Nonproliferation & Nonproliferation & Arms Control Division Arms Control Division TutorialTutorial

Institute of Nuclear Materials Management

Email inmm@inmm.org

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Introduction:Introduction:Welcome to the TutorialWelcome to the Tutorial

HomeWelcome to the tutorial prepared by the Nonproliferation

and Arms Control Division of the Institute of Nuclear Materials Management (INMM). This tutorial has been

designed to provide a basic understanding of the substance and activities concerning nonproliferation and arms control

as they relate to nuclear materials management.

Nuclear Materials Management is the act, manner or practice of managing, handling, supervising, and/or

controlling nuclear material and other related nuclear scientific technology and knowledge.

•In order to access the hyperlinks, please view in slide show mode

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ContentsContents

HomeProliferation, Nonproliferation & Arms Control

International Legal Agreements

International Political Agreements

International Bodies

Helpful Resources

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Proliferation & NonproliferationProliferation & Nonproliferation

With respect to the field of nuclear materials management:

Proliferation refers to the spread of nuclear, chemical, and/or biological weapons, also known as weapons of mass destruction (WMD), including associated delivery systems and scientific know-how, to nations or non-state actors not already in possession of such capabilities.

Nonproliferation refers to the action or practice of preventing and/or limiting the spread of weapons of mass destruction.

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Arms ControlArms Control

Arms control is any multilateral or unilateral measure taken to reduce or control a weapons arsenal. This includes treaties, agreements, understandings, and/or multilateral commitments.

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A distinction…..While nonproliferation is intended to prevent

the spread of weapons of mass destruction, arms control is intended to reduce or limit

existing arsenals.

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The Origin and Development of The Origin and Development of Nonproliferation and Arms ControlNonproliferation and Arms Control

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After the world witnessed the unimaginable destruction caused by the first nuclear attack, it became clear that nuclear weapons would drastically alter global power and security. Nuclear capability became synonymous with state identity, global respect, and pride. The United States and Russia raced to create the largest and most modern nuclear arsenals. As the arsenals of these two countries rapidly increased, reaching astronomical levels at the height of the Cold War, it was apparent that legal and political controls were needed to prevent the potentially destructive consequences of global proliferation and to establish limits on arsenal levels. A complex international nonproliferation regime, consisting of bilateral and multilateral legal and political agreements and international bodies, was created. Today, with the threats of terrorism and nuclear acquisition by rogue states, nonproliferation and arms control efforts remain crucial to international security.

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International Legal AgreementsInternational Legal Agreements1922: Conference on the Limitation of Armament 1968: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)1969-1972: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I)1972: Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention (BTWC)1972: Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM)1972-1986: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II)1987: Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF)1991: Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I)1993: Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II)1993: Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)1996: Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)2002: Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT)2004: United Nations Security Council Resolution 15402010: New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New START)Proposed: Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty (FMCT)

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•New START

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Conference on the Limitation of Conference on the Limitation of ArmamentArmament (1922)(1922)

• Also known as the Washington Naval Treaty• Involved the U.S., British Empire, France, Italy,

Japan• 1st modern arms control policy between world

powers• Put restrictions on each country’s armament,

including:• Number and caliber of armaments• Tonnage for each naval vessel• Number of vessels of each type

• The failure of this treaty contributed to the start of WWII

• Additional information: Treaty text

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Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) (1968)(1968)• The foremost nonproliferation treaty• All but 4 countries have joined: India, Israel, Pakistan,

North Korea (withdrew in 2003)• Aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons to

additional states, while still allowing for access to peaceful nuclear technology under international safeguards

• Grand Bargain: Non-nuclear weapons states promise not to develop nuclear weapons, and in exchange, declared nuclear weapons states provide the benefits of nuclear technology to non-nuclear weapons states and commit to nuclear disarmament.

