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Vilnius University
Faculty of Philosophy
Department of Education Science
Nerijus Kriauciunas
The Programme of Studies in Education Science
Master thesis (edited1)
Non-formal Education for Critical Media Literacy: the case of Youth in Action Programme in Lithuania
Scientific Adviser: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Lilija Duobliene
Vilnius-Zurich, 2009
1 In the edited version the English language was reviewed, the list of references was corrected and the analytical categories and theme discourses from the in-dept interviews with youth workers (Annex 5) and youth leaders (Annex 6) were removed. Do not hesitate to contact the author by email [email protected] for the full length of the theses
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The final paper ………………………………………………………………………………………...
accepted by order of the Dean of Faculty of Philosophy no. ……., I prepared independently, to the
end edited and submitted to the scientific adviser.
…………………… …………………………………………..
(Date) (Signature of graduate)
The final paper matches (does not match) established requirements for the MA thesis and I allow to defend it. …………………… …………………………………………..
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The department received the final paper with the mediation of the scientific adviser
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INDEX OF CONTENTS
SUMMARY......................................................................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 6
1. MEDIA EDUCATION FOR CRITICAL MEDIA LITERACY..................................................... 9
1.1. Media concepts and its significance for the contemporary education .......................................... 9
1.2. Media education in the world and in Lithuania .......................................................................... 11
1.2.1. Different approaches to media education ...................................................................... 11
1.2.2. Media education in different countries .......................................................................... 13
1.2.3. Media education in Lithuania ........................................................................................ 17
1.3. Media literacy and critical consciousness................................................................................... 20
2. CRITICAL PEDAGOGY IN MEDIA EDUCATION .................................................................. 23
2.1. The concept and the main ideas of critical pedagogy................................................................. 23
2.1.1. Freire’s concept and ideas of critical pedagogy: then and now.................................... 24
2.1.2. Critical pedagogy in relation to the Frankfurt school of critical theory ....................... 28
2.2. From the critical language literacy towards the critical media literacy in education ................. 30
3. YOUTH NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AND CRITICAL MEDIA LITERACY ..................... 34
3.1. Non-formal education in the light of critical pedagogy.............................................................. 34
3.2. Critical potential of youth non-formal education in Lithuania ................................................... 37
3.3. Non-formal education for critical media literacy: empirical research........................................ 39
3.3.1. Research methodology and methods .............................................................................. 40
3.3.2. The context of non-formal media education................................................................... 43
3.3.3. Non-formal media education practices in Youth in Action projects .............................. 49
DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS................................................................................................... 63
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................ 65
LIST OF REFERENCES................................................................................................................... 69
ANNEXES......................................................................................................................................... 74
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Non-formal Education for Critical Media Literacy: the Youth in Action Programme in
Lithuania
SUMMARY
The main purpose of this paper is to discuss theoretically the problem of critical media literacy and
to provide the empirical research inquiry on the youth non-formal media education practice in
Lithuania. This work consist of four main parts: 1) the theoretical overview of media education for
critical media literacy; 2) the theoretical overview of critical pedagogy from the aspect of media
education; 3) the empirical research on youth non-formal media education in Lithuania; and 4)
discussion of the results, conclusions and recommendations.
In the first part of this paper the different media concepts are theoretically discussed highlighting
the importance of critical attitude towards media. Further main approaches to media education are
presented together with discussion on the media education situation in Lithuania and different
countries emphasising the importance of critical media literacy for the development of critical
consciousness. In the second part the attention is given for the critical pedagogy and its importance
in media education. In this part the concept of critical pedagogy is discussed, its theoretical sources
and its urgency in contemporary education. Further the discussion of critical pedagogy scholars is
provided on the features of critical literacy and critical media literacy. In the third part non-formal
education practice is discussed from the perspective of critical pedagogy. In this part the most
attention is given to present the empirical research highlighting its methodological nature analysing
and discussion the empirical data collected during the in-depth interviews with youth workers and
young leaders in Lithuania.
At the end of this paper, in the conclusions the importance of critical media literacy is stressed and
the empirical data is discussed that reveal the specificity of media literacy in non-formal education
and confirm the manifestation of the development of critical consciousness in the non-formal
education projects in Youth in Action programme. The recommendations mostly is focused on the
development of education policy in Lithuania suggesting to give more attention for critical media
literacy, improve the training of teachers and other educators, recognise and further support the
existing successful media education practices both in formal and non-formal education.
5
Neformalus kritinio medija ra!tingumo ugdymas: programa „Veiklus jaunimas“ Lietuvoje
SANTRAUKA
Pagrindinis !io darbo u"davinys yra teori!kai aptarti kritinio medija2 ra!tingumo problem# bei
empiriniu tyrimu pateikti neformalaus ugdymo praktikos analiz$ Lietuvoje. %& darb# sudaro keturios
pagrindin's dalys: 1) medija ugdymo, kurio tikslas yra kritinis medija ra!tingumas, teorin'
ap"valga; 2) kritin's pedagogikos teorijos medija ugdymo aspektu ap"valga; 3) neformalaus medija
ugdymo Lietuvoje empirinis tyrimas; ir 4) rezultat( aptarimas, i!vados ir rekomendacijos.
Pirmoje darbo dalyje yra teori!kai aptariamos skirtingos medija koncepcijos, i!ry!kinant kritinio
po"i)rio svarb# medija at"vilgiu. Toliau yra pristatomi pagrindiniai po"i)riai & medija ugdym# bei
dabartin' medija ugdymo situacija Lietuvoje bei kitose !alyse, akcentuojant kritinio medija
ra!tingumo svarb# ugdant kritin& s#moningum#. Antroje dalyje d'mesys yra skiriamas kritinei
pedagogikai ir jos svarbai medija ugdyme. %ioje dalyje yra aptariama kritin's pedagogikos
koncepcija, jos teorin's i!takos ir aktualumas !iuolaikiniame ugdyme. Toliau pateikiama kritin's
pedagogikos teoretik( diskusija, atskleid"ianti kritinio ra!tingumo ir kritinio medija ra!tingumo
specifik#. Tre*ioje dalyje i! kritin's pedagogikos perspektyvos aptariama neformalaus ugdymo
praktika. %ioje dalyje did"iausias d'mesys yra skiriamas empirinio tyrimo pristatymui, i!ry!kinant
jo metodologijos ypatumus bei analizuojant ir aptariant tyrimo duomenis, surinktus gilumini(
intervi( su jaunimo darbuotojais ir jaunimo lyderiais metu Lietuvoje.
Darbo pabaigoje, i!vadose pabr'"iama kritinio medija ra!tingumo svarba ir apibendrinami
empiriniai duomenys, kurie atskleid"ia medija ra!tingumo neformaliajame ugdyme specifik# ir
patvirtina kritinio s#moningumo ugdymo aprai!kas neformalaus ugdymo projektuose programoje
„Veiklus jaunimas“. Rekomendacijos labiausiai fokusuojamos & !vietimo politikos tobulinim#
Lietuvoje, pateikiant si)lymus skirti daugiau d'mesio kritiniam medija ra!tingumui, gerinti
mokytoj( ir kit( ugdytoj( medija mokym#, pripa"inti ir toliau palaikyti esamas s'kmingas medija
ugdymo praktikas ir formaliame, ir neformaliame ugdyme.
2 +ia ir toliau angli!kas terminas media never*iamas & lietuvi( kalb# vartojant termin# medija taip siekant nesusiaurinti "od"io reik!m's esant tiksliam vertimui. Daugiau apie termino media vartojimo ypatumus lietuvi( kalbos aspektu galima rasti Medij! kult"ros balsai: teorijos ir praktikos ("r. literat)ros s#ra!e)
6
INTRODUCTION
There is little doubt that media heavily influences contemporary life but there is more debates on
what role media plays and what its impact on people. The arguments in the debate depend on the
theoretical stance regarding the concept of “media” (Michelkevicius, 2008). Winkler (2004)
provides a cumulative account of media definitions deriving from the different theoretical
perspectives in which the critical perspective defines media as a social agent that plays the
significant role in shaping ordinary people’s life in favour of the dominant ideologies and elites that
hold power in the society. Such understanding of media’s place and role in societies is critically
analysed in the works of the associates of the Frankfurt School of critical thought together with the
contemporary critical media theorists (Wood, 2000; Miller, 2002; Taylor and Harris, 2008). The
early associates of the Frankfurt School offered an extensive theoretical analysis on how the
dominant and often oppressive ideologies and hegemonic powers in the societies are reproduced
through cultural institutions, such as schools, families, mass media and the church (Adorno and
Horkheimer, 1972). Other critical scholars continued in the same direction drawing the conclusions
that contemporary education must include media education for critical media literacy as one of its
essential components (McLaren and Hammer, 1995; Giroux, 1997; Macedo and Steinberg, 2007;
Kellner and Share, 2007; Kincheloe, 2007).
The importance of critical media literacy is becoming more articulated also by international
institutions in recently issued reports and conducted studies (UNESCO, 2001; Council of Europe,
2002; European Commission, 2007; European Parliament, 2008; Alliance of Civilisations, 2009, for
instance). The reports and studies are conducted in close cooperation with the academia and they
provide the overview of media education developments over the past decades in different countries
of the world and urge decision makers to adopt and initiate coherent policies on critical media
literacy. Scholars draw attention to the fact that there are different approaches to media education,
however, they claim that it is through critical inquiry that critical media literacy on media liberates
people from the imposed ideologies and empower them for social transformations in overcoming
oppressive life conditions (Kellner and Share, 2007). The situation with media education, especially
critical media literacy, in Lithuania is rather fragmented and is still implemented in a rather non-
systematic way. In general, media education is rather limited to the teaching of computer literacy
and often on the level of technical skills, although there are plausible initiatives, which implement
critical media literacy programmes both in formal and non-formal education settings (Sakadolskis
in Smalinskaite, 2006, Sakadolskis, 2008).
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The lack of critical media literacy may be explained by the lack of the critical component in
education in general. This is recognised and argued by many of the education theorists who argue in
favour of critical pedagogy theory and practice in education (Freire, 1967, 1992, 1998; Giroux,
1997, McLaren, 2000; Kincheloe, 2007). The concept and ideas of critical pedagogy together with
the critical media theories form the theoretical ground for the critical media literacy. The main
concern of critical pedagogy is to show that it is through education that people can be liberated from
oppression (Freire, 1967, 1992; Giroux, 1997). The theoretical works of Freire and his followers in
the critical pedagogy field provide the valuable insights on what should constitute the education that
aims to develop the critical consciousness of people. The concept and founding ideas of critical
pedagogy come from the educational practice of teaching people literacy. With the rapid
development of media technologies, critical pedagogy theorists quickly recognised the potential of
critical pedagogy to contribute to education for critical media literacy. Although most of the works
on critical pedagogy are focusing on formal education, there is no doubt that critical pedagogy may
be practiced in any of the many educational settings (Freire, 1992; Kincheloe, 2007).
There is relevant international research done on media education at higher education levels (French
and Richards, 1994), in schools (Hart, 1998; Hart and Süss, 2001, Taylor, 2002) but still there is,
definitely, a lack of basic scientific research on media education (Hart, 1998). Especially it is felt in
the field of non-formal education where generally not many studies are done due to mainly
institutional reasons such as high level of decentralisation and diversity of programmes (Domaille
and Buckingham, 2001) or low level of recognition and benefits in the academia world (Chisholm,
2008). In Lithuania, the Ministry of Education and Science conducts yearly research on general
computer literacy (Kalvaitis and Tamosiunas, 2008), but they lack the understanding and focus on
critical media literacy. Cymermoniene (2008) is relevant to mention who conducted research during
the pilot project on critical media literacy in fifteen Lithuanian schools that confirms the importance
of such programmes. The overview of the research in the field of non-formal education does not
provide any data on media education in the field.
Considering the above, this work will focus on the problem of media education perspective in
Lithuania, trying to recognise its features and potential in general and in correspondence with
critical pedagogy, particularly in the practices of the youth non-formal education projects, those
contribution for media literacy is not yet valued enough.
The object of this work is the development of media education in the direction of critical media
literacy through non-formal education.
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The main aim of this work is to investigate theoretically and empirically media education in the
perspective of critical pedagogy by exploring youth non-formal education practice and its potential
for the development of critical media literacy.
The specific objectives are:
• To provide an overview of the situation of media education in Lithuania and different
countries;
• To establish the theoretical framework of critical media literacy grounded in the perspective of
critical pedagogy and critical media theories;
• To examine theoretically the critical potential of youth non-formal education in the perspective
of critical pedagogy;
• To investigate empirically the existing media education practices in the European Youth in
Action projects in Lithuania focusing on the critical component in them;
• To draw theoretically and empirically- based conclusions and recommendations for critical
media literacy trends and perspectives in the field of youth non-formal education.
Methodology and methods: the research methodology is informed by the critical pedagogy and
critical theory traditions. The in-depth interviews were conducted with youth workers and youth
leaders who represent different educational roles in youth non-formal education. There were
prepared and used two research instruments: an interview plan with guiding questions for the youth
workers and the other one for the youth leaders. The research results were analysed comparing the
responses from the two groups and in this way constructing the empirical research knowledge on
the non-formal media education practice and experience. When drawing conclusions the research
knowledge was compared in the light of the theory of critical media literacy.
The structure of research work:
1. During the planning and preparation stage the contacts with the Agency of International
Youth Cooperation were established and main agreement received to support this research.
The interview plans for youth workers and youth leaders were developed (February-March,
2009).
1. Pre-selection of the research sample and establishment of the necessary contacts with the
interview participants. Confirmation of the research times and places. (March, 2009)
2. Collecting the research data by implementing the interviews with youth workers and youth
leaders (26 March-1 April, 2009).
3. Data input, coding and analysis of the interview content (April-May, 2009).
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1. MEDIA EDUCATION FOR CRITICAL MEDIA LITERACY
1.1. Media concepts and its significance for the contemporary education
The understandings and explanations of media vary across different media theories. Media theorist
Winkler (2004) provides a cumulative account of media definitions deriving from different
theoretical perspectives. The author constructs the basic definition of media based on the six main
theses:
1. “Communication”. Media is the machinery of the social networking.
2. Symbolic nature. From other mechanisms of the social networking - such as the exchange of
goods, labour, politics, sex or violence - media differs in terms of its symbolic character.
3. Technology. Media is always technical media.
4. “Form” and “content”. Media imposes the shape on the communicated message.
5. Media overcomes space and time. The overcoming of geographical distances
(telecommunications) is for media as typical as the overcoming of the time or the storage
and tradition formation as aspect of creation.
6. Media is invisible. The more media is used, the more it goes without saying and the more it
has a tendency to disappear. Media usage is largely unconscious. (Winkler, 2004)
Further, Winkler elaborates his theses in a more extended way providing fruitful insights of the
complexity of the attempts to conceptualise media. Michelkevicius (2008) in a recently published
compilation of texts on “media cultures” in Lithuania and abroad also stresses the complexity when
defining media. In addition, he discusses the difficulties when translating and/or using the English
term “media” in the Lithuanian language and context. By referring to Tholen the author stresses that
“the way we ask and reflect on the question about the media place, it changes the relation between
the concepts and media metaphors” (Tholen, in Michelkevicius, 2008, p. 30). In the scope of this
work “media” will be considered as a social agent which plays a significant role in shaping people’s
lives, too often if not always without their conscious awareness of its ideological impact. Such an
understanding and explanation of media place in the nowadays lives of people derives mostly from
the critical media theories.
Contemporary critical media theories are rooted in the works of the scholars associated with the
Frankfurt School of critical thought (Wood, 2000; Miller, 2002; Taylor and Harris, 2008) but not
exclusively. Wood (2000) and Miller (2002) attribute the “critical” component to those media
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theories and research practices that attempt not only to simply represent the social world as it is but
starting from that to provide the critical insights that attempt to bring the reforms and radical change
in human lives. Taylor and Harris (2008) bring the most integrated account of the theoretical works
of the past and present critical thinkers arguing that often the ideological component of the
contemporary mass media is hidden under the entertainment elements and imposed through media
generated symbols. They conclude that mass media is deleting the line between the real and virtual
worlds leaving powerless people under the hypnotic amnesia but at the same time shaping their real
life condition in favour of the people who are in power. Clearly, Winkler’s terms “symbolic nature”
of media is serving as a mechanism for shaping the “social networking” in real life.
Michelkevicius (2008) recognises the need for studying media arguing that media is more and more
becoming people’s daily routine – “people work, entertain, communicate through media” – media
environment becomes natural and often perceived unconsciously. The author talks about the need to
understand the impact of media on people and opportunities to develop a “peaceful/ecological”
relationship with media. Again, this corresponds to the understanding of Winkler that the more
people use media the more it becomes invisible and at the same time unconscious. Both authors talk
about the need to develop the critical consciousness towards the media impact but only partly
recognise that media is “charged” with ideology.
On the other hand, Kincheloe, in discussing the progressive education, brings the notion of “cultural
pedagogy” explaining that “the new “educators” in the electronically wired contemporary era are
those who posses the financial resources to use mass media” (2007, p. 24). He urges educators to
understand not only the education that takes place in the educational setting but also the education
that takes place through popular culture. For him, television, movies, video games, computers,
Internet, instant messaging, iPods, music, dance, and other productions play a significant
pedagogical role in producing cultural forms, the meanings, the rituals, and the representations that
are imposed by the hegemonic ideology and oppressive powers. Similarly, Hammer (1995) sees the
goal of educators to understand the particular media context of learners as their shared experience
and to develop their consciousness towards the understanding on how ideological component of
media is shaping their real life conditions. Fairclouh (1999) talks about textually-mediated life lived
by contemporary people recognising that without the education of critical awareness people’s lives
will continue to be directed by someone else but them. If contemporary education sets in the goals
to educate critically conscious individuals to be capable of taking responsibility for their lives and
be active citizens in the democratic society, then in such a case, media education must be part of the
educational practice.
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1.2. Media education in the world and in Lithuania
When evaluating the situation and practice of media education it is important to be aware that the
outcome will depend a lot on the theoretical standpoint on what is understood as the constitution of
“media education”. Keeping the focus on the critical component in this work, the different media
education practices call to be evaluated from the critical point of view before assessing the current
situation of media education in the world and in Lithuania.
