Non-Chordates-IProtists to Pseudocoelomates

(As per New CBCS Syllabus for First Semester, B.Sc. of  Calcutta  University  w.e.f.  2018-19)

MOHAN P. ARORAM.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D.

Edited byCHANDER KANTA

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First Edition : 2018

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The present title “Non-Chordates-I” (Protists to Pseudocoelomates) is anattempt to provide an accurate, up-to-date, concised, simplified and examination-orientedtext to the students. The entire volume has been divided into seven units as per thelatest syllabus of Calcutta University. All the topics of the subject have been thoroughlydealt with incorporating latest informations available. A student will find almost everyinformation about the subject in this book. A simple language easy to understand by anaverage student has been used. Diagrams have been simplified to make them easy tobe redrawn by the students.

It has been designed to approach the morphology, anatomy and physiology of selectedtypes in a simple and lucid style. General characteristics and classification have alsobeen dealt with complete, authentic and up-to-date account. The approach to the discussionof all the types is very simple so as to impact to the students a clear and vividunderstanding.

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Author

PREFACE

SYLLABUS

PART I: SEMESTER 1CORE COURSE 1. Non-Chordates I

ZOOA-CC1-1-THFull Marks 50 4 Credits 50 Hours

Non-Chordates I: Protists to Pseudocoelomates

Unit 1: Basics of Animal Classification 4Definitions: Classification, Systematics and Taxonomy; Taxonomic Hierarchy, Taxonomic Types– Codes of Zoological Nomenclature; Principles of Priority; Synonymy and Homonymy; Conceptof Classification – Three Kingdom Concept of Carl Woese, 1977 and Five Kingdom Conceptof Whittaker, 1969

Unit 2: Protista and Metazoa 15

ProtozoaGeneral Characteristics and Classification up to Phylum (According to Levine et al., 1980)Locomotion in Euglena, Paramoecium and Amoeba; Conjugation in Paramoecium.Life Cycle and Pathogenicity of Plasmodium vivax and Entamoeba histolytica

MetazoaEvolution of Symmetry and Segmentation of Metazoa.

Unit 3: Porifera 6General Characteristics and Classification up to Classes (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994,6th Ed.); Canal System and Spicules in Sponges

Unit 4: Cnidaria 10General Characteristics and Classification up to Classes (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994, 6th Ed.),Metagenesis in Obelia; Polymorphism in Cnidaria; Corals and Coral Reef Diversity, Role ofSymbiotic Algae in Reef Formation. Conservation of Coral and Coral Reefs.

Unit 5: Ctenophora 2General Characteristics

Unit 6: Platyhelminthes 6General Characteristics and Classification up to Classes (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994, 6th Ed.)Life Cycle, Pathogenicity and Control Measures of Fasciola hepatica and Taenia solium

Unit 7: Nematoda 7General Characteristics and Classification up to Classes (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994, 6th Ed.)Life Cycle, Pathogenicity and Control Measures of Ascaris lumbricoides and Wuchereria bancroftiParasitic Adaptations in Helminthes

Non-Chordates I LabZOOA-CC-1-1-P

Non-Chordates I: Protists to Pseudocoelomates

Full Marks: 30 60 Hours 2 credits

List of PracticalsStudy of whole mount of Euglena, Amoeba and ParamoeciumIdentification with Reason and Systematic Position of Amoeba, Euglena, Entamoeba,Paramecium, Plasmodium, Balantidium, Vorticella (from the Prepared Slides)Identification with Reason and Systematic Position of Sycon, Poterion (Neptune’s Cup), Obelia,Physalia, Aurelia, Gorgonia, Metridium, Pennatula, Madrepora, Fasciola hepatica, Taenia soliumand Ascaris lumbricoides.Staining/Mounting of Any Protozoa/Helminth from Gut of Periplaneta sp.

Contents

UNIT-1. BASICS OF ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION

1. Importance to Taxonomy 1—4Important Questions

2. Kinds of Classification 5—11Systems of Classification, Artificial Classification, Natural Classification,Approaches to the Classification, Phenetic Approach, Cladistic Approach, ClassicalApproach, Phylogenetic Classification, Evolution of Kingdoms, Two KingdomSystem, Three Kingdom System, Four Kingdom System, Five Kingdom System,Six Kingdom System, Characteristics Used in Classification, Important Questions.