• Elements of the treaty:• Forbids non-nuclear member states from developing nuclear

weapons• Forbids the 5 declared nuclear states from transferring the

technology to other states• Provides for international safeguards• Commits member states to pursue good faith negotiations

towards achieving disarmament• Additional information: NPT Tutorial

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The NPT in context…The NPT in context…

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Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I)Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I)

• Took place between the U.S. and the Soviet Union between 1969 and 1972

• Result of the talks:• The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) • Interim Agreement on strategic offensive arms

• 5 year duration• This agreement was replaced by SALT II

• Additional information:• SALT I narrative• Interim Agreement• ABM

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Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) (1972)Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) (1972)

• Between the United States and the Soviet Union

• Primarily concerned with maintaining the nuclear deterrent status quo

• Restricted ballistic missile defense systems to 2 for each country• One to protect each country’s capitol city• One inter-continental ballistic missile (ICBM) launch

area of choice

• The United States withdrew from this treaty in 2002

• Additional information: Narrative and Treaty text

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Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention (BTWC) (1972)(BTWC) (1972)

• The 1st multilateral disarmament treaty banning an entire category of weapons

• Prohibits the development, production, acquisition, transfer, retention, stockpiling and/or use of biological and toxic weapons

• The Treaty has no enforcement regime• Additional information: BTWC Website

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Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II)Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II)

• 2nd round of talks between the U.S. and the Soviet Union

• Took place between 1972 and 1986• Attempted to replace the Interim Agreement

from SALT I with a more comprehensive, long-term treaty that placed limits on strategic offensive arms

• An agreement was signed in 1979, but was never ratified and therefore never entered into force

• While both nations complied with the provisions of SALT II until 1986, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1980 caused the eventual failure of the talks.

• Additional information: SALT II

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Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) (1987)Treaty (INF) (1987)

• Between the United States and the Soviet Union• Required the elimination of all U.S. and Soviet

short-range and intermediate range (300-3400 miles) nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles

• Also provided for rigorous verification and inspection provisions

• In February 2007, President Putin declared that the INF no longer serves the interests of Russia. This was largely in reaction to the proposal of the United States to place part of a missile defense system in Poland and the Czech Republic. Russia has threatened to withdraw from the Treaty but has yet to do so

• Additional information: INF

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Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I) (1991)I) (1991)

• Bilateral agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union (Note: after the Soviet Union dissolved in December 1991, START applied to four former Soviet states – Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan)

• It provided for “deep reductions” in strategic offensive nuclear arms with equal limits for both countries

• It also included extensive verification provisions• In December 2001, the United States and Russia

successfully reached the required levels of 6000 deployed warheads.

• START I expired in December of 2009

• Additional information: START I and NEW START

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Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II) (1993)II) (1993)• START II was a bilateral treaty between the

United States and the Russian Federation that was abandoned by both sides before coming into force.

• Further reduced limits on strategic nuclear arms to no more than 3000-3500 warheads

• Included a clause calling for the elimination of all land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) outfitted with multiple independently-targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs)

• The United States’ withdrawal from the ABM Treaty in 2002 prompted the Russian government to declare that they are no longer bound by their signature on START II and its associated protocols.

• Additional information: START I

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Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) (1993)(1993)

• Bans the development, production, stockpiling, transfer and use of chemical weapons, as well as stipulating their timely destruction.

• Created the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) for verification purposes

• Additional information: CWC

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Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) (1996)(CTBT) (1996)

• This treaty was opened for signature in 1996, but has still not entered into force due to the lack of the required number of ratifications. The United States has signed, but not ratified the CTBT.

• Basic provisions:• Not to carry out any nuclear explosion• Not to encourage other states to carry out nuclear

explosions

• There are still nine countries which need to ratify for the entry into force of the Treaty: India, Pakistan, Israel, Egypt, the United States, the Democratic Peoples’ Republic of Korea, Iran, China, Indonesia (the latter has announced its intention to ratify). The US is broadly seen as the linchpin needed to start the chain of ratifications.