1.2.1. Different approaches to media education
Following the tradition of critical media theory, Kellner and Share (2007) identifies at least four
approaches to media education: 1) protectionist approach; 2) media arts education; 3) media literacy
movement; and 4) critical media literacy. Although in all of the approaches the need for better
media literacy is stressed, in the educational approach there are significant differences. Below is the
summary on the main educational elements with highlighted limits of different approaches in media
education:
Table 1. Main approaches to media education.
Approaches Educational objectives
Educational elements Limitations from the critical point of view
Protectionist approach
To educate people about the risks and dangers of media
Explores the manipulative and addictive nature of media; raises the awareness on the risks and dangers within media
Treats media audiences as passive objects; misuse of media education by some of the political groups imposing own ideology; valuing traditional print culture over media culture
Media arts education
To teach the value of aesthetic qualities of media and the arts
Provides theoretical media education; involves producing media arts
Favours the individuality over the society, lacks counter production in offering an alternative media
Media literacy movement
To educate people media knowledge and skills
Theoretical and practical education of using media tools
Often is limited to teaching technical skills, does not question ideological and power issues within media
Critical media literacy
To educate for the critical thinking and consciousness to overcome oppression
Includes educational elements of approaches above and in addition focuses on ideology critique and analysis of power issues
Does not provide a single body of methodology
Source: adapted from Kellner and Share, 2007, pp. 6-9
Giroux (2001) brings to the attention the role of the different ideologies that influence political
decisions and practices in education for literacy, including the education for media literacy. The
author identifies three main competing ideologies, which if, applied enable to identify the nature of
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media education: 1) the instrumental ideology; 2) the interaction ideology; and 3) the critical
ideology. Below is the summary that briefly describes the main differences between the ideologies
and their critique:
Table 2. Main ideologies applied in media education
Ideologies Main assumptions Educational objectives Limits from the critical point of view
Instrumental ideology
The human world can be explained using the same scientific methods applied in studying physical world; social relationships follow the natural laws and therefore are the subject of quantification; knowledge is objective because it consists of “facts” derived from empirical research
To achieve the “mastery of fundamental skills” and answer the demand for such skills necessary from the growing sector of “mass production of information, communication, and finance”
Reduces the education to operational level and is mechanical; treats people as commodities; detaching education from the social and historical context; ignores the dominance of certain ideology and power behind the literacy
Interaction ideology
The human world differs from the physical (natural) world; knowledge is seen as social construction that derives from a person's encounter with the objective world; this implies subjectivity and puts at the central place the construction of meanings and the need to explore the human dimension of knowledge
To enable people to acquire literacy skills necessary for “higher level of reasoning”; to serve the personal growth
Addresses power only on the cognitive or psychological level, detaches theory from practice and does not recognise the political and cultural significance of (media) language; is not able to capture the broader media context
Critical ideology
Social systems are reproducing themselves through the ideological state apparatus, there exists hidden structures/curricular in education and culture; knowledge is relative to subjectivity and often derives from social and/or cultural hegemony
To achieve the “quality of human consciousness” as well as the mastery of necessary media skills
Source: adapted from Giroux, 2001, p. 206-208
Kellner (1995) distinguishes the concept of critical media literacy from the functional literacy and
cultural literacy, where functional literacy “refers to the acquisition of the rudimentary skills of
reading and writing”, while the cultural literacy “refers to acquisition of basic knowledge
concerning one's culture, society, and polity”. In contrast, critical media literacy “refers to the
gaining of skills necessary to analyse and critically dissect all the forms of culture with individuals
interact, ranging from books to the artefacts of film, television, radio, and the other products of the
cultural industries” (Kellner, 1995, p. xiv-xv).
For the scope of this work it is important to stress that media education is possible and takes place
not only in the formal education setting but also outside the formal education curricula. Although
13
many of the critical literacy scholars keep focus primarily on the school as the main sight for the
media education practice, Kincheloe (2007) calls to recognise and consider any opportunity for
critical literacy within formal education programmes but also considers equally important non-
formal education programmes. This work will attempt to contribute to the knowledge on the
education for the critical media literacy in the field of non-formal education.
In concluding, media education that follows the concept of critical media literacy recognises the
need and includes in the education the technical skills of using different media. But through this
process, it keeps the main attention for the education of critical consciousness towards the media’s
political and cultural role to shape people’s identities, meanings and oppressive conditions in life. In
addition, many authors in the critical theory tradition stress the importance to include in media
education practice the production of alternative media that would counter fight the dominant
oppressive practices shaped by media.
1.2.2. Media education in different countries
Several comparative reports, studies and research (see the Table 3 in the annexes) provide the
relevant overview of the changing media education landscape during the two past decades
worldwide. They differ one from the other in (a) period of time they take; (b) countries they cover;
(c) educational level and setting they focus; (d) research object they keep; and (e) research methods
they use. The findings allow us to draw some conclusions on the media education situation in
general, and in the field of non-formal education in particular.
French and Richards (1994) compared the case studies on university media and communication
education practices in eight European countries arguing in the conclusions that with the existing
differences in the understanding, approach and practice of media education across countries, there
are no doubts that media studies are moving towards the discipline in the higher educational level in
Europe. Fedorov (2008) provides a historical overview of media education evolution in different
countries across the world and notes similarly that there exists the rich diversity within media
educational practices but at the same time refers to the countries, for example France, Great Britain,
Germany, USA, Canada and others, where media studies gained a separate discipline status during
the years from 1990 to 2000. Other research (Hart, 1998; Hart and Süss, 2001) and studies
(Domaille and Buckingham, 2001; Taylor, 2002; European Commission, 2007; Fedorov, 2008)
portray more the situation with media education at the school level and to a certain extent include
the data from the field of non-formal education (Taylor, 2002; European Commission, 2007;
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Fedorov, 2008; Alliance of Civilization, 2009).
Hart and Süss (1998, 2001) argued for the need of basic research in the media education field and
conducted two international research projects in order empirically examine systematic strategies for
the teaching of media in different countries. Research findings in the English-speaking countries
showed “a rich variety of forms and practices within familiar basic paradigms [of teaching media]”
but also identified “the lack of attention to: classroom interaction and dialogue about media; space
for young people’s own media experience and knowledge; opportunities for active involvement in
the social production of texts; teaching in context through engagement with media process and
technologies; engagement with political issues; and learning about media institutions” (Hart, 1998).
The same research conducted later in 1999-2001 and including more European countries came to
the similar findings but in addition showed the controversies: while the optimism among the media
educators seems growing towards the opportunities for critical media literacy, at the same time they
noted the decreasing importance of media literacy in general due to the introduction of computer
literacy in schooling in some of the countries (Hart and Süss, 2001).
Above discussed tendencies seem to continue in nowadays media education as some of the critical
media scholars confirm similar views. On the one hand, the adoption of computer literacy in the
formal education practice offered the “back doors entrance” for critical media literacy (Luke in
Kellner and Share, 2005) but on the other hand, there is a great lack of critical media literacy
approach in the current media education practice in different countries of the world (Giroux, 2001;
Kellner and Share, 2007; McLaren and Kincheloe, 2007). Similarly, a recent study confirms that the
access and use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in schools of 27 European
Union member states is increasing (Korte and Hüsing, 2007). But at the same time the latest report
from the Committee of Culture and Education of European Parliament (2008) emphasizes the
importance to educate the critical consciousness towards media in many of the educational settings
in Europe.
The institutional understanding of critical media literacy is present not only in the European Union
but also in the Council of Europe and UNESCO. In all three cases, the institutional understanding
was shaped by the earlier conducted international studies on the situation of media education in
different countries of the world. In 1997-1999, the Council of Europe implemented an educational
project on the critical approach to media in civic education programmes where it conducted a
survey in five European countries on the situation with media education. The report published after
the end of the project stresses the importance of critical media literacy in civic education
15
programmes (Taylor, Council of Europe, 2002). In 2001, UNESCO published a report from the
youth media education survey from thirty-one countries around the world. The conclusions were
made in the sense that it was observed a shift in the definition of media education towards a more
critical media literacy stressing the importance of critical awareness and democratic participation
(Domaille and Buckingham, UNESCO, 2001). The authors of the study conclude that media
education at the date of the study was struggling for the recognition as an individual subject in the
school curriculum educators were lacking training, teaching resources and research, media
education was happening mainly because of the individual enthusiasm of the educators and with
limited local support. Educators welcomed the entrance of ICT into the school education hoping for
the opening possibilities to including critical questioning of media but at the same time stressing the
fear of teaching computer literacy only on the technical level. Although the study was primarily
targeted at schools, it was recognised “that in several countries (such as the USA or parts of Latin
America) the most interesting and productive work is done outside the formal education system, in
the context of local youth and community-based projects” (Domaille and Buckingham, UNESCO,
2001, p. 8). The study included the question about such practices but the results have showen the
lack of awareness among the respondents of the existence of media education practices in the non-
formal education field. Domaille and Buckingham conclude that this does not prove that such
practices do not exist but rather that media education in non-formal education fields is not well
researched at the date of the study due to its highly decentralised and diverse nature.
In the second half of 2007, The European Commission in cooperation with the Universidad
Autonoma de Barcelona conducted a study on the situation and the trends of media literacy in
Europe. Based on the theoretical inquiry from the existing literature on media education and
literacy, the research team came to four evolutionary stages of understanding media literacy that is
linked with the developments of media technologies:
Chart 1. Evolutionary stages of understanding media literacy in the theoretical literature
Source: adapted from the Universidad Autonoma de Barcelona, 2007
The study of the situation in Europe reveals that there exists the diversity of initiatives and
strategies, which vary in media education according to the countries and actors. Despite the
diversity, some common trends were identified and are relevant to the scope of this work:
Classic literacy
Audiovisual literacy
Digital literacy
Media literacy
16
1. Traditional media is converging with the digital media creating new multimedia
environments and experiences for young people and calls for new research in Europe;
2. Media education policies in Europe are shifting towards the objectives of empowerment,
autonomy and participation of citizens;
3. There is growing sensitivity of citizens towards commercial communication observed
and therefore media literacy in its critical appearance is more than welcomed;
4. Teaching ICT skills is established in almost all European schools but media literacy in a
more broader sense is still trying to find the respective recognition;
5. Increasing access and use of ICT in school education increase the educational media
production and help young people to develop communication skills;
6. Media industry is becoming more attentive to media literacy and gets involved in media
education practices;
7. There has been new active participation and involvement of different stakeholders in
promoting media literacy;
8. There is an increase in interest among regulatory authorities in participating and
promoting media literacy.
In the conclusion the research team recommends to develop common “media literacy policy” in
Europe linking it with the “technological and economical innovation”, stimulate creativity as an
“essential part of the media literacy”, promote it as the “instrument for the active citizenship in the
European public sphere” and “reinforce the research and education in media literacy” (Universidad
Autonoma de Barcelona, 2007). The study also highlights the existing tensions between the formal
and non-formal media education practices, also between civil actors and state educational
authorities in media education.
The recent report of the Alliance of Civilisations (2009) continues stressing the importance of the
critical media literacy in the media education practice and calls for the political recognition of such
practice. Produced in collaboration with academics, the report provides interpretative analysis of
different cases and examples of media education practices in different countries showing that until
the date of the report there were media education practices that followed the critical media literacy
approach but these practices need to be recognised and further expanded. Frau-Meigs and Torrent
(2009) in the introduction part stress the importance that media education practices outside the
formal education sector gain respectability worldwide.
17
In conclusion, it can be said that across countries in the world educators, academic scholars and in
some cases decision makers recognise the importance of media education and especially the critical
media literacy. The empirical evidence confirms that access, use and teaching of ICT are already a
part of educational practice in most countries, especially in the technologically advanced regions of
the world. However, more indebt research concludes that a critical media literacy approach is
missing and needs to be included in the media education practice. Lastly, there exists the
recognition that media education practice is not only limited to the formal education sector but it
takes place also in the diverse educational venues outside schools. Unfortunately, such non-formal
education practices are not well researched and are represented only in limited cases. The last point
is especially important for the scope of this work because it provides the rationale for the research
in the field of non-formal education.
1.2.3. Media education in Lithuania
Lithuania was not included as a case in any of the studies or research that were referred to above
with the exception of the study about the access and use of ICT in school education, which only to
some extent could be applied in evaluating the situation with media education in the country. Since,
2003 each year Ministry of Education and Science has been conducting the research on computer
literacy among the population in Lithuania. The last research that was conducted in 2008 attempted
to shift from the focus on the computer literacy in the pure sense of the technological use towards
the digital literacy arguing that the trends of using ICT are changing (Kalvaitis and Tamosiunas,
2008). The research outcomes provide only limited knowledge on functional and organisational
aspects of education related to digital literacy. By referring to the document of the European
Commission, researchers draw attention to the fact that computer literacy has evolved into digital
literacy. In addition, in a rather misleading way, they distinguish the digital literacy from the
informational literacy arguing that in future research it is important to focus on the digital literacy
(the same). Such recommendation contradicts not only the trends concluded by other research and
studies conducted in other countries but also is against the initiatives of Ministry of Education and
Science to bring more critical media literacy to Lithuanian schools as discussed in the interview
with Sakadolskis (Smalinskaite, 2006).
In 2006 Ministry of Education and Science decided to implement a pilot project on information
literacy in 15 secondary schools in Lithuania. The project included impact research which
concluded the following: 1) teachers who were the part of the programme positively evaluated it
emphasising especially well prepared lessons; 2) they expressed preference for teaching media
18
literacy as an independent subject; and 3) identified the problems related to the lack of knowledge
and resources on the subject alongside with insufficient financial support (Cymermoniene, 2008).
Pupils who took part in the programme and learnt critical media literacy comparing to their peers
who were not part of such programme were more able to analyse the information delivered by
media, interpret and critically assess it (the same). The research concludes that media literacy
should be integrated in many life spheres of children and adults emphasising the importance of
education for critical thinking.
The research was conducted on the information literacy in a higher education level in Lithuania but
because they kept focus on the operational level of informational literacy and not on the critical
component, they give little value for the scope of the work. With the lack of the relevant research on
the subject there, it is possible only to provide a descriptive overview of the fragmented situation of
media education in Lithuania referring to the existing programmes and projects that include media
education practices.
At the end of 2008, a conference on the theme of informational literacy took place in Lithuania.
Although the majority of the presentations from the invited speakers were covering the
informational literacy on the level of operational competence (Master students of Management of
Library and Information Centres, 2008; Kiauleikis, 2008; Tautkeviciene, 2008) but attention was
also given to the importance of the information literacy in the sense of critical media literacy.
Sakadolskis (2009) discusses the meaning of information literacy in the 21st century arguing the
need for such educational programme in Lithuanian schools referring to the experience of the pilot
programme. The pilot programme on critical media literacy that continues to be implemented in the
school year of 2008-2009 includes 4 lessons on media, 9 lessons on the Internet, 4 lessons on
cinema and 5 lessons on the television and is a plausible example of good practice in Lithuania
(Orintiene, 2007; Sakadolskis 2008). In addition to the pilot programmes, in a number of schools
there are pupils’ journalists clubs, or video, photography and music groups but it is difficult to
examine to what extent they contribute to the education of critical media literacy because there is no
relevant research done by present date.
Besides the initiative in the formal education there are a number of initiatives that offer extra-
curricular or non-formal education opportunities to develop media literacy in Lithuania. The media
education centre Meno Avilys continuously offers media education programmes for educators and
young people that include education for critical media literacy in the area of movies, cinema,
photography and video production (Meno Avilys, 2009). The Centre for Civic Initiatives is offering
19
educational seminars for teachers, social workers, police officers, cultural workers where people
who work with young people are get acquainted with the youth culture, including studying youth
media culture (Centre for Civic Initiatives, 2009). The Lithuanian Centre for Children and Youth is
offering to join a journalist club and learn about media industry work while developing critical
consciousness towards media (Lithuanian Children and Youth Centre, 2009). Similar centres in
other districts of Lithuania offer similar educational programmes but no data has been collected yet.
Growing youth work sector in Lithuania to some extent also offers media education through the
implemented youth projects and initiatives. Until 2008, the Department for Youth Affairs under the
Ministry of Social Security and Labour was providing grants for (youth) non-governmental
organisations for the projects that encourage active youth participation in creating a knowledge
society in Lithuania (Department for Youth Affairs, 2007). Similar financial support continues to be
available at the level of the municipality which provides support in different districts of Lithuania
but unfortunately again there is a lack of data on the matter. European Union non-formal education
programmes Youth (2000-2006) and Youth in Action (2007-2013) offer grants for the youth
projects where in a number of projects media education or media as a method is implemented
having the central place in the educational process (Lithuanian Agency of International Youth Co-
operation, 2007, 2008). Apart from the general study done on the impact of Youth programme
(Lithuanian Agency of International Youth Co-operation, 2007) and general research on youth
situation in Lithuania (Department for Youth Affairs, 2008, 2007, 2006) there is no specific
research done on the media education in youth non-formal education. This also applies to the other
practices and programmes of non-formal education in Lithuania. A rather recent research
(Kviestkiene, 2006) on the expenses and access of the children’s non-formal education in Lithuania
provides an overview of the relevant research in the field but does not include any data that would
be in particular focusing on media education in non-formal education setting.
Drawing conclusions on the media education situation in Lithuania it can be said that there are
plausible fragmented practices of media education for critical media literacy both in the formal
education and non-formal education fields. In the formal education field there is some research
done relevant to the topic but their objective is to understand media education at a rather operational
level. The exception is the impact research in the pilot project on informational literacy in
Lithuanian schools. The diverse non-formal education field provides media education programmes
that in their description aim at critical media literacy but the extent of practice and contribution is
rather unknown because it lacks sufficient research in the field. On the institutional level there is a
certain understanding that ranges from the more operational level of digital literacy to the
20
informational or media literacy, the support for such initiatives in education is rather fragmented
and not systematic on the side of the state institutions. However supporters of the critical media
literacy is actively involved in promoting the critical media literacy in educational practice both in
school and out-of-school programmes.