3. Components of Classification 12—17Species, Species in Taxonomy, Terminology, Non-taxonomic Species, DiversifiedTerms, Subspecies, Other Subdivisions of Species.

4. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature 18—26Responsibility of International Congress, The International Commission, Dutiesof the Commission, New Features of the 1961 Code, Instructions to Non-taxonomists, Unsatisfactory Aspects of the 1961 Code, New Features of the 1964Amended Code, Important Questions.

UNIT-2. PROTISTA AND METAZOA

5. Protozoa: Characters and Classification 27—38General Characters, Organization, Occurrence, Distribution, Symmetry, BodyCovering, Skeleton, Locomotory Organelles, Nutrition, Respiration, Excretion,Osmoregulation, Reproduction, Special Characters, Economic Characters,Classification, Subkingdom: Protozoa, Subphylum Sarcomastigophora, SubphylumApicomplexa, Subphylum Myxozoa, Subphylum Ciliophora, Important Questions.

6. Locomotion in Amoeba, Euglena and Paramecium 39—49Locomotion in Amoeba, Amoeboid Movement, Walking, Rolling MovementTheory, Theories of Pseudopodium Formation, Locomotion in Euglena, FlagellarMovement, Locomotion in Paramecium, Metaboly or Body Contractions,Swimming, Ciliary Beat, Important Questions.

7. Conjugation in Paramecium 50—57Process of Conjugation, Synkaryon Formation, Fate of Exconjugants, Conditionsof Conjugation, Significance of Conjugation, Rejuvenation, Autogamy, Endomixis,Hemixis, Cytogamy, Important Questions.

8. Plasmodium (Malaria Parasite) 58—76Habits and Habitat, Preparation of Laboratory Culture, History, Morphology,Life Cycle, Human Cycle, Hepalic Schizogony, Erythrocytic Schizogony,Gametogony, Mosquito Cycle, Sporogony, Malaria—Diagnosis and Treatment,Malaria—Prevention and Control, Measures against the Parasite, Measures againstthe Vector, Killing of Mosquito Larvae—Anti-larval Measures, Inherited Resistance,Important Questions.

9. Entamoeba Histolytica 77—87Habitat and Habits, Morphology, Plasmalemma, Cytoplasm, Nucleus, Physiology,Life Cycle, Binary Fission, Encystment, Transfer to New Host, Excystation,Primary Site of Infection, Secondary Site of Infection, Infection in Other Animals,Pathogenicity, Intestinal Lesions, Liver Abscess, Lesions in Lungs, Lesions in Brain,Lesions in Spleen, Cutaneous Lesions, Important Questions.

10. Evolution of Symmetry and Segmentation in Metazoa 88—105Origin and Nature of the Metazoa, Origin of the Metazoa, Pressures Exerted onUnicellular Animals, Fossil Record, Theories of Metazoan Origin, MonophyleticTheory, Polyphyletic Theory, Recapitulation Theory, Colonial Theory, SyncytialTheory, Organization of the Metazoan, Differentiation and Divison of Labour,Symmetry and Polarity, Spherical Symmetry, Radial Symmetry, BilateralSymmetry, Segmentation and Tagmatization, Significance of MetamericSegmentation, Embryology of the Metazoans, Types of Cleavage, Blastula andGastrula Formation, Mesoderm and Coelom, Protostomia and Deuterostomia, BriefClassification of the Invertebrates, Important Questions.

UNIT-3. PORIFERA

11. Porifera: Characters and Classification 106—114General Characters, Classification, Class-Calcarea, Class-Hexactinellida orTriaxonida, Class-Demospongiae, Class-Scelerospongia, Important Questions.

12. Canal System in Sponges 115—124Ascon Type, Sycon Type, Rhagon Type, Leuconoid Type, Mechanism of CurrentProduction, Functions of the Canal System, Significance of Canal System,Important Questions.

13. Spicules in Sponges 125—136Megascleres, Monaxon Spicules, Triaxon Spicules, Tetraxon Spicules, PolyaxonSpicules, Spheres, Desma, Microscleres, Monaxon Microscleres, Polyaxon

Microscleres, Arrangement of the Spicules in the Skeleton, Prostalia, Dermalia,Gastralia, Parenchymalia, Union of the Spicules, Development of Spicules,Monaxon Spicules, Triradiate Spicules, Development of QuadriradiateSpicules, Development of Hexactinal Spicules, Union of the spicules and theirArrangement in the Fibres, Spongin, Origin, Importance of Spicules, ImportantQuestions.