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Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT) (2002)(SORT) (2002)

• Bilateral agreement between the United States and Russia

• Reduces limits on strategic nuclear warheads to 1700-2200 for each state

• Implementation deadline: December 31, 2012• Additional information: SORT

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United Nations Security Council United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540 (UNSCR 1540)Resolution 1540 (UNSCR 1540)

• Adopted by the UN Security Council in April 2004• Three main provisions:

• Prohibition on supporting non-state actors in developing, acquiring, possessing, transporting, transferring or using nuclear, biological or chemical weapons and their means of delivery

• Requirement that states implement domestic legislation that helps to ensure the previous provision

• Requirement that states implement domestic controls to prevent the proliferation of nuclear, chemical or biological weapons and their means of delivery, including the controls on related materials

• Created the 1540 Committee to monitor compliance• 1540 has been extended twice:

• Resolution 1673 (2006)• Resolution 1810 (2008)

• Additional information: 1540 Committee Website

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United Nations Security Council Resolution 1887 (2009)

• Was passed by heads of state to create a safer world for all, and to create the conditions for a world without nuclear weapons in accordance with the goals of the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)

• UNSCR 1887 promotes international stability, and is based on the principle of undiminished security for all.

• Was voted in favor of unanimously (Libya was not present)

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New START (2010)

• Between the United States and Russia• Aimed at increasing transparency, predictability and

stability, and at improving the political relationship between the countries.

• This treaty is a step toward fulfillment of disarmament obligations under the NPT (Article VI)

• Missile defense is only included in the preamble• Verification includes onsite inspections, data

exchanges, and use of national technical means• Aggregate limits for each side include

- 1,550 warheads (deployed on ICBMs and SLBMs)- 800 deployed and non-deployed ICBM/SLBM

launchers and heavy bombers- 700 deployed ICBMs, deployed SLBMs, and deployed

heavy bombers

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Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty (FMCT)Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty (FMCT)• This is a proposed multilateral treaty – it does

not exist and is not in force• Proposes a ban on the production of fissile

material for nuclear weapons or nuclear explosive devices.

• Some states believe it should also cover existing stockpiles of fissile material

• The rule of consensus at the Conference on Disarmament allows any state to block negotiations. Currently Pakistan has blocked negotiations due to the issue of existing stocks.

• Additional information: FMCT

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References: References: International Legal AgreementsInternational Legal Agreements

Conference on the Limitation of Armamenthttp://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pre-war/1922/

nav_lim.html

NPThttp://www.nti.org/h_learnmore/npttutorial/

index.htmlhttp://www.state.gov/t/isn/trty/16281.htm

SALT Ihttp://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/5191.htm

ABMhttp://www.state.gov/t/isn/trty/16332.htm

http://www.state.gov/t/ac/rls/fs/2001/6848.htm

BTWChttp://www.opbw.org/

SALT IIhttp://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/5195.htm

INFhttp://www.state.gov/t/isn/trty/18432.htm

START Ihttp://www.fas.org/nuke/control/start1/index.html

UNSCR 1887http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2009/

sc9746.doc.htm

START IIhttp://www.fas.org/nuke/control/start2/index.html

http://www.nti.org/f_wmd411/f1b2_2.htmlhttp://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/start2chron.asp

CWChttp://www.opcw.org/

http://www.un.org/Depts/dda/WMD/cwc

CTBThttp://www.ctbto.org/

http://www.nti.org/e_research/e3_9a.htmlhttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/RL33548.pdf

SORThttp://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/05/20020524-3.html

UNSCR 1540http://disarmament2.un.org/Committee1540/

FMCThttp://www.nti.org/e_research/cnwm/ending/fmct.asp

New STARThttp://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/key-facts-about-new-start-treaty

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International Political AgreementsInternational Political AgreementsUnited States and Russia

• Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR)

• Megatons to Megawatts

• Nuclear Material Protection, Control and Accounting (MPC&A)

Global Agreements

• International Safeguards

• International State Systems for Accounting and Control Advisory Service (ISSAS)

• IAEA International Physical Protection Advisory Service (IPPAS)

• Export Control

• Second Line of Defense (SLD)

• Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)

• Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones (NWFZ)

• Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI)

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U.S./Russia:U.S./Russia:Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR)Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR)

