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Bakhshaee M, MDRhinologistAssistant Professor of Mashad University of Medical Sciences
Four sessions:
1. Anatomy, Physiology, and Immunology of the Nose, Paranasal Sinuses, and Face
2. History and Clinical Examination of the Nose; Tumors of the External Nose and Face
3. Malformations and common disorders of the Nose, Paranasal Sinuses, and Face
4. Inflammations of the External Nose, Nasal Cavity, and Facial Soft Tissues
Estimated time for each session is 100 min
Including:
1.Initial assessment: 10 min2.Lesson delivery: 60 min3.Discussion: 15 min4.Question and problems of previous
session: 10 min5.A brief talking on next session: 5
min
Anatomy, Physiology, and Immunology of the Nose, Paranasal Sinuses, and Face
Basic Anatomy of the Nose, Paranasal Sinuses, and Face
Morphology of the Nasal Mucosa
Basic Physiology and Immunology of the Nose
•The relaxed skin tension lines (RSTLs): Scars can be made less conspicuous by taking these tension lines into account
•The aesthetic units of the face: an important consideration in the treatment larger soft-tissue defects
Knowing the various components of the bony facialskeleton and their relationship to one anotheris important in trauma management and also inthe diagnosis and treatment o inflammatory diseasesof the facial skeleton and their complications.
Nasal VestibuleNasal SeptumNasal ValveLateral nasal WallChoana
Bony Structure:
1.Maxilla2.Ethmoid3.Palatine4.Inferior Turbinate5.Sphenoid
Functional apparatus:
1.Turbinate 2.Meatus3.Sinus ostia4.Nasolacrimal duct orifice
Roof:
1.Cribriform palate2.Ethmoid fovea
Floor:
Hard palate1.Maxilla (Ant)2.Palatine (Pos)
Air-filled cavities that communicate with the nasal cavities
All but the sphenoid sinus are present as outpunching of the mucosa during embryonic life, but except for the ethmoid air cells, they do not develop into bony cavities until after birth.
Medial: Lateral nasal
wall
Superior: Orbital floor
Posterior: Pterygopalatine fossa
Inferior: Alveolar ridge
( root of second premolar and first molar)
Medial: Middle turbinate
Superior: Fovea
ethmoidalis ( Ant cranial fossa)
Posterior: Sphenoid sinus
Lateral: Lamina
papyruses ( orbit)
Inferior: Nasopharynx
Superior: Ant and middle
cranial fossa , Sellae tursica
Posterior: Clivus and
posterior cranial fossa
Lateral: Optic nerve Internal carotid Cavernous sinus
Inferior: Orbital roof
Posterior: Anterior cranial fossa
Innervation
Muscular attachments
Mucus:Squamous epitheliumRespiratory MucosaOlfactory Mucosa
Respiratory Mucosa:1.Epithelium2.Lamina Properia:Venous erectile tissueNasal glandsImmunocompetent cells
Olfactory Mucosa:primary olfactory center( olfactory bulb)secondary olfactory center (olfactory cortex)tertiary olfactory centers (including the hippocampus,anterior insular region, and reticular formation)
Nose is of major importance in conditioningthe air before it reaches the lower airways
Nasal Air FlowLaminar vs Turbulent
Nasal CycleRegulate by autonomic nervous system80% of human each 2 hours
Humidification
Temperature regulation
Nonspecific Defense Mechanisms1.Mechanical defenses (mucociliary apparatus) 2. Nonspecific protective factors (Interferon, Proteases, Protease inhibitors , Lysozyme Antioxidants)3.Cellular defenses (phagocytic cells)
Specific Immune Responses1.Humoral immune response2.Cellular immune response3.The endothelial cells4.The epithelial cells
Various organ systems are involved in the production of voice and speech:
Glottis, Supraglottic vocal tract, Central nervous system must be coordinated in order to produce a normal voice sound
Hyponasal speech (rhinophonia clausa) : occurs when these segments contribute less to sound production as a result of partial or complete nasal obstruction or mass lesions in the nasopharynx
Hypernasal speech (rhinophonia aperta): develops when the nasopharynx
and nasal cavities over contribute to sound production. cleft palate, velar palsy due to various causes
The human olfactory system consists of
1. Intranasal olfactory mucosa 2. Primary olfactory center 3. Secondary olfactory center 4. Tertiary olfactory center
The precise sequence of events that are involved in olfaction is still uncertain.