UNIT-4. CNIDARIA

14. Coelenterata: Characters and Classification 137—145General Characters, Classification, Class-Hydrozoa, Class-Scyphozoa, Class-Anthozoa or Actinozoa, Class-Cubozoa, Important Questions.

15. Metagenesis in Obelia 146—154External Morphology, Hydranth or Polyp, Medusa, Sexual Reproduction, LifeHistory, Fertilization, Development, Metamorphosis, Alternation of Generationsor Metagenesis, Important Questions.

16. Polymorphism in Coelenterata 155—163Polypoid Zooids, Gastrozooids, Dactylozooids, Gonozooids, Medusoid Zooids,Swimming Bell, Pneumatophores, Bracts, Gonophores, Grades of Polymorphism,Dimorphic Forms, Trimorphic Forms, Polymorphic Forms, Origin ofPolymorphism, Polyp Origin Theory, Polyp Person Theory, Sedgwick, Haeckeland Balfour, Moser's Theory, Polymorphism and Alternation of Generations,Important Questions.

17. Corals and Coral Reef Diversity 164—169Coral Reefs in India, Biological Diversity of Coral Reefs, Reef Building, Diversityof Corals in the Four Major Coral Reefs of India, Gulf of Kachchh, LakshadweepIslands, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, Andaman and Nicobar Islands,All India, Endemic Coral Species in India, Deepwater Corals of India, ImportantQuestions.

18. Role of Symbiotic Algae in Reef Formation 170—172Environmental Effects on the Symbiosis.

19. Conservation of Coral and Coral Reefs 173—174Coral Reefs Conservation, Coral Reefs Contain Species which are Important forMedicine, Medicine, Coral Reefs can Support Tourism and Recreation, Restoration,Coral Nurseries, Biodiversity.

UNIT-5. CTENOPHORA

20. Ctenophora: Characters and Classification 175—178General Characters, Classification, Class-Tentaculata, Class-Nuda.

UNIT-6. PLATYHELMINTHES

21. Platyhelminthes: Characters and Classification 179—186General Characters, Classification, Class-Turbellaria, Class-Trematoda, Class-Cestoda, Important Questions.

22. Fasciola Hepatica 187—208Geographical Distribution, Habits and Habitat, Shape, Size and Colouration,Structure, Body Wall, Digestive System, Alimentary Canal, Food, Feeding andDigestion, Egestion, Respiration, Excretory System, Excretory Ducts, Flame Cells,Nervous System, Central Nervous System, Peripheral Nervous System, SenseOrgans, Hormones in Fasciola, Reproductive System, Male Reproductive Organs,Female Reproductive Organs, Ootype, Life History, Copulation and Fertilization,Formation of Egg Capsule, Structure of an Egg, Development, Miracidium Larva,Structure of Miracidium, Sporocyst, Radia Larva, Cercaria Larva, FactorsAffecting Development in Snail, Metacercaria, Infection of Final Host, ImportantQuestions.

23. Taenia Solium 209—224Habits and Habitat, External Morphology, Shape, Size and Colour, Division ofBody, Body Wall, Mesenchyme or Parenchyma, Electron Structure of Body Wall,Function of Body Wall, Reproductive System, Male Reproductive System, FemaleReproductive System, Life Cycle, Copulation and Fertilization, Cleavage,Onchosphere, Infection to Secondary Host, Migration, Infection to Primary Host,Pathogenesis, Treatment, Epidemiology and Control, Parasitic Adaptations inTaenia, Physiological Adaptations, Modifications in Life-cycle, ImportantQuestions.

UNIT-7. NEMATODA

24. Nematoda: Characters and Classification 225—229General Characters, Classification, Class-Adenophorea (Aphasmida), Class-Secernentea (Phasmida), Important Questions.