• Operated jointly by the U.S. Department of Defense, Department of Energy, Department of State and Department of Commerce

• Provides assistance to the new independent states (NIS) of the former Soviet Union in the securing of their nuclear weapons, weapons-usable materials and delivery systems

• Assists NIS in dismantling nuclear warheads and their delivery systems

• Additional information: CTR• Due to expire in 2013

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Political Agreements

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U.S./Russia:U.S./Russia:Megatons to MegawattsMegatons to Megawatts

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• Commercially financed, government-industry partnership between the U.S. and Russia

• Weapons-grade uranium (HEU) from dismantled Russian warheads is converted into low-enriched uranium (LEU) which is then used to fuel American nuclear power plants

• As of June 2010: • 391 metric tons of HEU has been converted into

11,288 metric tons of LEU• 15,633 nuclear warheads eliminated

• Additional information: Megatons Website; HEU to LEU step-by-step

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U.S./Russia:U.S./Russia:Material Protection, Control and Accounting (MPC&A)Material Protection, Control and Accounting (MPC&A)• Originally part of the CTR, now operated by the

Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) in association with various U.S. National Laboratories

• Aims to reduce the threat of nuclear terrorism by working with the Russian government to secure nuclear weapons and materials at sites throughout Russia and the former Soviet states

• The U.S. currently funds security upgrades, training and operating costs at these sites, but is working on sustaining the program and transferring responsibility to the Russians by 2013.

• Additional information: NNSA NA-25

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MPC&A SitesMPC&A Sites

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Global:Global:International SafeguardsInternational Safeguards

• These safeguards work to detect the diversion of nuclear materials from use in peaceful activities to use in the manufacturing of nuclear weapons

• For detailed information, please refer to the INMM International Safeguards Division Tutorial

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Global:Global:International State Systems for Accounting and International State Systems for Accounting and Control Advisory Service (ISSAS)Control Advisory Service (ISSAS)

• IAEA program that provides assistance to Member States in strengthening their state nuclear material accounting and control systems

• Support is offered to any country that has nuclear materials or facilities

• ISSAS missions compare the systems in place in each Member State with the requirements in international safeguards agreements and practices in other countries

• Additional information: IAEA Promoting Nuclear Security

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Global:Global:International Physical Protection Advisory Service International Physical Protection Advisory Service (IPPAS)(IPPAS)

• An IAEA program in existence since 1995• Assists Member States in the improvement of

the physical protection of their nuclear facilities and materials

• At the request of a Member State, the IAEA will assemble an expert team to analyze the physical protection programs of the State, compare it to international best practices and make recommendations for improvement

• Additional information: IAEA IPPAS Guidelines

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Global:Global:Export ControlExport Control

• Regulations put in place by governments to control the movement between countries of items, including technology, that could be used in the production of nuclear weapons

• The goal is to prevent the proliferation of nuclear goods and technology to states and persons who should not have them, and to prevent dual-use goods intended for peaceful purposes from being used to make nuclear weapons.

• Each government has its own export control regime. In the United States, export controls are maintained and enforced by various executive branch agencies: Departments of State, Commerce, Defense, Homeland Security, Energy, Treasury and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission

• Multilateral regimes also exist to facilitate cooperation between countries. These include: Nuclear Suppliers Group, Zangger Committee, Missile Technology Control Regime

• For additional information: Export Control

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Global:Global:Second Line of Defense (SLD)Second Line of Defense (SLD)

SLD Core Program• Provides security upgrades

at worldwide borders and crossings points to prevent the smuggling of nuclear and radiological materials.

• Upgrades include fixed and handheld monitoring and detection equipment, personnel training and communication tools

Megaports Initiative• Installs and maintains

monitoring and detection equipment at seaports around the world to prevent illicit trafficking in nuclear and radiological materials

• Additional Information: NNSA SLD & Megaports

Operated by the US Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration

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Global:Global:Missile Technology Control Regime Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)(MTCR)

• A voluntary organization of 34 countries whose goal is to prevent the proliferation of delivery systems capable of carrying chemical, biological or nuclear weapons

• The MTCR is based on adherence to a set of export licensing guidelines applied to unmanned delivery systems and related materials and technology

• Additional information: MTCR

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Global:Global:Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones (NWFZ)Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones (NWFZ)• A NWFZ is a group of countries who agree not to develop,

manufacture, stockpile, acquire or possess any nuclear explosive device within the zone.