1.3. Media literacy and critical consciousness
The close look at how the present media is working and influencing people’s critical consciousness
will build an argument that supports the importance of critical media literacy. Taylor and Harris
(2008) argue that contemporary media itself is not self-reflective and self-conscious of its limits and
has negative implications on people’s life. There are at least two reasons for such lack in media as
identified by the critical media theorists: 1) media is permeated by the ideological components that
are not overlooked but actually there are inner forces that drive media; and 2) many theoretical
analyses of media even if they recognise the ideological aspect instead of being critical they
celebrate this as the proof of media’s effectiveness in society (Taylor and Harris, 2008). Associates
of the Frankfurt school have developed a critical theory of political economy of communication to
examine how the logic of capital “shapes the structure and content of the culture industries” (Bettig,
2002, p. 84). Adorno and Horkheimer (1972) provide the valuable analysis on the reproduction of
the powers of the ruling elite via cultural institutions such as schools, family, mass media and
churches that have replaced the previously used physical forces such as the army or the police.
Recognising the new role for culture Adorno and Horkheimer developed the culture industry
approach, which analysed the media system and ways of convincing consumers that they are
receiving what they really want (Bettig, 2002). Bettig (2002) argues that culture industry prevents
social changes not because of “false ideology” but rather because it becomes a part of an economic
system driven by a profit motive and governing in the market logic the production of culture and
information.
In a similar way, Taylor and Harris (2008) explore how, in mass media, the cult of celebrity serves
to distract people from the real life issues turning the educative potential of the media into the
“Banality TV”. Media basically serves to legitimate and reproduce the one dominant life style and
ultimately is supporting the maintenance of the status quo of power relationships in the societies.
The authors apply Benjamin’s notion of the “distraction” to the contemporary mass media and
argue that “while the essential elements of the commodity system remain undisturbed, celebrity
faces effectively distract us from much less glamorous and more mundane structural economic
causes that continue to dominate social relations within the heavily mediated West and the wider
21
global political order” (Taylor and Harris, 2008, p. 134). The significant role of the celebrities was
noted by Adorno and Horkheimer (1972) explaining how cultural industry in an “assembly-like
character” and through “the synthetic, planned method of turning out its products (factory like not
only in the studio but, more or less, in the compilation of cheap biographies, pseudo documentary
novels, and hit songs)” produce “stars” that are very “suitable for the advertising” (the same, p.
163). As Bettig notes, the ultimate goal of the media industry is to serve the “goal of oligopolistic
producers … to minimise risks by standardizing products and to maximise profits by creating
demand through marketing and advertising” (2002, p. 86). Media industry provides what people
expect and in turn they come back ready to consume culture produced by the media in this way
closing the circle of reproduction. Questioning media texts, media produced life styles or media
industry itself ultimately means to question the dominant social, political and economical system
itself. This is a challenging task for educators because media culture is often a part of learner’s
identity and the most powerful experience (Kellner and Share, 2007). And the one who does that
becomes the “outsider” of the system and risks to become voiceless because most of the cultural
public spheres are already dominated by the profit-making logic (Giroux, 2001; Bettig, 2002).
Media industry has not only the implications on the consumer behaviour of people but also very
important political implications. Nowadays the blending of three powers – business, politics and
media can be observed. It becomes difficult to make a distinction between certain figures, be it a
politician, business or media person, is representing and acting upon. Media theorist McLuhan
(1964) turns over the original idea of Panopticon and applies it to the new electronic media arguing
that new media technology enables the “mass” to observe and follow the “few” replacing the
original idea designed by the philosopher and social theorist Bentham in 1785. Now few, mostly
from the ruling elite are appearing on the screens of TV, covers of the magazines or at radio talk-
shows and spreading their understanding of the world which repeated and repeated many times
becomes implicit in the understanding of common people. Taylor and Harris (2008) provide the
critical analysis of the examples how media is converting the real life events into spectacles
reaching everyone and vice-versa how the political spectacle becomes the reality for many people
where their role as citizens is limited to participation in repeatedly conducted elections with a
limited choice in the political menu constituted mostly from the ruling elite. McLaren and Hammer
(2007) critically analyse how media for the first time turned the war during the Golf War in 1990-
1991 into the aesthetic spectacle where everyone experienced it but at a safe distance. The analysis
of how television as technology affects people reveals that due to the mosaic nature the view that is
transmitted gets connected into totality only in the unconsciousness (McLuhan, 1964; McLaren and
Hammer, 2007). New media technologies were used to manipulate people’s minds by arguing the
22
benefits of the war but at the same time re-establishing certain hegemonic powers over people. In
the critical media theories there is more evidence of the media’s impact on people showing how
media is reproducing the dominant ideologies and powers.
Hammer (1995) argues that often is the case that young people are more familiar with new media
practices and equipped with technical skills of using media in their lives. Similarly Kellner and
Share acknowledge that, “[s]tudents and youth are often more media savvy, knowledgeable, and
immersed in media culture than their teachers, and can contribute to the educational process through
sharing their ideas, perceptions, and insights” (2007, p. 17). But at the same time, the authors admit
that “[t]oo often students believe the role of media is simply to entertain or inform, with little
knowledge of the economic structure that supports it” (Kelner and Share, 2007, p. 15). They see
“[t]he basis of media literacy is that all messages are constructed, and when education begins with
this understanding of the social construction of knowledge, the literacy process can expand critical
inquiry into multiple forms of information and communication, including television and other
modes of media culture, the Internet, advertising, artificial intelligence, biotechnology, and of
course, books” (the same, p. 19). This is where the critical educator may enter with educational
content awakening the conscious awareness on the media industry and its “hidden messages”.
Many scholars and educators see the new opportunities that are opening the computer literacy and
the Internet, but Bettig does not leave much hope for the Internet saying that “the same profit
motive is driving the structure and content of the Internet” (2002, p. 88). The Internet is to a large
extent used rather for the entertainment and consuming and not for critical discussions and social
change geared towards better social, political and economical system. Bettig borrows Ewen's (1976)
term “captains of consciousness” when arguing that with the Internet rapidly becoming a mass
medium, it just strengthens the positions of the wealthiest of the planet and continues to impose
more strict barriers for critical alternative. The analysis reveals, “of the 1991 Forbes list of richest
400 individuals and families in the United States found that they either made their fortune from or
held significant stakes in culture and information industries” (Bettig, 2002, p. 88). The author
continues noting that already now the businesses have an advantage in the struggle of what policies
and programmes are in the “public interest” referring to the historical study of the copyright law as
one of the cases. Rather pessimistic stand does not diminish the hope that through proper education
it is possible to achieve the development of the critical consciousness towards media in particular
but also to life in general. This hope comes from the theorist who tries to establish the ground for
hope. Enzensberger (1974) proposes to replace the “culture industry” by the concept of
“consciousness industry” arguing that media industry driven by the profit motives cannot become
23
“captains of consciousness” because “consciousness <...> cannot be industrially produced, it is a
“social product” made up by people: its origin is the dialogue” (p. 5). Giroux (1997) in the critical
analysis of ideologies and education argues that ideologies are not operating only in the realms of
consciousness or unconsciousness but they are located in the universe of unconsciousness, common
sense and critical consciousness. For the author the essential question is how to make education
“meaningful in order to make it critical, and how … [to] make it critical in order to make it
emancipatory” (Giroux, 1997, p. 71). The questions raised at the end of this part will be the main
subject of the next part while exploring the concept and ideas of critical pedagogy, which has much
to offer to the media education that aims at critical media literacy.
2. CRITICAL PEDAGOGY IN MEDIA EDUCATION
New tendencies in media education in the world and to some extent in Lithuania identify the
importance of critical media literacy calling to change the paradigm in education by strengthening
the critical component. Education for critical consciousness is the essential object in the theoretical
works and practice of critical pedagogy. The origins of critical pedagogy are mostly associated
with the theoretical works and educational practices of Paulo Freire and associates of the Frankfurt
School of critical thought (Giroux, 1997; Carnoy, 1998; McLaren, 2000; Rossatto, 2005; Kincheloe,
2007). The following sections will look at the concept and the main ideas of critical pedagogy
alongside with the theoretical inputs of the critical thoughts of the Frankfurt School. Theoretical
grounds for the passage from the critical literacy to the critical media literacy will be established by
exploring the educational process and practice for critical media literacy in the contemporary world.
2.1. The concept and the main ideas of critical pedagogy
The concept of critical pedagogy is evolving considering new themes, focuses and practices. Often
referring to the original ideas of Freire, the critical scholars in the field reconsider new areas of
concerns for critical pedagogy to approach new forms of emerging oppressive practices. This is the
case with the ever-growing role of media in lives of people with its powers to establish the
oppressive ideologies and powers across the globe. By merging with the critical theory of Frankfurt
School associates, especially their critical contribution in the culture studies, critical pedagogy
offers educational concept and practice for the critical media literacy.
24
2.1.1. Freire’s concept and ideas of critical pedagogy: then and now
Critical pedagogy was born from Freire’s educational practice and research in the context of Brazil,
„[o]ne of the great new industrial economies, enormously wealthy and enormously poor, it has the
most unequal income distribution of any of the world’s major countries“; with the „political system,
multiparty and highly democratic at one level, is still run on the bases of clientelismo, in which
politicians maintain power by using public resources for very specific private interests“; where
„only about one third of fifteen-to-nineteen-year-olds attend secondary school…and the conditions
in basic education are desperately poor“ (Carnoy, 1998). At the same time, Freire, as called by
Carnoy, is „an anomaly“ among educators because of being „truly international“ (the same, p. 8).
Two main causes contributed to his international character and enriched the world experience.
Firstly, due to the military coup in Brazil in 1964 Freire was imprisoned as a traitor for 70 days and
after forced to leave his homeland. After briefly landing in Bolivia, he moved to live in Chile for
five years working for the Christian Democratic Agrarian Reform Movement and the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The second cause is more pleasant and is related to
the international recognition that was brought by the book Pedagogy of Oppressed that was first
published in 1967. The book was well received not only among the circles of intellectuals but even
more importantly by the education practitioners working at a grass-root level, especially after it was
published in both Spanish and English. Freire was offered a visiting professorship at Harvard
University in 1969 later moving to Geneva, Switzerland to work as a special education adviser to
the World Council of Churches on the education reform in former Portuguese colonies in Africa,
particularly Guinea Bissau and Mozambique. International experience in different parts of the world
has brought Freire to the conclusion that critical pedagogy is relevant not only to the countries that
struggle for the development but equally is important for the well developed countries (Freire,
1992).
This is obvious especially from the solid body of literature on critical pedagogy developed during
the past two decades mostly by the scholars from the developed countries. Thus in the critical spirit
at times they admit the lack of the contribution from the colleagues from other backgrounds and
regions of the world (Rossatto, Allen and Pruyn, 2006). As could be seen from the below listed3, in
past decades critical pedagogy is challenged by, and in return attempts to critically challenge the
ideologies and practices that employ the “oppressive powers” to reach the “dominance over the
minds, hearts and bodies of people”: sectarian religious ideologies (Rossatto, 2006; Giroux, 2007),
3 Further references may be found in Rethinking media literacy: a critical pedagogy of representation and Critical pedagogy: where are we now (see in the list of references)
25
changing map of political ideologies (Leistyna, 1996, 2007; Giroux, 1997, 2007; Weiner, 2007;
Martin, 2007), re-emergence of the extreme ideologies (Bonilla-Silva & Embrick 2006; Kincheloe,
2007; Giroux, 2007), changing policies and politics of the states and governments (Lewis &
Solórzano, 2006; Bejarano, 2006; Rossatto, 2006; McLaren, 2006; 2007; Kincheloe, 2007; Denzin,
2007), increasing global governance and global processes (McLaren, 2006, 2007; Kincheloe, 2007;
Fischman & Gandin, 2007; Bartalomé, 2007; Grande, 2007; Lissovoy, 2007), expanding corporate
“thinking” and dominance (Kincheloe, 2007; Berry, 2007; Suoranta & Vadén, 2007). By exploring
different challenges contemporary scholars almost unanimously call for the need of the more
liberating pedagogy in education.
Critical pedagogy, from Freire’s point of view, first of all is the “pedagogy of the oppressed” - “the
pedagogy of people engaged in the fight for their own liberation … those who recognise, or begin
to recognize, themselves as oppressed…” (1967, p. 53). The liberating power of critical pedagogy
constitutes in two stages: in the first, “the oppressed unveil the world of oppression and through the
praxis commit themselves to its transformation”; and in the second stage, “in which the reality of
oppression has already been transformed, the pedagogy ceases to belong to the oppressed and
becomes a pedagogy of all people in the process of permanent liberation” (Freire, 1967, p. 54-55).
While during the first stage the “oppressed” develops the critical consciousness on the oppressive
condition in own life ant take the active stance; the second stage involves the struggle to create the
society without any kind of the “oppressive” powers. For many critics the definition of the
“oppressed” seemed too vague and they called to put more emphasis on the social class struggle. In
later works Freire elegantly dismissed this criticism by admitting the role of social classes in
history, but also drawing attention to the other forms and situation of oppression that involves for
example gender, race, sexual or ethnicity related cases (Freire, 1992).
Contemporary scholars of critical pedagogy continuously acknowledge the complexity of the
postmodern world and call the critical theorists-researchers-educators-practitioners to approach
newly emerging issues of injustice, power abuse, oppressive practices imposed by the manipulative
ideologies. Similarly like contemporary scholars, Freire (1992) criticised the sectarian,
neoconservative and neoliberal ideologies drawing attention to the dangerous implications they
have on education. According to Freire, neoliberal thinking “reinforces a pseudoneutrality of the
educational practice, reducing it to the transfer of the informational content to the learners” and in
this way “taking away the learners’ epistemological curiosity” to search for knowledge and discover
the world. To continue with the author, this is in particular dangerous because such kind of
education leads learners to lose the “immune to the bureaucratization of their minds” and ability to
26
participate in the “dialogic relationship” with others and in society. The relationship that is based on
the dialogue in its essence and nature is opposite to the one that the authoritarian regimes are
practicing (Freire, 1998). The danger with the conservative thinking is that to a large extent it
avoids the deep transformations in and through education seeking to maintain the dominant
ideology or retrieve the past. To be fair, Freire also provides the criticism for the “leftists”, who
employed the rather “dogmatic thinking” into their practice trying to “fill the empty awareness” of
people on their conditions, for being too “sectarian among” the different branches of the movement
when thinking that “only their ideas are progressive” or because of adopting the “neoliberal
pragmatic discourse” agreeing that fairness and equality is an utopia (Freire, 1992; 1998).
Giroux (1997) provides one of the most extensive analysis of the role and power that ideologies
play in life generally and in education particularly. This author sees ideology as a “crucial construct
for understanding how meaning is produced, transformed, and consumed by individuals and
groups” (p. 91). In the tradition of critical theory, scholars of critical pedagogy dismiss the
dominant belief that education is neutral of ideologies. Giroux goes further arguing that critical
pedagogy should see humans as active agents and through critical inquiry in education to empower
people to identify and deconstruct the dominant ideologies and produce their own subjective
alternatives of meaning, identities and life practices. He argues that ideology is located both in the
individuals and the social and institutional practices. Therefore critical reflection in education
process is needed on both levels: 1) on individual level it is important to interrogate critically the
inner histories and experience of participating in ideologies; and 2) on social and institutional level
to reflect critically how certain ideologies are reproduced through day-to-day practice in, for
example education, culture or work institutions (Giroux, 1997). This is only possible if reproductive
practice in education would be transformed with the educational practice that is based on dialectics.
Freire (1967, 1992) equally argued for the need of dialectical pedagogy in education where the
educational practice is historically contextualised and participatory. Both authors recognise the
importance to consider people’s experience, meanings and understandings they bring to the
education setting as a source for critical reflection. “Be they children coming to school for the first
time, or young people and adults at centres of popular education”, they bring it “in the way of
understanding of the world, in the most varied dimensions of their own practice in the social
practice of which they are a part” (Freire, 1992, p. 72). Similarly, “[learners] own experiences and
needs that have to be made problematic to provide the basis for exploring the interface between
their own lives and the constraints and possibilities of the wider society” (Giroux, 1997, p. 81). The
knowledge, the content and practice in education should be always contextualised addressing the
27
issues of injustice, inequality, abuse of power and oppression in the historical deriving from the
learner’s living experience of presence and empowering them for the transformative actions in
future. The task of the “progressive educator, through a serious, correct political analysis, is to
unveil opportunities for hope, no matter what the obstacles may be” (Freire, 1992, p. 3).
In favour of participatory education, Freire stressed that it “is absolutely essential that the oppressed
participate in the revolutionary process of the transformation with an increasingly critical awareness
of their role as Subjects of the transformation” (1967, p. 127). From the beginning he draws
attention to the negative practices of not involving people in the process by arguing that non-
participative or “pseudo- participative” education treats people as “objects” and leads “into the
populist pitfall and transform them into masses which can be manipulated”. In the educational
process, educator and learner are seen both as Subjects and share the task of “unveiling the reality”
through critical reflection and re-creation of knowledge (Freire, 1967). Critical pedagogy stresses
the importance of critical reflection on the reality but also that educational relationship should be
based on the equality between the educator and learner as human beings. However this does not
dismiss the importance of the presence and role of educator. According to Freire, “educators have
the right, and even the duty to teach what seems to them fundamental to the space-time in which
they find themselves” (1992, p.113). Here the author acknowledges the “directive” nature of
education by explicitly pointing out that education “always pursues objectives and goals, dreams
and projects” recognising that education is not neutral. In respect to this one of the important issues
for critical pedagogy is to “democratise the content” in education. This does not mean only to
provide learners with a choice from the set of the subjects to study or topics to learn but to empower
them to propose and explore education contents coming from „their world“ – the questions and
issues that are at their concern and from their struggles in life. Here Freire brings the fundamental
problem in education: „who chooses the content, and on behalf of which persons and things the
„chooser‘s“ teaching will be performed – in favour of whom, against whom, in favour of what,
against what“. These are the essential questions to ask in order to uncover the „hidden curricula“ in
education addressed by many of the contemporary scholars of critical pedagogy. Recognising that
schools and other educational settings are also operating as the sights for social and cultural
reproduction of the dominant ideologies is the first and important step towards the critical pedagogy
in education (Giroux, 1997).