1. Name the main the nasal septum structure.
2. Name the functions of the nose?
3. The major artery of the nose is ….
4. Sphenoid sinus is drained to ….5. Orbital cellulitis is seen often
due to … sinus involvement.
History and Clinical Examination of the Nose; Tumors of the External Nose and Face
Patients should be given an opportunity to describe their complaints “in their own words,”
Nasal obstructionDischargeEpistaxisSpecific allergy historyHeadachesOlfactory dysfunctionFacial pressure or pain
Acute and chronic rhinitis (e.g., allergic, atrophic)1. • Sinusitis2. • Deviated septum (congenital, acquired)3. • Nasal pyramid fracture4. • Septal perforation5. • Nasal polyps6. • Cephalocele7. • Adenoids8. • Tumors of the nose, paranasal sinuses, and nasopharynx9. • Foreign bodies (especially in small children)10.• Drugs
Adverse effects: oral contraceptives, antihypertensive agents (e.g., reserpine, propranolol, hydralazine), antidepressants (e.g., amitriptyline)
Drug abuse: e.g., oxymetazoline , phenylephrine
Transport of odorants1. Nasal obstruction Deviated
septum, mucosal2. swelling, polyps, tumor3. Scar tissue occluding the
olfactory groove4. After intranasal surgery Perception: damage to
the olfactory epithelium caused by:
1. Toxic substances SO2, NO, ozone,
2. Heavy metals, varnishes3. Drugs4. Viral infections Influenza5. Radiotherapy (rare)
Stimulus conduction and processing
1. Avulsion of fila olfactoria Skull base fracture
2. Aplasia of the olfactory bulb (rare)
3. Kallmann syndrome4. Injury to olfactory centers 5. Contusion or hemorrhage due to
head injury6. Neurodegenerative diseases7. Alzheimer disease,8. Parkinson disease,9. Diabetes mellitus10. Olfactory hallucinations after
epileptic seizures, in schizophrenia
Inspection
1.Mouth breathing2.Shape of the external nose3.Skin changes such as erythema
Palpation
Useful for detecting bony discontinuities
In patients with suspected neuralgias
To evaluate the nasal vestibule and the anterior portions of the nasal cavity
Posterior rhinoscopy was formerly done to evaluate the nasopharynx and posterior nasal cavity (choanae, posterior ends of the turbinates, posterior margin of the vomer)
Endoscopy is commonly used to examine this region
Nasal endoscopy has become the most important and rewarding clinical examination method in rhinologic diagnosis
First the examiner advances the endoscope into the nasopharynx and inspects:
Eustachian tube orifice Torus tubarius Posterior pharyngeal wall Roof of the nasopharynx
Nasal endoscopy is particularly useful for evaluating the ostiomeatal unit
Nasal Patency:
Hold a reflective metal plate under the nose
Holding a wisp of cotton in front of each nostril
Active anterior rhinomanometryAcoustic rhinometry
Skin Tests
The total immunoglobulin E (IgE) assay
Nasal provocation test
The total immunoglobulin E (IgE) assay
Several types of test substance are used:
1. Pure odorants that stimulate only the olfactory nerve (coffee, cocoa, vanilla, cinnamon, lavender)
2. Odorants with a trigeminal component (menthol, acetic acid, formalin)
3. Substances that also have a taste component (chloroform, pyridine).
Patients with a complete loss of smell (anosmia) cannot perceive pure odorants but can at least sense or taste the other substances.