• In exchange, declared nuclear weapons states promise not to use nuclear weapons against NWFZ countries (However, declared nuclear countries can make declarations in NWFZ agreements outlining certain instances when they could use nuclear weapons against a NWFZ state)

• The right of countries to form NWFZs is affirmed by Article 7 of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)

• Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones:• Latin America/Caribbean: Treaty of Tlatelolco • South Pacific: Treaty of Rarotonga• Southeast Asia: Treaty of Bangkok• Africa: Treaty of Pelindaba (This treaty entered into force

with the ratification of Burundi in 2009)• Central Asia: CANWFZ (entered into force with the

ratification of Kazakhstan in 2009)• Mongolia has declared itself a NWFZ and this is

recognized by the UN; New Zealand is seeking official NWFZ status

• In addition, the Seabed Treaty, Antarctic Treaty, Outer Space Treaty and Moon Agreement establish NWFZ’s

• Additional information: NWFZ Tutorial

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Map of Nuclear-Weapons-Free Map of Nuclear-Weapons-Free ZonesZones

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Global:Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI)• Established by the Bush Administration in 2003 with 10

other countries; the U.S. State Department now states that over 70 countries support the program

• Multinational effort to combat the proliferation of nuclear materials worldwide through interdiction

• PSI is an activity designed to build a web of global partnerships through which proliferators will have a difficult time illicitly trafficking nuclear materials

• PSI partners work to develop new methods of WMD interdiction and rigorously apply established methods of interdiction at sea, in the air, and on land

• Approaches to interdiction:• States review their own legal authorities to ensure they can

take action and examine ways to strengthen domestic laws• Ship-boarding agreements between states are put in place• Multinational interdiction

exercises• Additional information: PSI

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References:International Political Agreements

CTRhttp://www.fas.org/nuke/control/ctr/index.htmlhttp://www.nti.org/db/nisprofs/russia/forasst/

nunn_lug/overview.htm

Megatons to Megawattshttp://www.usec.com/v2001_02/HTML/

megatons.asphttp://www.usec.com/v2001_02/HTML/

megatons_stepbystep.asphttp://www.usec.com/megatonstomegawatts.htm

MPC&Ahttp://www.nti.org/db/nisprofs/russia/fulltext/

doe_mpca/doe2000/mpca00en.htmhttp://www.nnsa.doe.gov/na-20/

na25_index.shtml

International Safeguardshttp://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/

Infcircs/1998/infcirc540corrected.pdf

PSIhttp://www.state.gov/t/np/c10390.htm

ISSAShttp://www.iaea.org/Publications/Factsheets/English/nuclsecurity.pdf

http://www-ns.iaea.org/security/prevention.htm

IPPAShttp://www.iaea.org/OurWork/SS/

Protection/foreword.html

SLDhttp://www.nnsa.doe.gov/na-20/sld.shtml

http://www.nnsa.doe.gov/na-20/na25_index.shtml

MTCRhttp://www.mtcr.info/english/index.html

NWFZhttp://cns.miis.edu/stories/images/NWFZ_Map_small.gifhttp://www.nti.org/h_learnmore/nwfztutorial/index.html

http://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/nwfz.asp

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International BodiesInternational Bodies

• United Nations (UN)• United Nations Security Council (UNSC)• International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)• Zangger Committee• Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)• Conference on Disarmament (CD)• G-8 Global Partnership

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United Nations (UN)United Nations (UN)• International organization founded in 1945• Consists of 192 Member States• Aims to promote peace and security, develop

and maintain friendly relations among countries, and promote social progress and human rights