Kincheloe (2007) considers the changing realities of the 21st century and discusses the central
features of newly evolving critical pedagogy where critical understanding of power and nature of
ideology continues to find an important place and attention. In addition, the author recognises that
28
contemporary times are marked by the increasing influence of the cultural pedagogy practiced by
the media industry. Critical pedagogy needs to address the issues of authentic subjectivity,
alienation of the individual, critical consciousness in order to empower people for active
participation in the transformed, inclusive democratic community (Kincheloe, 2007). Although the
major theoretical work from the critical pedagogy scholars primary keep focus on the school and
formal education field there is recognition that non-formal education programmes and projects may
offer opportunities for critical pedagogy, especially considering that Freire’s educational practice
was to the most extent in the educational settings that were outside the formal education system.
Conclusions can be made that for both then and now the central aspect in critical pedagogy was the
education of critical consciousness of the individuals towards the critical understanding of the role
and power of ideologies that support the oppressive practices. In this sense many of the critical
scholars in the field of the critical pedagogy are addressing the issues of dominant ideologies of the
presence often referring to the main concept and ideas of the critical pedagogy expressed in the
works of Freire. Central to the concept of Freire’s critical pedagogy is the participatory and
contextualised education practice to liberate the oppressed while empowering them to take the
active role in changing their living conditions. Cultural pedagogy and the role of culture and media
is something that comes to the attention of critical pedagogy with contemporary scholars in the
field. Here can be identified the influence of the critical thought of the Frankfurt School whose links
will be highlighted in brief in the next part of this work.
2.1.2. Critical pedagogy in relation to the Frankfurt school of critical theory
From its early days of existence, the Frankfurt School had a mission to “argue for critical research
about those who govern on behalf of those who are governed” (Schiller in Bettig, 2002, p.84). The
primary focus of the scholars was an institutional analysis of the relationship between economic,
political, and communications systems mainly because of an increasing recognition in the 1960s
that the culture industry played a significant role in suppressing social change (Bettig, 2002). With
the rise of the electronic media at the beginning of the last century, namely the radio, movie and
television, an oligopolistic culture industry was born transforming culture into the selling
commodity, commodity in both senses as “product”, and as “ideology”. Following the Frankfurt
School, “this meant that the cultural realm now constitutes central place in the production and
transformation of historical experience” (Giroux, 2001 p. 23). Scholars of critical pedagogy
recognise and refer to the works of the theorists of the Frankfurt school of critical theory. Giroux
(1997) identifies the following valuable contributions for the critical educators and educational
29
theorists that they could find in the works of the Frankfurt school’s theorists:
• The critique for the dominance of the instrumental rationalism and positivisms in the
science, education and society in general, brought with the Enlightenment and which tied
education with the functionalists paradigm;
• The theory of culture that analyses the interrelationship between the power and culture and
how the education in general and schools in particular act as agents in reproduction of the
social and culture modes and practices in societies;
• The same theory offers educators source for developing the educational theories and
practices that recognise and takes into consideration the history or cultural capital brought
by learners belonging to different groups;
• In addition, a theory of culture emphasizes the importance of consciousness and
subjectivity in the learning process opposing the wide spread functionalists orientation in
this opening for the hope and the possibility of transcendence;
• Finally the notion of deep psychology offers new insights for the critical educators to
reflect their place and role in opposing the system of social and cultural reproduction that
is established and supported with the hidden curricular in education. (Giroux, 2001)
Other scholars4 referred to the works of the Frankfurt school associates when arguing the promise
of critical pedagogy to overcome the youth alienation in everyday life (Frymer, 2006), exploring the
claim made by critical pedagogy to be a “pedagogy of possibility” (Cho, 2006), elaborating the
concerns raised in the critical theory on the reproduction of non-equality through schools (Kanpol,
1999), in constructing the feminist pedagogy to democratise the gender relations in education (Luke
and Gore, 1992), discussing the emancipatory qualities of the technology when used in higher
education (Cole, 2001), using example of drama and aesthetics education to reach the critical
education (Doyle, 1993) and so on. As could be seen from these examples, critical theory is applied
to a wide thematic range within the field of critical pedagogy. The critique of the Enlightenment
consequences, the theory of culture and the notion of deep psychology, as summarised by Giroux,
are paralleled in the theoretical works of Freire. Similarly, Freire (1992) criticised the dominance of
the “pragmatic discourse” and “mechanistic objectivism” in education, contradicted the practice of
school in “reproducing the authoritarian ideologies”, stressed the importance to consider in the
education process the “reading the world in learners language”, argued in favour of education that
“awakens the consciousness of the oppressed”.
4 Further references may be found in Rethinking the Frankfurt School – alternative legacies of cultural critique (see in the list of references)
30
2.2. From the critical language literacy towards the critical media literacy in education
The theoretical ground of critical pedagogy as it was discussed earlier lays the foundations for the
critical education in both language literacy and media literacy. Freire (1992) considered language
more than merely as mean of communication but attributed the qualities of transmitting the
ideologies, shaping human’s perception of life, establishing and re-establishing power relationships
in the society. Most obvious could be the example of a person who does not know how to read and
to write and he or she is living in the society dominated by the written texts. Or in another example
there an immigrant person does not know the language of the hosting country and needs to survive
through the process of getting the residence to live in a country. Obviously, the language and the
ability to write and read determine the living conditions and opportunities these people have in the
society. But going deeper language may different and be associated with the class, age or social
status (Freire, 1992).
Working as a literacy teacher Freire saw his mission of teaching people to read and write not solely
as only education for skills but more as a way to teach critical thinking and encourage positive
social change. Lankshear (1993) explains that Freire's process of teaching to read and write
„literacy becomes a means by which learners can continually expand and refine their own critical
awareness, and communicate this to others similarly intent on entering history more fully and
consciously” (in McLaren, 2000, p. 150). The education method of critical literacy is based on the
assumption that it is impossible to reach the critical thinking of a learner if a teacher is not
respecting and taking into “consideration the conditions in which they [learners] are living and the
importance of the knowledge derived from the life experience, which they bring with them to
school” (Freire, 1998, p. 62). According to McLaren, the central paradigm of Freire's pedagogy was
the attempt “to transform through the revolutionary social praxis the “banking concept” of
education, in which the teacher-expert deposits knowledge into the learner's memory bank in a
mechanical fashion that suggests that content itself is auto-critical” (2000, p. 156).
With his “method” of critical literacy Freire was targeting at liberating the oppressed from the
identity imposed by hegemonic power. Through the process of codification and de-codification a
learner is empowered to create a distance between self and the reality and later create own identity
or even multiply identities. Critical literacy strives to oppose the “identity politics” which are
imposed by the dominant powers and/or regimes. McLaren argues, “critical literacy à la Freire is a
revolutionary dialectics of interest and theory in which individuals can become self-consciousness
of their own self-formation in particular ways of life through an engagement in critical-reflexivity”
31
(2000, p. 155). Freire criticised schools for reproducing the hegemony through pursuing non-
liberating education practice suppressed by the education goals set by macro-structures of power
and privilege and teachers taking neutral stance in pedagogy. Freire was arguing for direct
pedagogy in the sense that educator is not taking a neutral role of facilitator because there is no
ideologically neutral education (Tores, 1997). Freire called educators to liberate them from the
“cultural capital” through establishing the “organic relationships” with class or group of people they
are working with (Mayo in McLaren, 2000).
Despite of the plausible contribution made by Freire his critics draw attention: firstly, on the failure
to provide a more systematic body of theoretical work what would illustrate how cultural dominant
it reproduced through the school education; and secondly, for not recognising enough the race and
gender caused oppression (McLaren, 2000). In conclusions McLaren recognise that first weakness
becomes actually the strength of the pedagogy of critical literacy forcing educators develop their
own “theory” and ways of education practice; and the second was recognised by Freire himself by
trying in later works to address issues of race and gender oppression. Freire’s concept of critical
pedagogy was born primary from his experience of teaching to read and write. Contemporary
scholars following the main ideas of Freire’s pedagogy of oppressed developed the critical literacy
approach further by including extensive attention on multiply media literacies.
Critical media literacy is considered as part of a process of critical pedagogy during which people
learn “how their culture, society, and polity are structured and work”. Critical media literacy
enables learners “to read and criticize the media and how to produce alternative media and culture”
(Kellner, 1995, p. xv). Steinberg and Kincheloe (1995) argue that due to the fact that only rich
conglomerates can enter and use media it is important to create alternative spaces where citizens
could critically reflect on media impact in shaping their values, desires and influencing their choices
and daily lives. The authors share the view that teachers should not reduce to only analysis of text
meaning from reading books, but stimulate the reflection on contextual relevance and influence of
ideology behind (Steinberg and Kincheloe, 1995). In achieving its goal critical media literacy
should first of all challenge the understanding of “coding” and “decoding” which in the media
education today is limited only to the learning “the art of media message construction and
interpretation” (Sholle and Denski, 1995). Contemporary media education practice should employ
Freire's meaning and practice of coding and decoding to bridge the media texts with hegemonic
practices in reality. Sholle and Denski (1995) draw parallels between critical media literacy and
Freire's pedagogy of critical literacy. At the same time McLaren and Hammer (1995) invite
educators to recognise that the present world constitutes from multiply literacies - “post-modern
32
literacies” - where knowledge plays the meaning-making role. In the age of electronic media
growing “mediascapes” are dominated by the audio-visual images and challenge the dominance of
the printed text. The authors note that it “is a form of literacy that understands media
representations – whatever photographs, television, print, film or another form – as not merely
productive of knowledge but also of subjectivity” (McLaren an Hammer, 1995, p. 196). They
express a need for “a counter-hegemonic media literacy in which subjectivities may be lived and
analysed outside the dominant regime of official print culture – culture that is informed by a
technophobic retreat from emerging techno-aesthetic cultures of photography, film and
electronically mediated messages. (McLaren and Hammer, 1995, p. 199)
McLaren and Hammer in their theoretical discourse distinguish, more in symbolic sense than
physical, between the symbolic work within the informal cultural space and symbolic work in
school setting. The first one allows psychologically feel the “ownership” of creative materials and
tools, where the second leaves the “ownership” of books in the power of teachers (McLaren and
Hammer, 1995). Therefore critical media literacy should treat human beings not “merely as human
capital or labour power, but as creative citizens, full of their own sensuous symbolic capacities and
activities and taking a hand in the reconstruction of their own identities” (McLaren and Hammer,
1995, p. 200). However, these authors admit that it is not an “easy task, and there are no guaranties,
especially given that symbolic resources are lodged in their own historical patterns of power and
logics of production.” (the same).
Hammer (1995) argues that most of the people, especially young, are highly literate in the many
kinds of new media, but to a large extent this literacy remains “unconscious, inarticulate, and
unrecognised”. High media literacy is achieved with little contribution of school education, but still
there is a significant difference in being media literate in the merely functional sense and being
critically aware of how media is shaping one's life. From here dthe importance for critical pedagogy
derives – educators through critical media literacy encourage young people’s meta-reflection of
their media experiences in this way challenging the “background effect” of media. Hammer
recognises the limits of traditional education where “a word has a meaning independent of its'
context” and criticises “decontextualised approach” as wrong teaching practice. According to
Hammer, one possible way of improving education practice is to apply the dialectical method,
which in William's explanation is “a contradiction in the course of discussion or dispute to a notion
of contradiction in reality” (the same, p. 107). But before applying dialectical method for critical
media literacy, Hammer suggest that educators should make a step in becoming media literate
themselves. It might seem that the critical media literacy is a very sophisticated and highly
33
cognitive way of learning trying to “reach” consciousness but in reality it starts from the very
simple separation of “what they see and hear from what they think and feel” (Kelner and Share,
2007, p. 12).
Kelner and Share (2007) explain that the educational process of critical media literacy starts from
the “media arts activities or simple decoding of media texts in the mode of the established media
literacy movement” but moving beyond teaching only artistic or technical skills towards by
critically exploring the meaning of media texts (e.g. direct vs. hidden, decontextualised vs.
contextualised) and challenging the common assumptions (e.g. media portrayed world vs. real
world, subject/object vs. world) through, when feasible, the production of alternative media. The
authors recommend “a pedagogy of teaching critical media literacy through the project-based media
production … for making analysis more meaningful and empowering as students gain tools for
responding and taking action on the social conditions and texts they are critiquing” (Kelner and
Share, 2007, p. 9). The suggested method perfectly fits with the practice of non-formal education
where project-based learning is used widely and even in a more real manner than it is possible to
achieve in the frame and structure of the formal education system. This is mainly due to the
participatory qualities created by non-formal education. Kelner and Share conclude that in
contemporary times „[media] literacy is thus a necessity condition to equip people to participate in
the local, national, and global economy, culture and polity” (2007, p. 19)
In conclusion, education for critical media literacy in many aspects follows the founding ideas of
education for critical literacy. Both concepts similarly recognise that education is not free of
ideology; calls to incorporate the social struggle aspect in the education process and through the
dialectical process of confronting the contradictions of reality empower people for social changes.
Critical pedagogy scholars recognise that changing media culture demands the multiple literacies
and the task of the progressive education while teaching literacies educate the critical consciousness
of young people towards themselves and their living conditions. The media education for critical
media literacy should include in itself the education for “critical reading” of different media and
cultural “texts” while at the same time teaching technical skills needed for counter production of
alternative media. The methodology of “critical reading” is based on the coding and decoding of the
hidden messages, manipulations and ideologies through rather simple questioning leading to more
sophisticated understanding how media industry works as a social agent. Although most of the
scholars focus on addressing media literacy in formal education setting, the suggested project-based
media education method should fit well into non-formal education practices as well.
34
3. YOUTH NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AND CRITICAL MEDIA LITERACY
Earlier in the text it was repeatedly mentioned that although there exist media education practices
outside of the formal education field they are often not well researched and documented. Chisholm
(2008) explains that the lack of academic research and theoretical works on non-formal education in
general is due to: a) the lack of researchers who would dedicate centrally to the rather narrow field
of non-formal education and learning; b) it takes time to conceptualise the new field of activity; c)
there is no explicit theoretical and conceptual base for non-formal education and learning; d) no
accumulated examples from the field is available; and e) limited resources available for the
scientific/empirical researches allocated to education in general, and more particular for non-formal
education and learning. However there are conceptual accounts made mainly by the practitioners in
the field that provide the reference for the understanding and practice of non-formal education.
3.1. Non-formal education in the light of critical pedagogy
The concept of non-formal education emerged in the late 60s in response to the failures of the
formal education to adapt to the rapidly changing socio-economic conditions in societies (Rogers,
2005; Krezios and Ambrozy, 2008) together with the (re-emerging) debates on the lifelong
education/learning (Rogers, 2005; Hager and Halliday, 2006). Although there are scholars, among
them Jeffs (2008), who believe that the concept pre-dates the emergence even of the formal
education. In attempts to conceptualise the non-formal education practice, Rogers (2005) sees the
gap between the theory “what we say we are doing” and the theory in action “what actually we are
doing”. This aspect is important also in the context of this work because time-to-time there will be
references made to the claims of practitioners in the field instead of referring to the academically
established literature and research due to the reasons stated before.
When defining non-formal education, especially on the institutional level, there is often made a
reference to the classical trivium of formal education//learning, non-formal education/learning and
informal education/learning. Krezios and Ambrozy (2008) note this after careful examining of the
definitions of non-formal education/learning in different official documents of international
institutions and organisations. There is also the different use of term “education” and “learning” in
different attempts to define “non-formal education/learning” where the shift moves towards
“learning” at least in the institutional understanding (Krezios and Ambrozy, 2008). The authors
explain that often the term “non-formal education” is used when addressing more the context -
“who is offering it?” – and the term “non-formal learning” is used when the focus is kept on the
35
process “what is happening?”. For practitioners in the field of non-formal education such
distinctions seem less of importance as the main significance is on what actually is done (Krezios
and Ambrozy, 2008).
In the concept of critical pedagogy such separation is not made but contrary it is even stressed the
integrity and interdependence between the “teaching” and “learning” in the act of education (Freire,
1967, 1992). Freire (1992) discusses the dual relation between the education and learning as an
interactive process that is based on the dialogue and equally involves both the educator and the
learner. For him, „any educational practice always implies the existence of (1) a subject or agent
(the person who instructs and teaches); (2) the person who learns, but who by learning also teaches;
(3) the object to be imparted and taught – the object to be re-cognized and cognized – that is, the
content; and (4) the methods by which the teaching subject approaches the content he or she is
mediating to the educand“ (Freire, 1992, p. 93). This rather strong emphasis of the “teaching” role
of the educator might be perceived negatively if looked from the learner‘s perspective. But there are
far too many arguments put by Freire in favour of the empowerment of the learner during the
educational process where “educands learn to learn in learning the reason-for, the “why“ of the
object or the content“ (Freire, 1992, p. 68).
Rogers (2004) attempts to offer a new paradigm for classifying the educational practices according
the level of contextualisation where the education context and practice depends on the level of
learner’s participation. He offers to place any of the educational practice in the following
continuum:
Chart 2. Education and learning continuum
Source: adapted from Rogers (2004)
The author seeks to bring more clarity in the current confusion in the debates on the theory and
practice of non-formal education. In the offered continuum author places the non-formal education
practices under either: 1) “flexible schooling” – where issues of the time and location of meetings,
the dates of “holidays”, and such logistical issues are often left to decisions by the learning group,
but the matters of the curriculum and teaching-learning materials, the length of the learning
programme, the form and timing of the evaluation process are all matters reserved to the providing
agency; 2) “participatory education” – where the issues of the control of the education “pathway” –
Formal education Flexible schooling Participatory education Informal learning
36
goals, content, methodology and evaluation – are in control by the learning group and the educator
or providing agency is “to accompany” the process with critical interventions (Rogers, 2004, 2005).
