Norms, Rules, Rights, Society and Culture

This Week…

•What is equality?▫What does it mean, practically?

•What is an identity

•How are identities discriminated against?

•Social construction in race, ethnicity and gender

Equality in the State and in Politics

•States often identify watershed moments▫Election of minorities to positions of

powers in states like the US (Obama), Brazil (Rousseff), Argentina (Fernandez), Bolivia (Evo)

•But what does this actually mean?▫What problems are ultimately solved?▫Glass ceilings, sure, but what about real

societal change?

Review

•Identity: ▫“The social label ascribed to an individual

or group that locates the individual in political society more broadly.”

•Identities often have boundaries▫Us vs Them▫These boundaries are often socially

constructed▫Can often be based on visual differences

Important Boundaries of Identity

•Ethnic or Racial boundaries:▫World is full of different groups▫Biological differences, or cultural

differences, different traditions▫Very often associated with discrimination▫Depending on the nature of difference,

boundaries can be permeable▫These can be further entrenched in law

(Jim Crow Laws; Alien Races law)

Important Boundaries of Identity 2

•Gender (not sex, which is biologically defined)▫Primarily a social construction▫Also, not a binary

Trans, questioning, two spirited, non-binary/genderqueer

▫A concept that evolves over time (basically disproving biological determinism) If evolution can happen, revolution can too Open to activists seeking faster or radical

change

Important Boundaries of Identity 3

•Sexual orientation:▫Discrimination remains here▫Hetero-normativity remains the primary

lens through which the world is seen, as such “others” may be (and are) discriminated against

▫Broad range of issues here At the extreme, remains (or has recently

been made) illegal in numerous countries On the other hand, social movements have

successfully increased rights

Race as a Social Construction• Biologically, there is virtually no differences between

people that have traditionally been identified as of a different race▫ Irish as non-white

• Racialization: Historical process which led to groups being defined as one race or another▫ Differences between races in the US changed significantly

with the economy

• Consequently, race is a social construction, differences are imagined▫ Raises important questions about why these racial identities

emerged, who they benefited and why they were created

Ethnicity as Social Construction

•Ethnicity: Cultural commonality among a group▫Broader conception than race▫Not bound to state

African Americans or Mexican Americans don’t seek their own state

▫Primarily cultural Cultural traditions, rituals, practices

▫Some debate over whether this could serve to minimize concerns over the racialization of certain groups

More on Ethnicity

•Scholars sometimes view ethnicity as different depending on different societies (as such, they may treat different castes as having their own ethnic identity – a largely different experience than being African-, or Asian-American

•Melting pots, multicultural states and ethnicity▫Emergence of hyphenated identities in

many Western states

Discrimination Based on Race and Ethnicity

•Overt racism has lessened dramatically throughout much of the west▫Implicit racism, though, appears rampant still▫Studies suggest (in the US) people that have

stereotypically Caucasian names are more likely to get job interviews, all other things being equal

▫Not just an American problem

▫Affirmative Action▫Differences across states

Discrimination Based on Gender

•Most countries have laws making gender discrimination illegal▫May have impact on overt discrimination,

but still plenty of implicit discrimination, even in relatively equal countries

▫Job discrimination▫Sexual harassment▫Pay equity

Gender Discrimination Cont…

•Cultural pressures on “roles” of women ▫Role in the family (pay)▫Anticipatory discrimination (promotion)▫Stereotyping▫Gendered labour and job market

•In some states, males get more of the resources, human and financial capital▫Post-secondary attainment▫Scandanavia

Empowering Groups in Society• What is empowerment?

• An increase in social, political or economic capabilities of an individual or group.▫Books description as opposite of discrimination isn’t

exactly accurate

• Sometimes empowerment goes beyond equality▫Differential rights to begin the process of long-term

unfairness▫Can be in any number of spheres, including

economic or cultural

Empowerment Cont…• Empowerment does not have to be given, but can

also be taken – often symbolically▫Collective action in fighting for rights▫Actively seeking elected representatives▫Promoting positive discussion of the group in

discourse/media May be symbolic, but often comes before more

concrete economic or political empowerment

• Political empowerment is both the election of representatives from these groups, but also legal recognition and recourses against discrimination

Mobilizing Social Movements

•Social movements need organization▫Political parties are often a straight-

forward mechanism from which to create leadership

▫Institutionalizes concerns of the group

•Social movements can focus on group conceptualization▫Changing society’s attitudes can result in

much faster change than getting people elected

Political Parties and Ethnicity• Political parties are an important component in

changing attitudes▫ Significant institution in democracies▫ Often only legitimate entry into politics

• Why might ethnic parties emerge?▫ Heterogeneous society▫ How strong is identification with ethnicity▫ How open is the political system▫ Are there historical tensions between groups

• Why might they not▫ Other cleavages are more important (class)

Equality and Institutional Design

•Winning elections is one thing, but certainly not permanent▫Designing systems to assure representation

•Quotas▫Reserved seats (common in Latin America)

May meet with strong opposition▫Candidate quotas (NDP in Canada)

No guarantees▫Constitutional quotas