25. Ascaris Lumbricoides 230—246Habits and Habitat, External Features, Shape and Size, Colouration, Mouth,Excretory Pore, Genital Pore, Anus, Cloacal Aperture, Body Wall, Cuticle,Epidermis, Muscle layer, Pseudocoel, Locomotion, Reproductive System, MaleReproductive System, Female Reproductive Organs, Life Cycle, Copulation andFertilization, Zygote Formation and Mamiliated Eggs, Egg-Laying, Development,Cleavage, Infection and Emergence of Larva, Pathogenesis, Therapy, Prevention,Parasitic Adaptation, Important Questions.

26. Wuchereria Bancrofti 247—251Distribution, Habits and Habitat, Morphology, Periodicity of Microfilariae, LifeHistory, Infection and Adult Stage in Man, Important Questions.

27. Parasitism and Parasitic Adaptations 252—256Origin and Evolution of Parasitism, Different Types of Parasitism, Effect ofParasitism upon the Parasite, Morphological Adaptations, PhysiologicalAdaptations, Effect of Parasitism on the Host.

UNIT-8. PRACTICAL

28. Study of Whole Mount 257—259Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium.

29. Identification and Systematic Position 260—283Amoeba, Euglena, Entamoeba histolygica, Entamoeba coli, Entamoeba gingivalis,Paramecium, Plasmodium, Balantidium, Vorticella, Sycon (Scypha), Poterion,Obelia, Physalia, Aurelia, Gorgonia, Metridium, Pennatula, Madrepora, Fasciolahepatica, Taenia solium, Ascaris lumbricoides.

30. Study of Gut Contents of Cockroach for Protozoa and Helminth 284—287Materials Required, Preparation of Reagents, Procedure, Observation.

1

Taxonomy has been defined as the study of the principles and practices ofclassification. Taxonomy refers to the day-to-day practice of dealing with the kindsof organisms. This includes the handling and identification of specimens, thepublication of the data, the study of the literature, and the analysis of the variationshown by the specimens.

Similarly, the arrangement of the Individuals into groups and the groups into asystem is also called a classification, and in this the data about the kinds determinetheir position in the system and thereafter are reflected by that position.

The term systematics deals with both taxonomy and classification, including allthe other aspects of dealing with kinds of organisms and the data accumulated aboutthem. Therefore, systematics is the study of the kinds and diversity of organisms,their distinction, classification, and evolution.

These words are not universally used in these meanings. The dictionaries definethem all as the science and practice of classifying. Inasmuch as there are severalaspects to the field of classifying organisms, it is foolish to use all three words withthe same general meaning and be left with no terms for the other concepts that wewish to discuss. Simpson in 1961 used “taxonomy” for the study of the theoreticalaspects of classification, the philosophy of systematics—the metataxonomy ormethodological taxonomy. These differences reflect the fact that no standard usagehas yet been attained.

It will be the intent in this book to use the term taxonomy when dealingprincipally with the practical aspects of segregating describing, naming, and recordingthe kinds or organisms; the term classification when referring chiefly to the groupingof like things into a system; and the term systematics when referring to all theactivities of a biologist who is studying and recording the diversity of organisms, theorigin and maintenance of the diversity, and the methods by which these studies arepursued.

Among these may be cited typological, neo-Adansonian, non-dimensional, theNew Systematics, biological species concept, numerical taxonomy, alpha-, beta-, andgamma-taxonomy, morphotype, archetype, holomorph, biospecies, biosystematics,hypodigm, and onomatophore. These terms are sometimes helpful for clarification ofideas, but in taxonomy they usually are not really needed.

Inasmuch as taxonomy is defined as the work done by taxonomists, it wouldseem to be a simple thing to show what that includes. But unfortunately one can

1CHAPTER

Importance to Taxonomy

2 NON-CHORDATES-I: PROTISTS TO PSEUDOCOELOMATES

only list several major aspects of their work and indicate some of the things involvedin each.

1. Collection of specimens. This may be by collecting in the field, exchanging,purchasing, going to a museum, or all of these.

2. Consultation of literature. All the literature back to the first description of a speciesin the group is required in most real taxonomic studies and is usually bestobtained in a library, preferably the one attached to the museum containing thespecimens. Further, some papers are obtainable upon request, or exchange, fromthe authors, and some books are obtainable by purchase from book stores orused-book dealers.