The author recognises in the roots of participatory education the influence of theorists of critical
pedagogy. Such relative distinction within the practice of non-formal education allows both not to
dismiss the value of the attempts in more formal education setting to include participatory elements
but at the same time to draw a clearer boarder on where the true participation is practiced in non-
formal education setting. The importance of the “ownership” in a learning process is argued by
critical pedagogy authors emphasizing that such practice considers learner as the subject, an active
agent capable to define learning objectives, ways and strategies of achieving them, active
participation and contribution during the learning process and playing the main role in assessing the
progress made (McLaren and Hammer, 1995). This partly may explain the current shift in attention
from the “non-formal education” towards “non-formal learning” with the emphasis on the
empowerment of learners through strengthening their learning to learn competence.
In the European youth work tradition, practitioners of non-formal education consider their activities
not as the education for, but education with and by young people. This principle well matches with
the beliefs in participatory nature of education expressed in the ideas of critical pedagogy. The
authors (Conde and others, 2006) of the practical guide on how to support the youth initiatives
identify two levels where participation of young people is empowered by non-formal education
activities:
• Participation on personal level refers to the potential of young people for taking
decisions at each stage of the project. It is about encouraging young people to take
responsibility for their actions and, in time, for their own lives.
• Participation at community level refers to the contribution of young people, in terms of
ideas and energies, towards the community (local, regional, national or international). It
is about giving young people voice, and hence some kind of empowerment in society.
In order to achieve participation, first of all the autonomy should be created for young people to
experience “being” and for questioning, reflecting, experimenting and challenging existing
understandings, experiences, practices and the order in life. This is a very sensitive process for
educators because it requires trust and believes in young people and awareness of not imposing
one’s perceptions of the world. In the same way as Freire, the manipulative practices of
participation are criticized in the field of non-formal education too (Conde et al., 2006). Another
aspect much valued in non-formal education practice is the role of peers. Peer education is a
37
common practice in the non-formal education where more experienced young people takes an
active role and responsibility in organising and leading educational activities with other young
people. A recently developed reflection tool that aims to promote the recognition of non-formal
education and learning in Europe is targeting practitioners, “youth leaders - which we understand
to refer essentially to young adults holding a responsibility in a youth organisation, network or any
other youth structure, mainly on a voluntary basis, and youth workers holding the same kind of
responsibility mainly on a professional basis” (Taylor, Council of Europe, 2006, p. 16).
Concluding it can be said that there are challenges in conceptualising the “non-formal education”
due to the lack of more academic works and because of the huge variety of forms and ways of non-
formal education practice. In the current debates and attempts to define non-formal education or
learning the important is to retain the emphasis on the participatory nature of education as it is
argued in the concept of critical pedagogy. Practitioners from the European youth work field and
European institutions that support the recognition of non-formal education in the youth sector
promote the importance of true participation of young people in the educational practice.
3.2. Critical potential of youth non-formal education in Lithuania
The focus on the youth non-formal education in Lithuania does not mean that the European level of
non-formal education practice lacks a critical component. As a matter of fact, the important
contribution of non-formal education for the development of the critical consciousness it is often
stressed by the practitioners and European institutions (Bram, 2000; Baro, 2006; Council of Europe,
2006, European Commission, 2009). The task here is more to frame the focus on the particular
practice of non-formal education in Lithuanian context by establishing the theoretical framework
for the further research work.
The recent research on the expenses and access to children’s non-formal education in Lithuania
identifies different practices within the field that may fall under the “label” of non-formal
education. The research identifies at least several educational settings where non-formal education
is practiced: 1) non-formal education activities and programmes that are implemented by the
children’s and youth centres; 2) music, art and sport schools; 3) school activities and programmes
that take place “after-lessons”; 4) extra-curricular educational activities at schools and out of
schools; 5) activities implemented by the (youth) non-governmental organisations (Kviestkiene,
2006). Considering that the first four forms of non-formal education are at least to some extent
researched due to the belonging to the state sector, the attention of this work will be kept with the
38
youth non-formal education, which in most of the cases, but not exclusively, takes place within the
activities and programmes in (youth) non-governmental sector of Lithuania.
After the independence of Lithuania during the past decades, youth (work) sector evolved as a “new
way of working” with young people. The “new way of working” is stressed by emphasizing the
underlying principles of voluntarism, active participation and responsibility by young people. The
importance of such way of working with young people that is mainly offered by (youth) non-
governmental organisations was recognised by the Lithuanian state: first, by adopting the Concept
on the Foundations of Youth Policy in 1996 and establishing the responsible body for youth affairs;
and later, by adopting the Law on the Foundations of Youth Policy in 2003. Youth non-formal
education was also developing alongside with the developments in youth policy in Lithuania
achieving limited institutional recognition in the form of a paragraph in the main youth policy law
and emphasis of the youth non-formal education in the programmes of the Department of Youth
Affairs under the Ministry of Social Security and Labour. Many of the practitioners in the field of
youth non-formal education agree that European youth work cooperation and experience played an
important role in the developments of youth non-formal education in Lithuania (Mewaldt and
Gailius, 1997; Deltuva, 2005; Gailius, 2004, 2008;). The significant importance was of the
opportunities to participate and implement non-formal education activities supported with the
project grants by the European Foundations of Council of Europe and European Union programmes
Youth and Youth in Action and other international and national programmes (Deltuva, 2005;
Gailius, 2008).
In the institutional understanding, at least the ones that are active in the youth policy field, youth
non-formal education is strongly associated with an emancipatory process of education through the
development of consciousness and competences for the responsibility of personal life and active
participation in the society (Association of Youth Non-formal Education in Lithuania, Lithuanian
Council of Youth Organisations, Department for Youth Affairs). Leading practitioners in the field
also argue in favour of the critical potential of youth non-formal education, which creates spaces for
young people to experience a “non-pragmatic being”, a space “where young person’s opinions,
knowledge, skills meet with the life“, there “alternative choices in life are encouraged and
supported” (Deltuva, 2005; Gailius, 2008). Firstly, the main purpose of youth non-formal education
is to offer the alternative to the dominant pragmatism in contemporary life – an ideology that is
much criticized by the theorist of critical pedagogy. Secondly, the non-formal learning experience
comes through the dialectical relationship between the person and the world. Many critical
pedagogy scholars would agree that this is the foundation in the development of critical
39
consciousness. Youth non-formal education is concerned with liberating young people from the
groundless external restrictions, often imposed by adults and groundless internal restrictions
deriving from the values formed on the experiences of the others (Mewaldt and Gailius, 1997).
Mewaldt and Gailius (1997) argue that young people are lacking authentic experience and therefore
often are referring to the experiences of others, e.g. ”taught“ by parents, shared by friends, followed
by traditions or absorbed through media. In the process of non-formal education they are able to
question existing practices and understandings, in Freire’s terms: to challenge the ”reading of
world“ presented by the others. This questioning takes place not only in the theoretical realm but
also through the real praxis of living, learning and acting in a peer group or a team together with
other young people and often accompanied by a youth worker. The task of non-formal educator is
to challenge any oppressive practices emerging with in the group/team or in relation to the outside
world. The challenging is possible through the common critical reflection on the experience and
feedback in a dialogue process. The role of the educator is not only to recognise the oppressive
practices but also through reflection and in dialogue way to establish links between the experience
in the non-formal education setting and the life in the real world conditions. The ultimate result of
the youth non-formal education is critical consciousness (Gailius, 2008).
At least in the spirit youth non-formal education is close to the essential ideas in the concept of
critical pedagogy. Of course further research is needed in order prove the case of the claim that
youth non-formal education is contributing, as it manifests conceptually, to the development of the
critical consciousness and empowerment for the transformative practices in life. But this was the
task of this work through the empirical research to provide the case of youth non-formal education
and its extent of contribution for the critical media literacy.
3.3. Non-formal education for critical media literacy: empirical research
The non-formal education field is rich of diverse practices in implementing educational
programmes and projects. In Lithuania, different organisations and institutions implement non-
formal education activities with young people. Practitioners in the field recognise the significant
impact of European programmes for the development of youth non-formal education in Lithuania
(Gailius, 2004, 2008). Starting with the programmes Youth for Europe and European voluntary
service in 1998-1999; later with the programme Youth implemented during 2000-2006; and
currently being in operation the programme Youth in Action for the period of 2007-2013. During
the period of 2000-2006 more than 20 000 young people participated in the different youth projects
granted under the programme Youth and during the period of 2007-2008 more than 2353 young
40
people took part in the activities supported with grants within the Youth in Action programme in
Lithuania (Agency of International Youth Co-operation, 2006, 2007, 2008). Although the themes
and methodologies vary from project to project, there are a great number of projects their theme
focus is on media or in their methodology they use media. In this work, from the empirical research,
the decision was made to focus on the European Union programme Youth in Action, which
supports the non-formal and informal learning opportunities for and with young people.
3.3.1. Research methodology and methods
Research stages. The research was prepared and implemented in the following stages:
1. During the planning and preparation stage the contacts with the Agency of International
Youth Cooperation were established and main agreement received to support this research.
The interview plans for youth workers and youth leaders were developed (February-March,
2009).
2. Pre-selection of the research sample and establishment of the necessary contacts with the
interview participants. Confirmation of the research times and places. (March, 2009)
3. Collecting the research data by implementing the interviews with youth workers and youth
leaders (26 March-1 April, 2009).
4. Data input, coding and analysis of the interview content (April-May, 2009).
Research strategy and methods. The qualitative research approach was adopted based on the
following assumptions: 1) the research was implemented in a rather narrow segment of non-formal
education with specific pre-requirements for the research sample; 2) the research object required
detailed and deep inquiry having a goal to capture the essential problems of the non-formal critical
media education; and finally, 3) this work approaches critical media literacy which is rather new
phenomena in Lithuanian educational practice. Considering these assumptions, from all the ranges
of available qualitative research methods the in-depth interview was chosen for this research. When
preparing and conducting the interviews the methodological suggestions on the in-depth interview
made by Boyce and Neale (2006) and Lewis and Ritchie (2003) were closely followed. The chosen
method was appropriate for the research object – a critical component in the non-formal education
projects – because it allows exploring deeply the educational practices and learning experiences in
this setting from the different perspectives. In the research, following the constructivist paradigm,
the research-generated knowledge was constructed combining three different perspectives: 1) youth
worker’s perspective on non-formal media education; 2) youth leader’s perspective on non-formal
41
media education; and 3) theory perspective on critical media literacy.
Research instruments. Two kinds of in-depth interview plans were developed for this research.
One was used to guide the interviews with youth workers (see Annex no. 3) and the other one was
used during the interviews with youth leaders (see Annex no. 4). Although both of the interviews
keep the same focus – critical component in the non-formal education projects – some of the
questions were formulated considering the different educational roles youth workers and youth
leaders have which influences the interview perspective. Kincheloe and Berry argue that researchers
who attempt to consider the complexity in education should “actively construct [the] research
methods from the tools at hand rather than passively receiving the “correct”, universally applicable
methodologies” (Kincheloe and Berry, 2004, p. 2). For the research in the Youth in Action
programme it is very difficult to find a ready-made instrument because there is lack of research
done in the field, and also because the non-formal education practices are very unique from project
to project.
The guiding interview questions were structured in the three main parts: 1) general introduction
questions about the organisation/group, person and the project; 2) concrete in-depth questions
focusing on the critical component in the non-formal education for critical media literacy in Youth
in Action projects; and 3) general conclusion questions about the media impact on young people,
needs for critical media literacy and media competence. In-depth interviews usually include open-
ended questions followed by so-called “probes”, specific questions which deepen exploration of the
themes, experiences and behaviours (Lewis and Ritchie, 2003; Boyce and Neal, 2006). During the
interviews, firstly people were asked rather open questions on different themes related to media
education and learning activities in their project. And only after they shared their responses once
more, specific questions were asked to collect more detailed information on the direct research
object. The more specific questions were clearly chosen by the researcher and derived from the
critical media theories, critical pedagogy and critical media literacy. Such research practice means
that the researcher is taking an active role during the process of collecting the data, therefore a
certain level of subjectivity is always present.
Research sample. For this research the targeted non-probability sample was formed in several
steps. During the first step a pre-selected number of projects were selected from the list of granted
projects by the Youth in Action programme in Lithuania during the period of 2007-2008. The pre-
selection was done based on the short project description in the summary submitted together with
the project application requesting the grant from the programme. The main pre-selection criteria
42
were: 1) theme/methodology – inclusion of projects which in their short description mentioned
media (in any of the understandings) as the central theme or one of the main methodologies; 2)
types of project – inclusion of different types of projects which are possible under the programme
(see the table in the Annex no. 2); 3) geographical coverage – inclusion of projects which are
implemented by the organisations/groups which are based in different districts of Lithuania. At the
end of this step the list of 21 potential projects was generated.
During the second step via phone consultation with project organisers, 8 different projects were
selected, the organisations or groups, based in 9 different districts in Lithuania, had implemented
that. Some of the project organisers during the consultations clarified that the project did not go
enough deep with media related activities or some of the potential interview participants were not
possible to reach because the distant time from the project realisation. In 4 of the projects it was
possible to make interviews with both youth workers and youth leaders ensuring the representation
of different perspectives. Finally, the research involved 9 youth workers (4 male and 5 female) and
6 youth leaders (4 male and 2 female) having different educational roles in projects.
There were important considerations made when making a choice to include both the perspective of
youth workers and youth leaders. The research, which is informed by the critical theory, should try
to involve less-represented groups and individuals empowering them to contribute in constructing
knowledge in society in general and in the studied field in particular (Mertens, 1997; Saukko,
2003). In Lithuania such profession as “youth workers” does not exist officially even if a number of
people across country commit themselves to the educational work with young people. In society in
general young people too often are labelled as “problematic” instead of being perceived as
“resourceful”. By involving them in this research the attempt was made to recognise their positive
contribution to the society.
Methods for data analysis. The data collected through the interviews was analysed by proceeding
with the thematic approach to the content analysis (see the tables in Annexes no. 5 and no. 6),
which is one of the most used techniques within the qualitative research practice. The recorded data
was transcribed into the text and organised according the thematic groups. Two thematic groups
were identified from the theory of critical media literacy and transformed into the questions
exploring the different thematic areas more in-depth. Table bellow provides with the overview of
the thematic areas covered by the interview questionnaires:
43
Table 3. Thematic areas covered by the interview questionnaires Questions on the non-formal media education context explored such thematic areas:
Questions on education for critical consciousness in the projects explored such thematic areas:
• Personal and organisational media understandings and experience
• Place and role of media activities with young people • Motivation to participate in media related activities • Youth relationship with media and media impact on
young people • Need for critical media literacy
• Media related activities in projects and their rationale • Objectives of media related activities • Education and learning for critical thinking and media
consciousness • Critical media literacy through the power struggles • Possibilities and limits for media education in non-
formal education
At the beginning interview participants were briefly informed about the main research object and to
most extent were conscious about their responses. In the content analysis such responses were
quoted with reference to the respondent. However some of the aspects, which were explored by the
research, needed more informed knowledge on critical media literacy and therefore was only
possible to reconstruct through the content analysis and interpretation. The concrete case was with
critical media literacy through the power struggles in the projects. This aspect came up during the
interviews and later was reconstructed and analysed from the narratives of youth workers and youth
leaders (see the table in Annex no. 7). These parts will represent the author’s perspective and
contribution constructing the research knowledge.
Each of the thematic group was split into subcategories followed by the coding of the interview
content. Only the interview responses that were relevant to the research object were included as a
reference in the data analysis. The data analysis was organised and structured in to two main parts:
1) non-formal media education context within the organisation and in general; and 2) non-formal
media education practices and experiences in Youth in Action projects.
3.3.2. The context of non-formal media education
Media understandings. From the very beginning of the interviews both youth workers and youth
leaders were asked to clarify how they understand the term “media”. In the group of youth workers
the dominant understanding of media is related to “mass-media” (YW4, YW7, YW9) or “means of
mass-media” (YW5, YW8). Two youth workers who were coming from the same organisation
related media to “new technologies”, “Internet and video”, more like means and tools for self-
expression (YW1, YW2). Although there were 2 people (YW3, YW7) who in their reply to the
question focused not only on the content of the understanding but also its qualities attributing the
“narrow meaning” to understanding but from the context the replies differ. One associated “narrow”
more with limited usage of Internet based communication technologies such as “web-sites”, “email”
and “Skype” (YW3) while the others attributed the term “narrow” in the sense of concreteness and
44
focus on “mass-media” as such (YW7). There were single understandings of media as “all senses”
(YW4) and as “education” (YW5). Probably the most interesting response was from a youth worker
who identified how in their organisation media understanding was changing, getting very close to
the media understanding in critical media literacy theory:
“Then, media was still from the practical side, that with media we can unite people and it could be the result of
our thoughts and ideas at the same time being our thinking. <…> …it was a group of people who were
studying media … they wanted to go deeper that it’s not only the method, it is something different, look, what
happens on television, these thoughts came up that it is not just something, I remember, someone said, that it is
possible to manipulate and it is done of course. <…> But, because we had questions ourselves we had to lower
our ambitions.” (YW9)
It is difficult to set a pattern in how youth leaders understand media because not everyone explained
it directly. One interview participant related media understanding with the “educational side” and
“public relations” work of organisation (YL1), the other with “mass-media” (YL2) and the third
with “technologies” and “communication between people” (YL3). One respondent gave a very
explicit explanation of media in his understanding going beyond media technologies and talking
about media ecology:
“Media is not only photo camera, camera or something else, media is communication between people. Media
can be communication with your friends while going out or something else. Media can be that you take photo
camera and try to express pictures. Somehow this thing, media, is understood very technically, media is
newspaper, video, television, radio, mass-media, but media is everywhere around us.” (YL3)
From the responses of all the interviewed participants it is possible to identify four categories in
media understandings: 1) media as means of mass media or mass media in a whole; 2) media as
technology and tools for communication, self-expression and representation; 3) media as senses and
everything around us; and 4) media as education possibility. The first and fourth understandings are
very close to the common understanding of media in the critical media literacy perspective. But
here further inquiry is necessary to explore how deep this understanding is related to media
manipulations. The second understanding of media is closer to the understanding, which is present
in the science of communication and ITC education. The third category falls under the media
ecology understanding. It is difficult to establish more reliable connections between understandings
of youth workers and youth leaders being from the same project, because only in 2 of the projects
both understood media in a very similar way (YW4 and YL3, YW8 and YL3). But theoretical
literature suggests that it is important to clarify the media understandings because it influences the
stance people have towards media.