• The UN and Nonproliferation & Arms Control• Provides a forum for international

negotiations• Can impose sanctions on countries for

violating international standards and laws• Formulates resolutions for action

• Additional information: UN

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United Nations Security Council (UNSC)United Nations Security Council (UNSC)• Permanent members: United States, United

Kingdom, France, China, Russia; also 10 non-permanent members that serve 2 year terms

• Non-Proliferation and Arms Control functions:• Investigates situations that may cause international

friction and can recommend solutions• Can impose sanctions on aggressor states• Can take military action on an aggressor • Formulates resolutions for

action

• Additional information:UNSC

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International Atomic Energy Agency International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)(IAEA)

• Established in 1957 as the “Atoms for Peace” organization in the UN, but now an independent international organization

• Works with its 144 Member States to promote the safe, secure and peaceful use of nuclear technology

• 3 main pillars of work:• Safeguards and verification• Safety and security• Science and technology

• Additional information: IAEA

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Zangger CommitteeZangger Committee

• Formed with the coming into force of the NPT • Also known as the “NPT Exporters Committee”• Focuses on interpreting the export control

guidelines in Article 3, paragraph 2 of the NPT• Article 3.2 essentially states that all Parties to

the NPT should not export nuclear equipment and/or materials to non-nuclear-weapon states unless the export is subject to IAEA safeguards

• Additional information: Zangger Committee

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Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)

• Established in 1974 after India, a non-nuclear state, conducted its first detonation of a nuclear device, demonstrating to the world that the peaceful transfer of nuclear technology could be misused

• A group of 45 nuclear supplier countries• Aims to prevent nuclear proliferation by

establishing export control guidelines and incorporating those guidelines into the domestic laws of each Member State

• Additional information: NSG

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Conference on Disarmament (CD)Conference on Disarmament (CD)

• Established in 1979 as the single multilateral disarmament negotiation forum of the international community

• 65 Member States• Current issues:

• Forming international agreements to promote nuclear disarmament and arms control

• Prevention of nuclear war• Nuclear disarmament and

nonproliferation• Transparency• Negotiations deadlocked

for 12+ years

• Additional information:CD

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G8 Global Partnership G8 Global Partnership • An informal partnership of the Heads of State of eight major

countries: France, Germany, United States, United Kingdom, Italy, Japan, Canada, Russia

• These leaders meet annually to discuss global concerns and formulate solutions

• At the G8 Summit in Kananaskis, Canada in 2002, the leaders established the “G8 Global Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction.”

• Under this initiative, the G8 supported cooperation projects aimed at nonproliferation, disarmament, counter-terrorism and nuclear safety

• The initiative, while still viewed favorably in 2010, has an uncertain financial future. The program's widely anticipated renewal beyond its 2012 expiration date failed to materialize in 2010. Much depends on the state of the world’s economy as the program approaches its end date.

• Additional information: Kananaskis Initiative

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References:International Bodies

United Nationshttp://www.un.org/

UNSChttp://www.un.org/Docs/sc/

IAEAhttp://www.iaea.org/

Zangger Committeehttp://www.zanggercommittee.org/Zangger/default.htm

NSGhttp://www.nuclearsuppliersgroup.org/default.htm

CDhttp://www.unog.ch/80256EE600585943/(httpPages)/2D415EE45C5FAE07C12571800055232B?OpenDocument

G-8 Global Partnershiphttp://www.g8.gc.ca/2002Kananaskis/kananaskis/globpart-en.asp

http://www.partnershipforglobalsecurity.org/PDFFrameset.asp?URL=http://www.globalsecuritynewswire.org/gsn/nw_20100815_3867.php

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A Helpful Resource…

The following link connects you to a tutorial on Weapons of Mass Destruction issues developed by the Henry L. Stimson Center. It provides useful additional information, some of which is not contained in this tutorial.

Bombs, Bugs and Deadly Gases:

The WMD Reference Center

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More Helpful Resources…

• The Brookings Institution• Carnegie Endowment for International Peace• Center for Nonproliferation Studies• Center for Strategic and International Studies• Institute for Science and International Security• Nuclear Threat Initiative• Partnership for Global Security

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