3. Observing specimens. Under this heading must be included not only the taxonomicstudy of the particular specimens but also the pertinent background knowledge,such as comparative anatomy, life history, development, and natural history.The taxonomic study must employ all appropriate and necessary methods, whichwill vary greatly from group to group.

4. Survey of literature. This goes on simultaneously with the study of the specimens,but there must also be a considerable knowledge of previous work before studyof the specimens can usefully proceed. Unless the literature is quite restricted involume, it will be necessary to organize it in some way, usually by some sort ofcataloging; however, if catalogs and bibliographies have already been publishedthis will help.

5. Identification of specimens. After the specimens and the literature have beensufficiently studied, the taxonomist will be able to identify some of the specimens.He will presumably know whether some of his specimens do not correspond toany of the species in the group and therefore represent new species.

6. Publication work. Having worked out the species and groups, he may preparedescriptions, keys, new descriptions, or monographs for publication. These embodyhis taxonomic conclusions, whether they are about the newness of a species orgroup, its position in the classifications, or an easier way to distinguish it fromother species or groups.

7. Nomenclature. If any of the species or groups are new, the taxonomist mustpropose names for them. To do this he must be thoroughly familiar with theprocedures and rules of nomenclature accepted by taxonomists. He must alsohave a working knowledge of the Latin and Greek employed in scientific names.

8. Justification. He must classify the new species, at least to the extent of assigningthem to genera. Eventually he must go much further and classify the generainto groups and these groups into more inclusive groups—prepare a classification,which is a sort of synthesis of all he knows about the species and the groups.Although these are the principal scientific tasks of the taxonomist, he must usuallyperform some other tasks that make the taxonomic work possible. Delegation ofthese more routine tasks to a non-taxonomist is usually not a satisfactoryarrangement.

3IMPORTANCE TO TAXONOMY

9. Preserving collections. As most of the work of the taxonomist is based on specimensof the animal species and the data recorded about them, it is necessary to maintainpermanent collections so that specimens will be available when needed. Moreover,further taxonomists will use these collections to recheck the work and for laterstudies. Maintenance of the libraries is equally important.

10. Adoption of new methods. Although conventional methods are usually the basisfor any taxonomic study, many cases require development or adoption of newmethods before a successful solution can be achieved. It is always desirable to beon the lookout for new techniques that offer better results, and the taxonomistshould try to adapt these to his work whenever the advance of the science requiresit.

11. Framing rules. The highly technical nature of the rules under which zoologicalnames are formed and used makes necessary not only an understanding of theirprovisions by all taxonomists but also the study of the rules themselves by certaintaxonomists, who become in effect nomenclature specialists. These nomenclaturistsattempt to make the rules more effective in making names serve the needs of allzoologists. They also serve as consultants to other taxonomists on questions ofthe use of names.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Long Answer Type Questions1. Describe the importance of taxonomy.2. Mention of systematic approval to study the taxonomy.

Short Answer Type Questions1. Write notes on collection and observing specimens.2. Describe the method of identification of specimens.3. Discuss the adoption of new methods and framing rules.

True and False1. The division of organisms into small and large groups on the basis of similarities and differences

is called taxonomy.2. Taxonomy is restricted to animals only.3. Simpson first used the word taxonomy.

Fill in the Blanks1. The primary stage in the study of taxonomy is ........................ of specimens.2. Identification of ......................... is another important step in the study of taxonomy.

Objective Questions1. The branch of science that deals with the study of the principles of classification is called:

(a) Taxonomy (b) Ethology(c) Autecology (d) Pedology.

4 NON-CHORDATES-I: PROTISTS TO PSEUDOCOELOMATES

2. The arrangement of the individuals into groups and the groups into a system is also called:(a) Methodology (b) Pharmacology(c) Classification (d) Zoo-geography.

3. The word taxonomy was first used by:(a) Simpson (b) Aristotle(c) Weismann (d) Cuvier.

4. Nomenclature means:(a) Naming the new species or groups(b) Naming the new born organisms(c) Naming the area by taxonomists(d) None.

5. Framing rules by the taxonomists is the final but significant aspect to fulfil the need of:(a) Zoologist (b) Botanists(c) Researcher (d) All.

Answers (True and False)1. True 2. False 3. True

Answers (Fill in the Blanks)1. Collection 2. Specimens

Answers (Objective Question)1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (d)