45
Place and role of media in activities. Youth workers were asked what place and role media had in
their activities. The answers were very diverse and only matching in two cases where youth workers
were seeing media as being “attractive” and “interesting” for young people (YW1, YW3). Other
answers ranged from media having a “crucial role” for existence of organisation because it is
“virtual” but at the same time “not the essential” in the activities (YW1), media being important for
“publicity of own activities” and when “you want to see reactions” and “positive image” of own
work (YW6) to being indifferent for “media or not” due to the specific educational role (YW8).
Some youth workers recognise the developments which organisation underwent, making a
connection with the development of media related activities and change of media understanding.
For example it was said, that “organisation took initiative” on in the Internet based developments
including web 2.0 functions and by with this trying “somehow to expand media understanding”
(YW3). Or another example, which was quoted earlier with evolving media activities the media
understanding was changing from “practical side” to media as tool to “unite people” and reach the
understanding that media “is not only the method” but can be used for manipulations (YW9).
Different importance of media in the activities of organisation is influenced by the structure of
organisation, e.g. “virtual organisation” (YW1), local context where organisation is operating, e.g.
“I was working … in a small village” (YW6), educational role which a person has with young
people, e.g. “because I am a coach” (YW8) or existing interest in the organisation, e.g. “our
organisation took initiative” or “it was a group of people … they wanted to go deeper” (YW3,
YW9). All these different factors testify the complexity in which organisations are operating and
which are important to consider when realising the media education projects with young people. It
also confirmed that in each organisation the attitude to media is very individual and subjective. The
last aspect, subjectivity, is often caused by personal relationship and experience with media.
Personal relationship and experience with media. The majority of youth workers had previous
media education experience, mostly “youth trainings” (YW2, YW1) or “university” education
(YW2, YW7), experience of practicing media by “coming to edit movies to one studio in town” and
“creating broadcasting for local television” (YW2), by “filming school events” (YW1) or going to
EVS “to organise movie evenings” (YW9). A number of youth workers were involved in the media
work either in their organisation when it “naturally came together with the wave of all
technologies” and after “getting some of the encouragement” (YW1) or professionally “as painter,
as designer, as pedagogue” (YW4), “as journalist” (YW6), “working from newspapers” to
televisions (YW7). One of the responses is particularly relevant to the subject of this work because
46
it shows how both natural and external causes may influence people to initiate media developments
in their organisation but also in their community:
„Naturally it came to [organisation] together with the wave of all the technologies and we, maybe after getting
certain encouragement, maybe someone published a call for financial support and we decided that we need to
create the website of the town, because such did not existed and we imagined that it is needed and that in the
future such thing as town’s website will be needed… <…> And later the thought came as the project
developed that the website could become more as a space for critical attitude towards the world, express such
things, which takes place in the town, both how town affairs are managed and how and which problems exits“
(YW1)
From the interview responses it could be possible to trace how personal media experiences are
influencing media understandings and organisational activities. For example, people who had
education or working experience as journalists they saw media in the understanding of mass media
(YW6, YW7) or a person who had work experience as media professional and designer saw media
more from the media ecological perspective (YW4). Also similar connection can be observed in
people’s experience with video and Internet technology reflected in their understanding that media
is video and Internet technologies (YW1, YW2), as theory of critical media literacy it is stress the
importance for educators be media educated and experienced. Here it is important to add that
educators who want to engage in the critical media literacy should be able too approach media
issues with critical competence. In few interviews youth workers (YW2, YW9) admitted that yet
they do not feel fully prepared to work with other people addressing media critically. The following
response is eloquent:
„After one [training] where people in Italy work extensively with so called social video, and this drives me
powerfully, in a sense that they expose the particular social problems through video or photography, in radio
journals, by publishing newspapers. <…> I think here one needs much more practice in a sense that theory is
not enough and you could see that you need to do and to touch yourself.“ (YW2)
The lack of knowledge and experience may lead to stepping back from engaging in the critical
media literacy as one youth worker was explaining that because “we had questions ourselves, we
had to lower our ambitions” (YW9).
Motivation to participate in media related activities. The responses about motivation to take part
in media related activities among youth leaders varied from motivation to “tell the message” about
their activities and to “involve other young people” (YL1), to wish “to have direct contact” and
experience with media (YL2) and “gain knowledge” on how media is created (YL6), or being
47
themselves “interested in technologies” (YL3), to having a goal to “express themselves in
television” (YL4). Relatively it is possible to group the motives of youth leaders into two groups: 1)
motives for personal development in the area of media; and 2) expressing themselves to others by
using media with goal to involve. With the progress in the interviews the second aspect was
repeatedly mentioned by almost all of the interview participants. Motivations of youth leaders
matched some of the responses from youth workers in how they saw media in the activities of their
organisations, e.g. “self-expression” and “attractiveness” to young people (YW1, YW3). Scholars
as well argue that young people are interested and often experienced in media technologies but what
they lack is more conscious awareness how media is shaping their lives. Here is also important to
stress that self-expression by respondents were not seen as an end in itself but rather as a
meaningful or purposeful activity considering it could be exemplified in the quotation of one of the
explanation made by youth leader:
“First of all, as the leader of the organisation, I want very much that media would become an important thing
to tell the message to young people about what we do, about how and why you want to involve young people,
first of all, advertise, that thing and attract other people.” (YL1)
This becomes even more evident from deeper layers of non-formal education practices and
experiences in concrete projects shared both by the youth leaders and youth workers.
Youth relationship with media and media impact on young people. Most of the youth workers
were expressing their attitude that divided the youth relationship with media on different levels. If it
is on a consuming level, on “daily routine” level (YW8) then they “like media” if it is “necessary or
irreplaceable” (YW2); if it’s “natural” (YW1), relationship is “positive and favourable” (YW3);
“simple, it is consuming” (YW5). But if it comes more from the “educational side” (YW2) then the
media for them is “unusual” (YW1), they are “floating on the surface” (YW3) and “do not
distinguish what they watch” (YW9) because they “actually consume too little media”, especially
analytical media coming from different sources (YW5). There were also thoughts that people make
the “sacred cow” out of media thinking, “media does not make mistakes” (YW5); or that people
whether “like“ or “hate” media (YW7). Where is the different relationship with different means of
media among young people who has “strong relationship with Internet” (YW6) but rather “weak
with press” (YW7) and young people “absorb” very different information (YW8). Maybe the most
interesting reply was about young people consuming too little media in a sense that they get the
news and information only from one source:
“They consume too little media and there is too little media. To my point, they should consume much more,
48
there is not enough interest into media as it is. They trust one news, one channel.” (YW5)
When it comes to media impact, the opinions of youth workers ranged highly. Some people said
that media “affects differently” (YW2) or similarly at least that “different means” have “different
impact” (YW6). People were stating that media has a “huge impact” in “affecting us all” (YW3,
YW7). There were voices that media has both positive and negative impact and it depends on how
people use it and to what extent they are using it critically because if they consume media without
critical view then media is “shaping their attitude” (YW7), often is dulling them (YW1), “convey
negative attitude” (YW3) and even is seen as “dangerous” (YW9). It is interesting how one youth
worker was explaining the way this impact was changing with the developments of media
technology:
„It seems that at the beginning when the Internet wave went, it seemed that it made the world more global that
you are talking with Argentinean or someone on Skype. Now it seems that this disappeared, at least my point
of view is such that it created a bigger village in the sense that you communicate mostly among only friends by
using the Skype or email.“ (YW1)
The responses of youth leaders to the questions about the youth relationship with media were
almost unanimous in respect that “all people are related” to media (YL1, YL2, YL3, YL5, YL6).
And only one was talking more about the lack of critical attitude towards media where young
people are very much “on the very surface”, “they believe what it is told” and limit “to only
primitive” media (YL1). One youth leader said about people living in the very mediated world from
the very beginnings of they lives: “Simply, you are born in the society, in the society where the
media exists from the beginning” (YL4).
Youth leaders explained youth relationship with media in a somehow different way than youth
workers did that because of mainly having little recognition that young people miss critical attitude.
But when it comes to the media impact, here some of the youth leaders in a similar way to youth
workers recognised the “huge impact” in “shaping the attitude” and the “different things having
different impact” (YL2), young people having “consumerism attitude” (YL1) and media having
both “bad and good” sides (YL4). What differed is the thinking that the Internet actually “united
people” from all over the world:
“And now for example, it unites all people more, all the world unites. Now everyone can communicate more
free with everyone, talk through Skype, let’s say in another part of the world you may talk to someone.” (YL6)
49
If conclusion from the critical media literacy point of view, youth workers are more aware about the
media’s negative impact on people’s life and they emphasized this more often that youth leaders do.
Young people perceive media relationship and impact in a more natural way.
Need for critical media literacy. When talking to youth workers there were little doubts if critical
media literacy is important or not for young people. Most people agreed that it is important, but
some were pointing out that it depends on which perspective you see, because if it is from the
young person’s perspective there are “interesting/not interesting” criteria or even it is “unimportant”
(YW1, YW6), but from the educators’ side the criteria are “useful/rubbish” (YW1). The only
alarming response was, if looked at it from a critical perspective, the fact that one of the youth
workers related critical media literacy only to the level of technical “skills” needed successfully
“enter the labour market” (YW3).
Youth leaders responded to the same question in a different way. There were very similar attitudes
expressed similarly by youth workers that critical media literacy is “important” (YL1, YL2, YL3)
because either people need that or it is because media is making them “dumb” (YL1, YL4). But in
some of the responses the understanding of the importance stayed on the level of using the language
“correctly” (YL5, YL6).
3.3.3. Non-formal media education practices in Youth in Action projects
Media related activities in projects and their rationale. Projects implement different media
related activities, for example establishing and using project “web-site” (YW2), creating “films”
(YW2, YL1) and organising “movie sessions” (YL1), learning while working in “radio” (YW5),
“filming” the movie about the country (YW3), preparing “articles” and “interviews” in newspaper
at the district level (YW8, YL2), “going to the places” and making films about people (YL3, YW4),
creating “broadcasting” for local television (YW6, YL4), learning how to use “multimedia” with
disadvantaged young people (YW9) or learning how to “present activities” of organisation (YW7).
It seems from the responses that the place and role of media differ depending on the type of project.
For example youth initiatives and European voluntary service projects offer opportunities for media
to be the central activity of production and the main theme of attention. While in youth democracy
project and youth exchange project media is used more as methodology or one of the means to
achieve the main goals. In training courses media is approached as learning topic with limited
media production possibilities. Many of the interviewed participants saw media not as an end in
itself but as a means to achieve other objectives. Probably the most explicit explanation comes from
50
a youth worker involved in a European voluntary service project who explains that the most
important aspect is educational process, not media itself:
„And concretely this journalist work, not journalist, but just reading … they could even not prepare the
coverage. This is just an excuse why they have to read an article. This is just a mean that you have to prepare
the coverage and therefore you need to read a lot of articles. The essence is in that education, read a lot…“
(YW5)
Media education which is informed by critical pedagogy looks at education not only on the level of
personal or group learning but also includes the level of praxis where real changes happen in the
communities where people live. In later stage of the interviews people revealed more in-depth how
they experienced power struggles that appeared due to their media related activities in their
communities.
The interview with young people confirms clearly that their reasons for media related activities go
far beyond media as an end in itself. They see media related activities for inspiring other young
people for initiative by bringing “sparkles in their eyes” (YL1), for taking the initiative to create
“youth” or “better” media in their communities because they “missed” such thing (YL2, YL4, YL5)
or they wanted to “unite people” and make them “think differently” with the help of media (YL3,
YL5). The most clearly reasons were stated in the interview with the youth leader who is involved
in the youth group running a youth magazine in their district:
“The idea was born in such a way that we missed the youth newspaper in the district. <…> And we decided
that there is no youth newspaper, let’s say, and that we want to be responsible for creating such newspaper in
the district. And that exactly young people could write how they see, let’s say, write about what they see at all,
about events, about various themes. <…> Because it is often, let’s say, that adults see the same things
differently. And maybe to draw the attention of adults to how young people understand and then maybe find
common dialogue [for them], let’s say, with those young people.“ (YL2)
Youth leaders are rather conscious about their rationale for media related activities and their reasons
are similar to reasons expressed by youth workers, especially that media is not seen an end in itself.
The difference can be observed only in the trajectory of reasons where youth workers target their
objectives related to media education towards young people, participants in the project. Youth
leaders have reasons, which are targeted towards community in general or other youth in particular.
This can be explained by different education roles two groups of people have when implementing
projects.
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Objectives of media related activities. Youth workers define many objectives in their projects and
some of them are related directly with media related activities. In different expressions most of
them set in their objectives the development of critical thinking or consciousness towards media.
They connect the objective of developing critical thinking with “understanding of problems in
general” and “begin doing something” (YW2), showing something “through other forms” of media
by making comparisons or trying “to look” again critically (YW4), developing the ability to
“select” and “evaluate” the media source critically (YW5), developing the “cautions” attitude
towards media (YW7) or identifying different levels of critical thinking (YW8). The objective of
media consciousness was expressed by explaining that the goal was to understand how young
people are “media advanced” in different countries (YW3), that consciousness is the “best weapon”
which represents who you are and what you want to (YW3), developing “self-criticality” (YW5),
developing “objectivity in mass-media”, “understanding the diversity” and to learn to look at
“televisions differently” (YW6), learning to “read in between the lines” and “understanding of
different media” (YW7) and objectives “about media as a powerful tool” (YW9). Conclusions can
be drawn when youth workers when set the objectives for media related activities the components
of critical thinking and consciousness towards media are included. If looked through the lenses of
critical pedagogy, youth workers set the objectives that target the development of people’s critical
consciousness on how media is or could be influencing the power struggles in the society or
community empowering young people for changes. The following explanations on the project
objectives are very sound on the critical component in the media related activities:
“Well, let’s say, critical thinking was developed [for example, if] media was telling to me “it is good, that we
are going to free Iraq”; but while preparing the coverage, while collecting the information, I started to smell
that something is wrong. I started to look who is standing behind it, what is out of it. I started to search for
other sources, which would deny and critically evaluate them.” (YW5)
“According to me, there are several realms of this critical thinking. As I already mentioned before, this public
space where opinions of society, of the newspaper as media and of youth intersected; it was the unique
expression of critical thinking in all the directions. <…> Further, it is the internal work of the team. They
analyse who is writing what, who does or does not…” (YW8)
“Let’s do not mix media as art and media as a means of expression … Consciousness is the best weapon. Not
simple mean but a weapon to represent who you are and who you could be and what you are able to say. To
say everything what you want to say, directly and openly … your consciousness, your activity, positivism …
from all the political to all the other what you are able to show.” (YW3)
Putting three explanations together would construct the ultimate objective of the critical media
52
literacy, which includes the following elements of critical component: 1) liberation from the
oppressive media influences through the development of critical consciousness; 2) engagement in
bringing changes through the power struggles in the community/society; 3) empowerment of the
powerless for developing and using media as a powerful mean of self-representation and self-
expression. Of course, not in all of the youth worker’s testimonies such attention for critical
consciousness was present. For example in the case of a youth exchange when the goal was rather
on a practical-technical level to „understand“ how „advanced in a media field“ are young people
from different countries (YW3) or in another case where youth worker consciously understood the
limitations of having „not enough time“ and „not enough knowledge“ to „transfer and share“
critical media issues with participants (YW9).
Responses from youth leaders confirm similar views as of youth workers on what they want to
achieve with their media related activities. People were talking about making other young people
„see things differently“, „changing thinking“, „changing attitude“, making them „think about the
problems“ (YL1, YL2, YL3). Also it was emphasized the expectation that through presenting
critical/youth perspective „to attract, show and create an interest“ of other youth and „give them
opportunities to try changing“, „rebel“ or „get engage“ with meaningful activities (YL1, YL4, YL5,
YL6). Media is seen as the possibility to „show the world from another angle“, “give inspiration for
change” and open new possibilities for critical thinking (YL1), to “represent youth” (YL4, YL6), to
deepen the understanding of problems (YL2). One youth leader explains in a very critical spirit
what they want to achieve with organising movie watching sessions in their project:
“At the same time it gives inspiration for the heart, this belief that I can make the change. I see where it is
necessary to make the change, I look at things critically and I find. And after I develop the skill in the sense
that I am told information but as Chomsky says: “who announced the information is the one who controls the
result”. It is necessary to think who announced it, under which conditions, in which context the subject is
announced, why he tells me and does not tell other person, why it is targeted at me.” (YL1)
Critical media literacy has always a goal through learning any technology, from very practical job
skill, language or more soft media technology to inspire people for change. Another important
issues mentioned by youth leaders is misrepresentation of youth perspective to life which they feel
lacking and they believe they are able to change it through being involved in media related
activities. Critical pedagogy is emphasizing the importance to ensure the representation of different
perspectives, the different worlds and their different readings.
Education and learning for critical thinking and media consciousness. Although youth workers
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were explaining the education process for critical thinking and media consciousness differently it is
possible to establish some common patterns. One obvious similarity is that critical thinking and
media consciousness is best developed when people meet with (media) reality and reflection of the
experience. There were examples from the education practice in projects where the young people
were discovering „different thinking“ while making the movie in international group (YW3), „saw
how it works in reality“ (YW7), understanding their real „conditions“ and possibilities to change
them in the media project (YW5) and „reflection of the multimedia experience allows to come
consciously to what happened“ (YW9). The other common practice is the constant talking and
discussing on the issues related to media in general and the particular media experience in the
project. Because of different realities and situation in the projects the focus of the discussions was
always different. In the case of watching movies the discussion „depends a lot on the movie
content“ and „with creating movies“ the discussion is about the process but also the content of them
(YW2); people „talked about the impact“ of media, about the negative consequences (YW6);
talking about the „media etiquette“ when the work with young people demands certain sensitivity
and consciousness (YW9). These discussions were happening in different moments of the
educational process, before and after the media experience. They were structured, semi-structured
or spontaneous, appearing naturally or from the demand and concrete situations. One common
character of all the discussions was that it took place in a dialogue process between the youth
workers and young people but also among the young people. Reflections of real living experiences
and education in the dialogues process are the key elements emphasized in the critical pedagogy
concept of education for critical consciousness. In most of the cases, with maybe only few
exceptions, according the interview responses, youth worker acted as an educator but not by
imposing his or her views and understandings but rather provoking questionings of certain media
related issues as it can be read in the account of one of the interview participant:
“Then it starts another thing, [questioning]: are you sure that you told the truth here, are you sure that this is
your position or maybe it is not your position, maybe it is imposed, maybe it is, for example, the call of fashion
or maybe this is influenced simple by mass-media, maybe your parents told or maybe you even do not think in
this way. In a way you attempt to misbalance him in order, maybe, for him to take simple matters in a different
way again.” (YW4)
Such practice of education, when the young person is an active subject of learning and change, is
argued by the critical pedagogy and to the mostly confirmed by the interviews with youth workers.
