly vocals

connoting a voice made raw from crying or shouting’ and that ‘the assumption here is

that his listeners have personal experience of what gives rise to such crying and

shouting and that, therefore, the result conjures up an active memory of the cause’

(Moore, 2009, p. 212). Additionally, Moore suggests that Weller’s use of 1960s

vintage guitars and his practice of recording live with minimal overdubs, as opposed

to current digital practice with more sophisticated options, further enhanced his

representation of self as an authentic performer, someone who is exposing the truth

and realness within (2009). This appears consistent with Davies who advises in his

research concerning authenticity within orchestral music that ‘the sound of an

authentic performance will be the sound of those notes’ which implies a pure

performance or recording with historically accurate instruments (1987, p. 3).

However, Connell suggests that authenticity through self-expression could be

invented and constructed through behaviour and imagery that automatically implies

continuity with some existing form or historic past (2002). Therefore Weller’s use of

music instrumentation from the 1960s and its inherent imagery and practice of an

older style and technique of music recording may be assigned a perception of

authenticity from an audience not solely through Weller’s expression of self but also

from an ‘automatic’ memory of theirs from that time period. In Speers’ study into

authenticity concerning hip-hop music she identifies a paradox between self and other

(2017). She described the phenomenon that in order for rappers to gain acceptance

and approval from others and potentially progress their respective careers, they

conform to various concepts of authenticity work as predetermined by others and

therefore they are not necessarily being true to themselves. As she writes;

It raises the question of the extent to which a rapper’s desire for authenticity is

for him/herself, or for social validation among peers, or for acceptance from

fans through perpetuating a particular view of what hip-hop is. The way in

which rappers have to negotiate the tension between individual expression and

community practices highlights the tension between ‘rapper authenticity’ and

‘hip-hop authenticity’ (Speers, 2017, p. 18).

Second person authenticity is described by Moore as being observed ‘when a

performance succeeds in conveying the impression to a listener that that listener’s

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experience of life is being validated, that the music is “telling it like it is” for them’

(2009, p. 220). This reference to authenticity appears consistent with Connell who

advocates that authenticity is observed when the performer ‘delivers a performance

that serves to bring out fully its (inner) meaning and where listeners read this

emotional meaning by bringing their personal experience to bear on the performance’

(2002, p.29). The audience or listener can therefore directly relate to the musical

performance or recording as an authentic representation of his or her own lives, or a

perception of one. This makes this ideology of perceived authenticity a subjective

matter according to Speers. As she writes;

Therefore the claim of authenticity made by or for a person, thing or

performance has to be either accepted or rejected by relevant others. This is

called the process of authentication. It calls attention to the importance of not

just the intention of those wanting to be authentic, but how others receive and

perceive them, which is a highly subjective affair (Speers, 2017, p. 16).

In his study regarding the authenticity surrounding French folk music and dance,

Revill concludes that over time and with the exclusion of access to high art definitions

of culture, the folk ‘generation by generation they transform folk music into

something of true beauty created naturally and authentically from the unselfconscious

actions of everyday folk’ (2004, p. 205). Furthermore, Littlefield and Siudzinski

contest that within communities representative of their ‘own set of norms and values’

that ‘songwriters gain particular respect in this community for their originality and

authenticity (2011, p. 796). Popular music created naturally within a geographical

location and/or community therefore assumes a sense of authenticity over time based

upon participation by community members and the perception of other community

members regarding what music is authentic to them. This sense of attaching a

perception of local authenticity to music that is geographically based is, according to

Holland, often exploited by ‘media-driven stereotyping of musically prominent cities’

to commercially construct a sense of place (2012, p. 126). For example, this is evident

in the term Mersey Beat which was used to describe the music and sound emitting

geographically from and commercially structured within the English city of

Liverpool, predominantly started by The Beatles in the early to mid-1960s (Atkinson,

2011). However, van Klyton describes the potential diminished impact of cultural

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authenticity over time in his study concerning World Music (2016). He suggests that

‘world music performances from West Africa, for example, could have a more

modern (and less authentic feel) than it originally did 30 years ago’ based upon the

modernisation of some African territories and the perceived change in social, political

and economic aspects (van Klyton, 2016, p. 108). Additionally, a societal and cultural

shift towards modernisation is ‘largely used to denote a dispersion and diffusion of

values, a loss of aura and authenticity’ (Jones, 2002, p. 213). If we revisit the example

of Mersey Beat one could argue that the perception of authenticity linked towards

original music produced today in Liverpool is perhaps less than that produced in the

city 50-60 years ago based primarily upon globalisation, technological change and the

city’s transformation, as opposed to merely a change in musical trends.

Moore provides an example of second person authenticity as the dedication by

predominantly Celtic bands (U2, Simple Minds) in the 1980s against a backdrop of

electronic synthesiser focused music to feature the guitar and adhere to ‘traditional

rock values for white urban bourgeois youth’ to relate to as a better representation of

themselves and identity (2009, 220). Wu, Spieß and Lehmann refer to this as ‘cultural

authenticity’ and described it as concerned with the recipients response, perception

and reaction to the music in terms of being truthfully representative of a certain

origin, culture, time and place (2017, p. 446). It could therefore be argued that

perhaps this perception of cultural authenticity by the youth supporting these Celtic

bands was also influenced by an opinion that technology-based music was as

inauthentic alternative. As described by Connell, ‘popular music that was placeless,

created electronically and highly commercial, was regarded as a major disjuncture

between producers and consumers, and a denial of authenticity’ (2002, p. 38). In a

similar example, the term “Guitar-Pop” was used to describe a subculture of the live

music scene of Sydney in the early 1980s. It possessed a startling similarity to Mersey

Beat in that it consisted of predominantly male bands with Beatlesque harmonies,

haircuts, 1960s mod fashion and plying their trade with vintage looking and sounding

clean and jangly Rickenbacker guitars through VOX AC-30 amplifiers (Easton,

2013). The use of historically accurate instruments was perhaps a purposeful strategy

to attain a perception of cultural authenticity against the impending digital musical

genre of “New Wave” that was saturated in artificial MIDI instruments, sounds and

automated drum machines. This appears consistent with Littlefield and Siudzinski’s

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research that discovered that ‘some brands r