Objective olfactory testing is far more costly and is generally performed only at large centers
Conventional RadiographsComputed Tomography (CT)Magnetic Resonance ImagingUltrasonography
Limited indication these days
Water projectionCaldwell
Acute inflammationTo evaluate midfacial
fractures
WATERS CALDWELL
If there is a high index of suspicion for sphenoid sinus involvement, a lateral sinus projection should be added to the study
The craniocaudal extent of the frontal and maxillary sinuses can also be evaluated with this technique
Indications
An occasional malformation, The main indications for CT scanning
of the nose and paranasal sinuses are 1.Chronic sinusitis 2.Trauma (especially frontobasal
fractures)3. Tumors
The normal mucosal lining of the sinuses is not visualized.
The bony sinus walls appear hyperdense (white)
The strength of MRI lies in its superior soft-tissue discrimination
Disorders that involve the paranasal sinuses in addition to the cranial cavity or orbit (e.g., tumors and congenital malformations such as encephaloceles)
It can also supply information that is useful in differentiating soft-tissue lesions within the paranasal sinuses (mucocele, cyst, polyp)
It can distinguish between solid tumor tissue and inflammatory perifocal reaction
Patients with electrically controlled devices such as a cardiac pacemaker, insulin pump, cytostatic pump, or cochlear implant.
Modern internal fixation materials such as titanium are usually nonmagnetic and therefore MRI-compatible
The paranasal sinuses can also be visualized with ultrasound.
The sphenoid sinus is inaccessible to ultrasound imaging because of its location.
1. Inverted Papilloma
2. Osteomas
It is a locally aggressive tumor, and transformation to squamous cell carcinoma is periodically described
Symptoms and diagnosis: Nasal airway obstruction, headache, and
occasional epistaxis. The lesion often has a polyp-like appearance when
inspected by nasal endoscopy
Treatment: The treatment of choice is surgical removal
Benign bone tumors that may occur as isolated masses, especially in the ethmoid cells and frontal sinus
Symptoms and diagnosis: Often they do not become symptomatic until they
obstruct drainage tracts to or from the paranasal sinuses, leading secondarily to headaches and recurrent bouts of sinusitis
Treatment: As soon as an osteoma becomes symptomatic, it
should be surgically removed
Malignant tumors of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses are far more common than benign masses.
Histologically, the great majority (> 80%) are tumors of the epithelial series (e.g., squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, adenoid cystic carcinoma).
Neoplasms of mesenchymal origin, such as osteosarcomas and chondrosarcomas, as well as malignant lymphomas are much less common.
Metastases from other malignancies are occasionally found, with the primary tumor residing in the kidney, lung, breast, testis, or thyroid gland.
The main sites of predilection are the nasal cavity and maxillary sinus, followed by the ethmoid cells, frontal sinus, and sphenoid sinus.
Because many tumors originate in the paranasal sinuses themselves, they often do not produce clinical manifestations until they have reached an advanced stage
Obstructed nasal breathing Bloody rhinorrhea Fetid nasal odor Swelling of the buccal soft tissues Swelling at the medial canthus Headache, facial pain, and Hypoesthesia or numbness of the cheek Orbital infiltration can lead to displacement
of the orbital contents, diplopia, or proptosis Trismous Epiphorea Dental loosening
Unilateral sinusitis that is refractory to treatment
The clinical examination includes
Endoscopic inspection of the nasal cavity
Search for regional lymph-node metastases by bimanual palpation of the cervical soft tissues.
Since sinus tumors are apt to invade the nasal cavity secondarily, endoscopy alone may provide little information on the extent of the mass. For this reason, computed tomography and/or magnetic resonance imaging should always be performed
is individualized according to the histology and extent of the malignant tumor, and the treatment plan should be coordinated with the radiotherapist and medical oncologist.