But however in few cases it is difficult to say that, or if, education for critical consciousness was
really happening. There is not so clear evidence in the response from a youth worker involved in the
youth exchange project. Here it is not necessary that young people developed media consciousness
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in the sense of critical media literacy by discovering “how advanced in media” they are being from
different countries and that they “think different” (YW3). Or in another project where the youth
worker admits that in the sense of media consciousness they had “not yet gone so deep” but saw it
possible in the future the development “of critical attitude towards mass-media” (YW1). Also, the
belief of another youth worker that education of media consciousness is possible to achieve media
that portrays the world “objectively” and in a “neutral” way, as told by one interview participant
(YW6), shows how deeply the instrumental ideology is grounded and is operating as argued in
theoretical works of critical scholars. The other youth worker expressed a rather challenging attitude
that in the education for critical consciousness he moves forwards and backwards in between
“freedom” and “dictate” in educational style sometimes accepting, if needed, “the dictatorship
conditions” in education process (YW5). Authors in the critical pedagogy field would definitely
challenge such attitude arguing that true liberation and critical consciousness is achieved only
through the education, which is fully democratic at any stage of its implementation.
Although youth workers did not want to feel much as educators or they did not see in their role an
active intervention as such, most of them took part in reflections and discussions with people on the
critical issues or at least they were aware of the critical moments in the projects but letting young
people act autonomously. One youth worker concluded how young people learn critical thinking
when not accompanied by an educator:
“…I think, that they do not stick to their bed the label with “critical thinking”, they naturally discuss. They
even this question, which you ask here, they maybe do not have even the deeper structural ground of this term
… They do it on such a realm according to the level of deepness they are. And I imagine that it appears very
naturally.” (YW8)
The last point is confirmed by the responses of some of the youth leaders who explain that critical
thinking was developing through “constant discussions”, “discussing articles” even in non-
structured free time (YL2); through communication with people “around you” or “inside” the team
(YW3, YL4). More strong confirmation comes for the importance of the real media experience
which, according to youth leaders, contributed a lot to the critical thinking and media consciousness
both of youth leaders and young people who participate in the projects. One of the most convincing
evidences of the development of critical consciousness comes from a youth leader who is involved
in the youth initiative running a youth television broadcasting:
“This thinking itself about the understanding of municipality, the attitude towards such initiatives, towards
some celebration days… For me personally, the state itself, governance and political parties and everything
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else, for me, it distant thing… I know what happens in Lithuania in general but I could not discuss a lot. But
then you start from your experience feel some kind bad smell, which comes from that side, automatically you
begin to think, you begin to get interested, to search for something new.” (YL4)
The youth leader from the other project shares almost the same experience of how media related
activities develop critical consciousness towards the local newspaper:
“After all these things thoughts appear that maybe they present not so quality things to us and so on, and you
want independent [media], first of all. <…> If there is local newspaper subsidised from the municipality funds,
it writes only what municipality likes. And if a young person wants to write they say that the municipality has
to pay money in order for the young people’s article appear. [We] are against such defective practice. Such
things we recognise.” (YL1)
Some other responses from youth leaders provide concrete evidences of changes either in critical
thinking or consciousness towards media. A young leader saw changes “in thinking in different
way” and young people doing real actions, e.g. meeting with “neighbourhood officials” or
establishing organisation in school “which oppose to someone” or “ideas appear” and the “level of
rebelling” raises” when young people needs to stand up to their rights (YL1). Youth leaders
recognised changes both in themselves but also in other young people who take part in the project
activities. They become more critical towards themselves but also the life around them and local
media in particular. From responses of both, youth workers and youth leaders, becomes clear that
critical consciousness develops in the most intensive way when young people engage themselves
into the power struggles because of their media activities in the projects.
Critical media literacy through the power struggles. In-depth interviews with youth workers and
youth leaders made it possible to explore the concrete project experiences where project participants
engage in the power struggles. Four projects are particularly relevant to the research object because
in these projects the power struggles were happening in the wider social context rather than just
within the project structure. This does not mean that in the other four projects the development of
the critical consciousness is not relevant to explore but the decision made go beyond the project
because of a more real impact. In each on of the projects the process of how people were engaged in
the power struggles happened differently, who was involved and which interests were confronted,
what were the actions of youth workers and the consequences for young people and their learning.
Each project provides the unique examples with different evidences of critical media literacy
through the power struggles. Often, when speaking, youth workers and youth leaders mentioned
having the most intense and valuable learning experiences.
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Case 1: Press conference with local journalists. A youth worker who was working as a trainer in
a training course identified “the press conference” as “probably the part where people learnt the
most”, “probably the most successful part for critical thinking” (YW7). This was what happened in
the words of this youth worker:
„The press conference was in a town, in the municipality, in an unfamiliar environment of the country [outside
the European Union], where real journalists from the country came. We had selected three, four people who
represented different countries what they do and it ended in a way that they where attacked in real. Journalists
attacked: „what are you doing, you waste the money of European Union… look we are starving… you came
here, you were paid 70 percent and look at us, we are starving here and what are you doing“. And there were
very different reactions when a person was saying that „we are playing games and communicate“ and so on.”
(YW7)
After the real experience of media, mass-media people had a reflection and discussion that
journalists „playing games“ automatically „associates with simply wasting of money, that people
are starving and other come to play games here.“ (YW7). The youth worker highlighted that „not
the games are the main point“, but what people gain from that experience. For participants who
were presenting at the conference it was a stressful experience and even after they were taking to
heart this experience. For others, who were only observing, they „saw from a side how everything
works in reality“ and what people took out of it is the understanding of „media manipulations“.
(YW7)
In this concrete experience at least free different powers met in one place. It was clearly identified
by the youth worker the attention of media on what seemed important for local journalists:
„European money wasted“, „starving of local people“ and „you playing games“. The European
Union’s priorities in the form of the educational instrument of Youth in Action programme offering
“non-formal education and mobility” opportunities for active European citizenship. The third was
the intentions of project organisers and participants to “present their activities and project”.
Case 2: “Key” interest of young people to access the public space. In the youth democracy
project, paying attention to youth interests, a youth leader recognised how watching different
movies and having the reflection and discussion afterwards encouraged young people to engage in
activities to change their life conditions. Methodologically what happened before the real action had
begun was that young people are encouraged to propose watching a movie. In the group they were
discussing the movies and if any of them was “related at least somehow” to project theme they were
included in watching play-list. Then they would “select the person who moderates the movie” who
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prepares in advance by “getting to know about the movie, some facts how it was created, the whole
story, director, how it is possible to connect it with the project theme … and also this critical
thinking” (YL1). During the discussion the role of a leading person was as explained by the youth
leader from his own experience:
“…is firstly, as I already said, to make links with reality. Firstly my task is maybe to ask in such a way that a
young person would be able to answer. Not to ask in a very sophisticated way or to show off but to try to get to
know from him. Not to tell myself but for me to know. <…> So I try to raise the associations how movie can
raise some kind of associations, I try. Maybe not always I manage to do this way that it would inspire to act.
<…> For me it is important to convince that you can do it through movies that everyone can achieve and do
something, really change” (YL1)
And this is the concrete story in brief told by the youth leader about how after the movie watching
young people took the action in their community:
„…after the „Lennons“ [watching a movie about Lennon] and other things people decided that they for sure
need to organise a key from [a lock of] a big hall where they wanted to act, because it was some kind of the
institutional nonsense that young people were not given the key. People decided that it is necessary to collect
signatures in order to get the key … they collected maybe 250 signatures in different schools and brought to
the neighbourhood official and were given this key. But the official said: „People why you did not just come
and we would be giving you the key“. And then we organised the discussion where different people
participated like the neighbourhood official, people who collected signatures, we from the project, director of
the youth centre, [municipality] and coordinator for youth affairs. And together we discussed all the issues,
also how we will communicate in the future, why do we collect signatures, maybe, you know, it would be just
enough a call. And the neighbourhood official says: „You may as well collect signatures that we would
establish something serious and it would be already a serious thing and you would be spending energy more
meaningfully.“ (YL1)
Later in the project people admitted that this experience encouraged them and build their confidence
“to go simple without stress” to the neighbourhood official and “to tell him what it is” important to
them (YL1).
Case 3: Presentation of youth newspaper in public. A youth worker acted as a coach for the
youth initiative where the group was running the youth newspaper as part of the local newspaper.
He recognised that the „unique expression of critical thinking in all the directions“ was manifested
during the public presentation of the newspaper (YW8). The youth worker felt “the sphere of
influences“ already before when the first meeting happened in the youth centre. He recognised the
influence of editorial office and its structure, the influence of the youth leader and youth centre as a
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structure, even himself as an educator. But during the discussion at the cultural house the opinions
of „society”, “newspaper as media” and “youth” intersected openly. This youth worker explained
what he observed during the public discussion:
„During this discussion like in other similar spaces at the beginning everything developed with difficulty. But
later, I say, it was provoked successfully and in fact it happened very good. Indeed, man walked from a street
and was saying what is how. Of course, we are here a structure, a centre that, of course, cooperates with this
media. There are money connections in one line; in the other there is project implementation. But there come a
person from the street and openly said: „What are you doing here, some kind of old standard?“ (YW8)
In a very similar way a youth leader from the same project reflected on the experience and public
support which the youth group received adding that presence of a coach was also important:
„Maybe editorial office, o maybe more editor, she was to much conservative. We simply talked, let’s say,
about crooked lines, in some way cut and rotated pictures and she, let’s say not from ill-will, says: „But it is
the serious newspaper“. And during this discussion especially, because she was participating, it was expressed
those thoughts that the newspaper is too serious, let’s say. And here if not a coach this discussion would be not
so successful, but people said a lot of things, which changed here attitude. It changed as much as it was
possible. We wanted to change her attitude even more, but it seems to us that it was a huge change.“ (YL2)
In this experience there was also the editorial office, which had its own interests and influence
fields. The youth worker was saying that editorial office just wanted „much cheaper, more simple“,
better for them (YW8). At the same time the youth group and the youth centre wanted more
„freedom“. But the public discussion created possibilities to involve more people from the
community, which in turn became the significant power, in the words of a youth worker, “important
weapon”, which brought changes. From the responses it is possible identify at least three important
moments looking at this situation from the critical perspective. Firstly, a conscious awareness of
youth worker on his influences also recognised by the youth leader. Secondly, both the youth
worker and youth leader saw differently the reasons behind the power struggles. In the explanation
of the youth worker, there was strong emphasis on the structural, financial and even ideological
reasons, where as in the expiation of the youth leader the human factor was more emphasized.
Thirdly, even the discussion went on mostly around the technical issues but in reality the real power
struggles went on a much deeper level. Three aspects bring evidence on the ideas discussed in the
theory of critical media literacy. The first one disclose the fact that any education has its “hidden
curricular” and one of the qualities of the critical educator is to have conscious awareness on own
influences and the ones which is brought by the education itself. In the particular case, the
discussion is around the educational “ideology” which is grounded in the non-formal education in
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general and Youth in Action programme. The second aspect confirms the often case that young
people are media experienced but often see it as a process of production, at best. Where the critical
educators see deeper layers of hidden media powers grounded in the media structures, institutions
and ideologies and uncover them for the critical consciousness. The third aspect is sound about the
critical point that media is not neutral and not simple seen as only pure technology. Technological
aspects are the most visible media manifestation, but on the deeper levels constitute what media is
really about, at least in the perspective of critical media literacy.
Case 4: The Independence Day broadcasting on local television. A youth leader was talking
about their intention to draw the attention to the existing situation in their town in the sense that
“young person does not know” about the 11th of March. In their perspective “young people care
little” about this day and what it means from the historical perspective (YL4). But when
broadcasting went on air, it was received in a controversial way and even provoked wider
discussions in the municipality and with young people in the youth centre. In the perspective of the
youth leader:
„Then the broadcasting about the 11th of March went on air, let’s say, people perceived us controversially.
Authorities shared their complains because in their opinion we were laughing at everything. Though we did not
have such an idea. But there were complains from old people, who again, maybe they did not understand.“
(YL4)
But in the youth worker’s perspective, young people maybe are not yet having a professional
attitude towards the use of media to inform other young people but they express their perspective
towards different issues that are important for them. She recognise that maybe the format they
chose was distracting and misleading but what they did was evaluated “from their point of view the
celebration of the 11th of March“ (YW6). This youth worker mentioned about the consequences of
this broadcasting:
„We also talked in the department of education, they also evaluated these broadcastings. They called me on
the carpet [asking] how it is, why it is so. But I say: „This is the objective for all of us. Does it really means
nothing? Or something to think for us where this citizenship education is heading“. Do we need to hide this or
do we let young person to show that to them this does not mean anything…“ (YW6)
The youth worker was talking about being ready to take the responsibility to defend youth group
when called by the municipality because “it is their self-expression and reflection of the life they
live” (YW6). But even with such youth friendly attitude youth leaders perceive her as “authority”
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having the opinion that they were “laughing at everything” (YL4). Of course, she was talking to
them about what happened and about the responsible media production stressing their responsibility
to “the agency, which gave grant“, responsible to „the organisation on behalf which you speak“,
responsible to the local „television“ (YW6). But young people feel responsibility even beyond the
media responsibility because they are concerned about the issues in their town, about the youth
being irresponsible citizens of their living environment. Then, the youth leaders explains their
attitude towards the issues raised by their broadcasting:
“But the thought itself, let’s say, that we show that young person does not know much for example about 11
March… and this broadcasting went on air, automatically it should raise anxiety, though for the municipality
itself. Maybe it criticizes us but why it criticises us and say that we are doing nonsense, that we are making fun
of it, but if at the same time in the street, I do not say that all the young people, but then in the street young
people do not understand what it is, they do not know.” (YL4)
The youth worker recognise young peoples’ attitude towards what they want from their
involvement in the media production:
„On the other hand they totally dismiss the option that all the televisions channels does the same already.
[They say:] “And we do not want to do the news as „Panorama“ or show faces and film speeches of mayor and
all this trimmed-up image, we want us, we want to express, we want to see, we want to rebel, we want
something, we want to do somehow differently.“ (YW6)
But in a away even with such a high awareness on youth perspective towards media, the young
people express that they feel misunderstood and not sure if they are reaching the goal it would be
evaluated from the youth workers perspective.
The whole situation in the project represents the high complexity in which education and learning is
happening. A youth worker in the project is turned to different sides when trying to mediate and
find the satisfying compromise. But at the same time both sides, young people on the one hand and
municipality on the other feel being right with their expectations towards the media broadcasting
and the project itself. In addition to rather open interests and powers influencing the project there
are some other influences that shape the project’s experience influencing it from the background.
The youth worker recognised the “accountability to the funding agency” and youth leaders revealed
opposite reactions coming from “old people” and “young people”. In some of the moments it is
possible to recognise also the influence coming from youth worker who has a rather clear image of
media being “neutral” and “objective” or the youth centre as the authority structure which is both
“responsible” in the eyes of municipality for what ether young people do but also “defending” the
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way youth see and show the town reality.
The cases above mentioned, illustrate more deeply the different power struggles faced by youth
workers and youth leaders in their projects. There is clear evidence that true involvement in the
power struggles contributes not only to the development of critical consciousness but also to real
changes on different levels.
Possibilities and limits for media education in non-formal education. Already when speaking
with youth workers about their project they stated that attention to media creates both opportunities
and difficulties. People also provided examples where young people can develop the critical media
literacy by naming the possibilities of their organisations and activities, family influence, school
possibilities both in terms of having a separate subject but also as part of computer literacy or
having an informal hour. And most of them recognised that at the moment critical media literacy is
a rather limited and should there should be more attention paid to that.
Youth workers talked about the possibilities and limits for media education in the non-formal
education. The most clear common point was that different youth workers mentioned the
“socialising” possibilities in non-formal education from “keeping in touch” with a group by using
media technologies (YW2), to “being together, working together” (YW8) and “socialising” (YW4).
Some of the people referred to the “non-formal education principles” as guiding for possibilities
(YW1, YW4, YW6). One person saw non-formal education good for “self-advertising” and “self-
education” (YW6). The youth worker who works a lot with media in non-formal education
expressed an extremely valid point:
“When you say that media is more, then just take for example the advertisements, what impact it does. You
understand that if you would use it targeted, knowing what you want and what you aim at. Let’s look at black
technologies, how many are created and who uses what and it will continue to be used. Furthermore, let’s look,
how many clerical church systems and various religious use it, everyone is using. In the non-formal education,
if I will use media, which are the perfect weapon I do not feel like committing any crime, if everyone is using.“
(YW4)
And in this account the reason for using media in education is not at all for creating another
manipulation in reaching own goals as an educator but rather to use media as a „powerful mean“ for
liberation from the imposed ideologies and creation of own, alternative thinking. Such
understanding of non-formal education is confirmed by the youth leader from the same project
when he said that „non-formal education is what you get in general, how changes your thinking,
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how changes your attitude towards society and so on“ (YL3). Other youth leader, who maybe as
well is more familiar with the concept of non-formal education recognise the „huge possibilities“ of
non-formal education because:
„…because until now non-formal education offers those “techniques” … how to reach young people in a way
as no one reached them ever before. There is a very different relationship with young person. He feels
differently and realise self, begins to makes things differently and such things appear to him differently. <…>
People who do non-formal education they have a different attitude which allows them not to feel somehow
overtaken or with shortcomings or somehow problematic. <…> The relationship is based on sincerity.