Since the great majority of lesions are
squamous cell carcinomas, however, the treatment of choice will usually consist of surgery and postoperative radiation
Since only about 20% of sinonasal malignancies metastasize to regional lymph nodes, a neck dissection is necessary only in patients who have clinically positive cervical nodes
Many of these cases will require postoperative radiotherapy
Is a rare neurogenic malignancy that arises from the sensory cells of the olfactory region and generally occurs in adults
Advanced, the tumor causes obstructed nasal breathing, recurrent epistaxis, and particularly hyposmia or anosmia.
Some of these tumors become symptomatic only after invading the cranial cavity or orbit, causing headache or visual deterioration
is based on endoscopy and especially computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging; only these modalities can accurately define the tumor extent
Based on a combination of tumor resection and postoperative radiotherapy
1. Name five more common sinonasal symptoms.
2. How you check the nasal patency?
3. What imaging modality is the best for sinonasal evaluation?
4. Name the common symptoms and signs of sinonasal tumor.
5. Which tumor is specific for the nasal cavity?
Malformations of the Nose, Paranasal Sinuses,and Face
Malformations involving the nose may be caused by developmental abnormalities of the nasal floor, palate, nasal roof, and intranasal region
Incidence of one in 5000 to one in 10,000 births. More often unilateral than bilateral. The atresia is bony in 90% of cases and membranous in only 10%.
Bilateral choanal atresia is an acutely life threatening emergency because the neonate, except when crying, is an obligate nasal breather until about the sixth week of life.
Cyanosis that is present at rest and improves with exertion is called paradoxical cyanosis because of its opposite pattern relative to cyanosis with a cardiac cause
Unilateral choanal atresia may be manifested by a purulent nasal discharge on the affected side.
Choanal atresia may be associated with various other anomalies:
CHARGE syndrome (coloboma; heart disease; atresia of the choanae; retarded growth, development and/or central nervous system anomalies; genital
hyperplasia; ear anomalies or deafness).
The clinical suspicion of choanal atresia can be confirmed by examination with a rigid or flexible endoscope
The acute care of choanal atresia in asphyxia consists of intubation followed by perforation of the atresia plate
The definitive surgical repair of bilateral choanal atresia is performed during the first weeks or months of life.
Surgery for unilateral atresia can be postponed until school age, when the anatomy of the region is more similar to that encountered in adults
Incidence of dysraphias involving the anterior skull base is approximately one in 20,000 to one in 40,000 births
Various manifestations that include:
1.Dorsal nasal fistulas 2.Dermoids 3.Frontonasal extracerebral gliomas4.Frontonasal extracerebral
cephaloceles
A dorsal nasal fistula consists of a fistulous tract that is lined by keratinized squamous epithelium and forms a tiny opening on the dorsum or tip of the nose
Fistulas that terminate blindly are usually manifested clinically at an older age due to inflammation around the fistulous opening.
If the fistula communicates with the subarachnoid space, it can lead to severe complications such as cerebrospinal fluid leakage, meningitis, or brain abscess
The diagnosis is established by computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging.
Diagnostic catheterization or contrast injection is contraindicated due to the risk of intracranial complications.
Treatment consists of complete removal of the fistulous tract
Cephaloceles are herniations of
intracranial contents through a bony
defect in the skull
Most cephaloceles are congenital, but rare cases are post-traumatic
Sincipital cephaloceles are located near the glabella, forehead or orbit.
Basal cephaloceles are found mainly in the nasal cavity or nasopharynx.
Most are manifested clinically during childhood.
The sincipital forms appear as: a pulsating mass near the glabella, often associated with a broad nasal dorsum and hypertelorism
Basal forms present as : an intranasal mass, typically with
associated nasal airway obstruction.
They closely resemble intranasal polyps and should be considered in the differential diagnosis of children with suspected nasal polyps, which are rare in this age group
Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Always surgical and consists of removing the cephalocele and repairing the dural defect