Sincerity is such non-quantitative thing. <…> Maybe that they do not evaluate with some concrete objective…
it allows those young people to be worse somewhere and this is not important.” (YL1)
Relationship, attitude, and methods, this is what makes non-formal education beneficial for media
education and especially for critical media literacy. And the limits of non-formal education lie in the
danger that while teaching young people “critically understand media you direct them as you want”
(YW1). This is “the question of responsibility” of what “knowledge you give and transfer” to young
people (YW3). Also, non-formal education is limited in “space, time, understanding and
experience” (YW8). And maybe one of the most profound limits and one of the most difficult
things to change is the not serious attitude of people towards the critical media literacy as noted by
one youth worker:
“It is a problem of people, their attitude. Let’s say, here comes a young person to talk, let’s say, as we talked
about the newspaper, again, as we talked it is non-formal education this newspaper. He comes, calls to the
school, there is a school merging. And he wants to talk to the director who does not talk because you are a
child. That is who you are. This attitude especially hinders non-formal education, especially in media. In
movie making, photography is easier. But when it comes to journalism, towards search for urgent matters then
we often have an attitude that children have to write: “How wonderful the event happened at our place”;
children have to write: “How to cook pancakes and something else”...” (YW5)
This simplistic view on media education of young people shows the widely spread attitude that the
young person is similar a children that needs a safe playground but not a person who is on the way
to becoming an adult. It is maybe easier in this way to direct a person or impose authority on young
person treating them as children, but then in this way it is not fair to expect them to take the
responsibility as an adult. It also demonstrates a hidden fear of adults, as young people see the
world differently, have often-different expectations and understandings, they want to change it and
often to change for better.
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DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS
The in-depth interviews with youth workers and youth leaders revealed many of the aspects of
education and learning practices in the youth non-formal education projects implemented under the
Youth in Action programme. Although many of the experiences were rather specific because of the
context and education experience but there is the possibility to discuss more general issues deriving
from the interview data. Some of the issues from the research results are discussed in more details.
Most of the youth workers recognised that the main principles of youth non-formal education and
the Youth in Action programme were to make influence on their way of working with young
people. Such conscious awareness that implemented education has its own philosophy and ideology
well matches with the theory of critical pedagogy which emphases the attitude that education is not
“neutral” and is most often charged with certain ideology. However most of the youth workers
failed to recognise that their media understanding and experience are also influencing media
education approach in their projects. Even if most people in general admitted the negative impact of
media and the need for more critical media literacy but there were cases when in projects the media
related activities were driven by the less critical media approaches. Theoretical works on critical
media literacy should consider this relation carefully drawing attention that not only media
experience is important for educators but also their critical media attitude.
Most of people, both youth workers and youth leaders admitted in their interview admitted that the
most important and valuable experiences where when the real action was happening. This aspect
gets confirmation looking at the power struggles that happened in the different projects. The most
intensive and powerful experiences were in projects, which were long term and had strong ties with
local context. Youth exchanges and training courses created rather limited possibilities to go
beyond the only the learning environment in this way making less impact on changes in real life
conditions of young people and community. Critical pedagogy is arguing for the education that
includes theory together with praxis. But such educational practice also meaning that learning gets
real, including the real consequences. According to interview participants in some of the projects
because of media being central learning experience became public and too real loosing youth non-
formal education qualities such as: safe environment, possibility to experiment, making mistakes.
Critical media literacy in theory argues that only by engaging in the real media production people
become critically conscious and empowered but also it should consider the implications when
learning gets more real.
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Not many of youth workers wanted to take the role of educator in the projects but as interview
responses show not in many cases their contribution created added educational value, especially in
the education for critical consciousness. Most project practices included either discussions or
reflections where youth workers were present and were making their point clear on different issues
discussed. Although many times in different projects youth leaders kept discussing and reflecting
being autonomous but they acknowledged the important presence of youth worker. In the concept
of critical pedagogy educators are given significant role at the same time stressing the importance
learner’s contribution and active participation. Youth workers should not doubt their educational
role but rather recognise in this way building their confidence in education.
During the interviews most of youth workers and youth leaders admitted that media is having a
huge impact on people’s life influencing their attitudes, possibilities and choices. But with the
recognition of media’s influence mostly youth workers explored deeper levels of media impact
being conscious of ideological powers behind media. At the same time most youth leaders stayed at
the practical level giving examples of life situations without having media (tools) around them. But
youth leaders who are more experienced and familiar with youth non-formal education are more
critical about media’s impact. They are able to recognise its negative influences on people. It is the
situation when young people are more media experienced but less critically conscious than
educators is also addressed in theory of critical media literacy.
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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The main attention of this work was given to critical media literacy in theory in general and in
reality of non-formal education in particular. Based on both theoretical and empirical knowledge the
following conclusions were drawn:
1. The present world more than ever before is enriched with different media technologies
leaving little room for the choice to lead our lives and not be influenced by the media.
Critical media theorists recognise and analyse the huge impact of media in many cases
concluding that media is shaping the lives of people, while pointing out the oppressive
practices around the world. Empirical research showed that youth workers who are
practitioners of non-formal education with young people recognise the huge impact of
media and its power in shaping the lives of people. Youth leaders were also concerned about
the media’s impact on lives but at the same time where taking more natural approach to
media.
2. Critical education scholars, researchers and various studies of the current situation with
media education confirm that there is still a lack of the critical media literacy in education in
different countries across the world and the need for that is urgent. Research on the literature
on media education reveals that the theoretical understanding is rapidly changing towards
the media education in the sense of media literacy. It is also confirmed by the recent
attention to the issue in the agendas of international intergovernmental institutions and
organisations. Lithuanian reality reveals that there are different media education practices,
which occasionally offer possibilities for young people to develop critical media literacy,
but at this stage it is very unsystematic, little researched and unrecognised by the formal
institutions and organisations acting in the field of education. In the empirical research stage
interview data with non-formal educators to the large extent confirmed similar views that
possibilities to develop critical media literacy is rather limited in Lithuania.
3. In theory, critical media literacy is grounded in the critical theory in general and critical
pedagogy perspective in particular. There is a rich body of literature, which comes from the
critical media theory and cultural studies. Educators who are engaged in the education for
critical media literacy should be well informed by these theories and be prepared to face the
complexity within the media education work in the contemporary conditions. The main
concern of critical media literacy is liberation of people from the oppressive powers that use
media to shape the unfair conditions of people through the development people’s critical
thinking in general and media consciousness in particular. Empirical research revealed that,
66
in the reality of youth non-formal education in Lithuania, youth workers often engage in the
media education work because of their background either in media education, media
experience or media work or a combination of all these things. The interviewed youth
workers felt confident enough to develop critical thinking due to their background in non-
formal education, however not all of them felt confident and well prepared to address media
issues with young people critically.
4. Theories normally note that young people often are rather experienced in media because to
them it is seems natural and constitute a part of their identity. But in many case their
understanding remains unconscious and non-critical. The main task of the critical educator
is therefore, to reveal media experiences and especially their impact on one’s consciousness.
Interviewed youth leaders confirm to the large extent that for young people media is a very
natural part in their lives and they have a somewhat strong relationship with it. And only
few recognised the need to develop more critical attitude while at the same time most of the
youth workers agreed that development of critical consciousness attitudes towards media is
very important for young people.
5. Theoretical studies on critical media literacy provide an extensive account on the
educational process and practice media education in the field of media. They emphasize the
importance of developing practical media skills but move beyond only technical media
technology by exploring the political, economical, social, cultural implications of media.
Education for critical media literacy does not remain consisting of only learning in theory
but in an ideal case it involves people in the counter production of media. Such media
education practice often engages people in real power struggles grounded in media itself or
society/community in general. Empirical research provided evidences that in the projects
where media has a central place and/or it is one of the main methodologies and the youth
worker is acting following the non-formal education methodologies, then most of such
projects experience different power struggles with both very positive and negative results in
the end. Both youth workers and youth leaders referred to those experiences as the most
intense on the one hand but on the other hand the most valuable for developing critical
consciousness of young people and for their empowerment for changes. Projects, which
were less local context oriented or they had the primary approach to media as the means for
creation they faced less power struggles in a wider sense but experienced struggles within
the context and structure of the project. Youth workers and youth leaders in these projects
still admitted their educational value for the development of both the critical thinking and
media consciousness.
67
6. The concept of critical pedagogy recognises the important role of the educator in the
educational process. It draws emphasis on democratic participatory education and conscious
awareness of educator, in the sense that his or her education is never neutral and the
importance to start from and always include the perspective and perseption of the world
shared by a learner acting as a subject and not as an object. Most of the principles, values
and attitudes of critical pedagogy are embedded in the practice and understanding of non-
formal education in general and in the European Union’s programmes Youth in Action in
particular. Participants of the empirical research, both youth workers and youth leaders, to a
large extent manifested in their responses their strong commitment for the inclusion of youth
perspective in their media related activities during the projects. In most projects, especially
local youth initiatives and youth democracy project, because of their structure and practice
created democratic participatory educational and learning possibilities. However some of the
experience in the projects were limited and could be improved in the higher level of youth
participation and engagement, especially in respect to their active role in the communities
they live. Youth workers saw differently their role in the projects but most of them with no
doubts contributed in different ways to the educational process of young people. And most
of them they were aware of their influences because of their educational role and position,
media background, their belief in non-formal education principles, values and attitudes or
guidelines and priorities of Youth in Action programme.
The insights and inspiration of this work both from the theory and the research part gives
possibilities to draw some recommendations for the further development of education policy and
practice in Lithuania:
1. Lack of attention in Lithuanian education policy and practice to media education manifests
the denial that media is a part of people daily life and their understanding of the world. To
continue this situation would mean to ignore the very significant part of people’s life,
especially that media is considered as one of the most powerful institutions of the present
that shapes people’s life and decides even their future. The recommendation would be to
draw more attention to media education in general and critical media literacy in particular on
the same level of the importance as language literacy and computer literacy.
2. In order to begin, the urgent task in education policy and practice is to approach first the
areas where critical media literacy is already implemented at least partially or where it has
the easiest access possibilities. Initially, it is important to recognise, support and encourage
initiatives, projects and programmes that are already contributing to the development of
68
critical consciousness and are implemented in Lithuanian schools and non-formal practices.
The latter is equally important because it opens the full potential to educate and learn while
at the same time being involved in the real media production in the community. Educational
theorists and also interviewed practitioners recognise that the most direct entrance
possibility for the critical media literacy to the classrooms of schools is through the change
in the paradigm of computer literacy teaching. Attention should be equally given to both the
development of practical skills and knowledge and critical media consciousness.
3. In the long run, the goal of the Lithuanian education policy developments should include the
changes in teachers’ training, equally including the educators that work outside the formal
education system. If there is a significant amount of time devoted to reading books in the
training programme of teachers and educators, there should be similar attention paid to
studying contemporary culture and media as one of the main components in the sense of
reality but not only arts. The beginning could be done by teachers who are teaching
computer literacy, languages, technology studies, history and political sciences, music and
arts. The approach should not be aimed at adding the additional content to the education
curricular but rather to evaluate and change the balance of attention. For example in the
computer literacy, language teaching, history and political sciences, music and art
programmes to evaluate critically the objectives, content and expected results excluding
what is not essential and including content components of the critical media literacy.
4. Change the direction in the current research done by the Lithuanian Ministry of Education
and Science giving more attention for media literacy. Both theory and practice confirms the
tendency that computer technologies and media technologies are merging which means that
it does not make sense to separate both literacies in future research. The research of the field
of youth non-formal education should be also supported and encouraged because up till now
little attention is given in the field of non-formal education because it is up until now little
attention is given and it can enrich most educational practices.
69
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74
ANNEXES
Annex no. 1. The overview of the reports, studies and researches on the situation of media education in different countries during the past two decades
Authors Time (a)
Countries (b)
Level and field of education (c)
Report/study/research object (d)
Methods of gathering and analysing data (e)
Fedorov 1990-2000 France, United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, Australia, USA, Russia
Different levels and fields of education
Historical overview of the media education evolution
Providing the overview of the media education developments by referring to the most relevant researches and practices in the field
French and Richards
1992-1994 Italy, Spain, Dutch-speaking Belgium, Great Britain, Sweden, the Netherlands, France and Germany
University, formal education
University media and communication education practices and potential for collaboration in the subject across the continent at higher educational level
Comparing of the case studies submitted as papers for the colloquium and drawing arguments from the outcomes of the discussions during the event
Hart 1994-1998 England, Northern Ireland, South Africa, Australia, USA, Canada,
Secondary schools, formal education
Teaching paradigms and practices in media education in the secondary schools of English speaking countries
Observing teachers while teaching media and interviewing about their teaching by using the agreed frameworks for interviewing and observation
Taylor, Council of Europe
1997-1999 Romania, Slovenia, Hungary, Poland, The Netherlands
Schools, formal education, but also including attention to non-formal education
Civic and media education in different countries
Collecting the necessary data with the questionnaires distributed by the experts
Hart and Süss
1999-2001 Belgium, Great Britain, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Norway, Russia, Slovenia, Spain and Switzerland
Secondary schools, formal education
Teaching paradigms and practices in media education in mother tongue in secondary schools
Observing teachers while teaching media and interviewing about their teaching by using the agreed frameworks for interviewing and observation
Domaille and Buckingham, UNESCO
2001 35 countries from Africa, Asia, Central/Latin America, Europe, Middle East, North America and also including Australia and New Zealand
Schools, formal education
Current state of development of media education around the world
Conducting the survey research with individuals, who included academics, policy-makers and educational advisers together with extrapolations from an extensive review of print and web-based materials relating to media education
European 2007 27 Member States of the Different levels and Current trends and approaches to Identifying theoretical media literacy
75
Commission European Union and the EEA Member States
fields of education media literacy in Europe approaches, gathering information from country reports and case studies, and drawing conclusions from the expert discussions and analysis
Alliance of Civilization
2009 Mexico, Switzerland, Morocco, India, USA, Hong Kong, South Korea, Canada, Ghana, Egypt, Argentina, Spain, United Kingdom, Turkey, Zambia, Finland
Different levels and fields of education
Media education policies and practices with the underlying educational and media cultures that support them.
Offering the interpretative perspectives from the case studies and the examples of practice
76
Annex no 2. Youth in Action programme projects and their structural nature Project type Target group Duration Main characteristics Educational roles Youth Exchanges
Groups of young people from 16 to 60 participants coming from different European countries
From 6 to 21 days of activity programme
Is build around the common themes and interest of young people, involves international partnership, learning takes place in international group, includes preparation and follow-up phases, offers limited impact on local community
Group leaders who accompany young people in their learning process
National Youth Initiatives
Groups of young people from 4 members minimum, coming from the same country
From 3 to 12 months of activity programme
Is build around the interest of young people and their community, learning takes place in the peer group, is implemented by the youth group, requires strong local impact
If needed coach is supporting the youth group empowering them for participation and supporting their learning process
Youth Democracy Projects
Young people in local and international groups
From 3 to 18 months
Is build around the theme of democratic youth participation, involves local and international partnership, active participation methodology is highly stressed, requires strong local impact
There are no roles specified
European Voluntary Service
Individuals and groups of young people coming from different European countries
From 2 to 12 months
Promotes voluntary activities in the community, individual learning process is highly stressed, often has a central theme based on the volunteer activities
Mentors who support the individual learning process of volunteers
Training courses
Groups of youth leaders, youth workers coming from different European countries
Not more than 10 days of the activity programme
Is build around the specific topic, aims to improve participants’ competence in the youth work in general, and Youth in Action projects specifically
Trainers who facilitate the educational process of participants
Source: Adopted from the Youth in Action Programme Guide (European Commission, 2009)
77
Annex no. 3. In-depth interview plan with youth workers
General introductory questions:
1. In general terms, tell about your organisation: who you are, what are your goals, what are you doing?
o What place and role has media in the activities of your organisation: how do(es) you(organisation) understand the term „media“ and what are the reasons for media related activities?
2. In brief, tell about yourself: what is your relationship and experiences with media?
3. In general terms tell about the Youth in Action project: what was/is the idea, and main activities?
o What were the media related activities in the project and why?
Main questions around the critical media literacy:
4. What objectives did/do you set related to media education in youth project?
o Which of the objectives and how were/are related to education for critical thinking and media consciousness?
5. Tell, how was/is media education happening: what were/are methods and activities implemented?
o How was/is the educational process of critical thinking and media consciousness happening?
o What was/is your role as educator during this process?
6. What was/is important in the educational process: what principle, values and attitudes?
7. What results did/do project manage to achieve in the area of media education?
o How did/does youth critical thinking and media consciousness change?
8. How did/does the attention for media is influencing the non-formal education process: what opportunities did/does it create and what difficulties were/are if face?
General concluding questions:
9. In your opinion, what is the youth relationship with media and how media is influencing people?
10. In your opinion, to what extent is for young people important critical media literacy and why?
11. Where can young people develop critical media literacy in Lithuania: what opportunities do exist already and what is still needed to create?
12. What knowledge, skills and attitudes are important for young people when developing media competence?
13. What are the possibilities and difficulties for media education in non-formal education setting?
78
Annex no. 4. In-depth interview plan with youth leaders
General introductory questions:
14. In general terms, tell about your group: who you are, what are your goals, what are you doing?
o What place and role has media in your activities: how do(es) you(group) understand the term „media“ and why you take part in media related activities?
15. In general terms tell about the Youth in Action project: what was/is the idea, and main activities?
o What were the media related activities in the project and why?
Main questions around the critical media literacy:
16. What did/do your group want to achieve with media related activities in the project?
o Which of the objectives and how were/are related to learning the critical thinking and media consciousness?
17. Tell, how was/is media related activities: what were/are methods and activities implemented?
o How was/is the learning process of critical thinking and media consciousness happening?
o What was/is your role as youth leader during this process?
18. What was/is important in the process: what principle, values and attitudes?
19. What did your and other young people learn in the area of media education?
o How did/does your/your group’s critical thinking and media consciousness change?
General concluding questions:
20. In your opinion, what is the youth relationship with media and how media is influencing people?
21. In your opinion, to what extent is for you and other young people important critical media literacy and why?
22. What are the possibilities and difficulties for media education in such kind of projects as yours?
