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Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration Chpt. 17

pgs. 353-369 TOPICS: 2.2 / 2.5

C L A S S A S S I G N M E N T A N S W E R S 1. TEMUCHIN : Genghis Khan[note 3] (born Temüjin,[note 1] c. 1162 – August 18, 1227) was the founder and first Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death. He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia. After founding the Empire and being proclaimed Genghis Khan, he launched the Mongol invasions that conquered most of Eurasia. Campaigns initiated in his lifetime include those against the Qara Khitai, Caucasus, and Khwarazmian, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by large-scale massacres of the civilian populations, especially in the Khwarazmian– and Western Xia–controlled lands. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China.

Before Genghis Khan died he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor. Later his grandsons split his empire into khanates.[7] Genghis Khan died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. By his request, his body was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia.[8] His descendants extended the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering or creating vassal states in all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and substantial portions of Eastern Europe and Southwest Asia. Many of these invasions repeated the earlier large-scale slaughters of local populations. As a result, Genghis Khan and his empire have a fearsome reputation in local histories.[9]

Beyond his military accomplishments, Genghis Khan also advanced the Mongol Empire in other ways. He decreed the adoption of the Uyghur script as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also practised meritocracy and encouraged religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire, unifying the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia. Present-day Mongolians regard him as the founding father of Mongolia.[10]

Known for the brutality of his campaigns, Genghis Khan is considered by many to have been a genocidal ruler.[11] However, he is also credited with bringing the Silk Road under one cohesive political environment. This brought relatively easy communication and trade between Northeast Asia, Muslim Southwest Asia, and Christian Europe, expanding the cultural horizons of all three areas.

2. STEPPE : The Eurasian Steppe, also called the Great Steppe or the steppes, is the vast steppe ecoregion of Eurasia in the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. It stretches from Bulgaria, Romania and Moldova through Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan, Xinjiang, and Mongolia to Manchuria, with one major exclave, the Pannonian steppe or Puszta, located mostly in Hungary.[1]

Since the Paleolithic age, the Steppe Route has connected Eastern Europe, Central Asia, China, South Asia, and the Middle East economically, politically, and culturally through overland trade routes. The Steppe route is a predecessor not only of the Silk Road which developed during antiquity and the Middle Ages, but also of the Eurasian Land Bridge in the modern era. It has been home to nomadic empires and many large tribal confederations and ancient states throughout history, such as the Xiongnu, Scythia, Cimmeria, Sarmatia, Hunnic Empire, Chorasmia, Transoxiana, Sogdiana, Xianbei, Mongols, and Göktürk Khaganate.

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3. BLUE MIGHTY ETERNAL HEAVEN : Shamanism, which practices a form of animism with several meanings and with different characters, was a popular religion in ancient Central Asia and Siberia. The central act in the relationship between human and nature was the worship of the Blue Mighty Eternal Heaven - "Blue Sky" (Хөх тэнгэр, Эрхэт мөнх тэнгэр). Chingis Khan showed his spiritual power was greater than others and himself to be a connector to heaven after the execution of rival shaman Teb Tengri Kokhchu.

Under the Mongol Empire the khans such as Batu, Duwa, Kebek and Tokhta kept a whole college of male shamans. Those shamans were divided into bikes and others. The bikes camped in front of the Great Khan's palace and other shamans behind it. In spite of astrological observations and regular calendar ceremonies, Mongol shamans led armies and performed weather magic. Shamans played a powerful political role behind the Mongol court.

While Ghazan converted to Islam, he still practiced some elements of Mongol shamanism. The Yassa code remained in place and Mongol shamans were allowed to remain in the Ilkhanate empire and remained politically influential throughout his reign as well as Oljeitu's. However, ancient Mongol shamanistic traditions went into decline with the demise of Oljeitu and with the rise of rulers practicing a purified form of Islam. With Islamization, the shamans were no longer important as they had been in Golden Horde and Ilkhanate. But they still performed in ritual ceremonies alongside the Nestors and Buddhist monks in Yuan Dynasty.

4. YURT : A traditional yurt (from the Turkic languages) or ger (Mongolian) is a portable, round tent covered with skins or felt and used as a dwelling by

several distinct nomadic groups in the steppes of Central Asia. The structure comprises an angled assembly or latticework of pieces of wood or bamboo

for walls, a door frame, ribs (poles, rafters), and a wheel (crown, compression ring) possibly steam-bent. The roof structure is often self-supporting, but

large yurts may have interior posts supporting the crown. The top of the wall of self-supporting yurts is prevented from spreading by means of a

tension band which opposes the force of the roof ribs. Modern yurts may be permanently built on a wooden platform; they may use modern materials

such as steam-bent wooden framing or metal framing, canvas or tarpaulin, Plexiglas dome, wire rope, or radiant insulation.

5. SINIFICATION : Sinicization, sinicisation, sinofication, or sinification, or sinonization is a process whereby non-Chinese societies come under the

influence of Chinese culture, particularly Han Chinese culture, language, societal norms, and ethnic identity. Areas of influence include diet, writing,

industry, education, language, law, lifestyle, politics, philosophy, religion, science and technology, culture, and value systems. More broadly,

"Sinicization" may refer to policies of acculturation, assimilation, or cultural imperialism imposed by China onto neighboring East Asian countries,

and minority ethnic groups inside China. Evidence of this can be seen in the value systems, cuisine, architectural style, and lexicons. This is reflected in

the histories of Japan, Korea and Vietnam for example, in the adoption of the Chinese writing system as the script of the Han Chinese has long been a

unifying feature in the Sinosphere as the vehicle for exporting Chinese culture to these Asian countries.

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6. KURULTAI : Kurultai (Mongolian:ᠻᠦᠷᠦᠯᠳᠠᠶ, Хуралдай, Khuraldai; Turkic: Kurultay)[dn 1] was a political and military council of ancient Mongol and

some Turkic chiefs and khans. The root of the word is khur- "gather", from which is formed khural meaning "meeting" or "assembly"

in Turkic and Mongolian languages. Khuraldai, khuruldai or khuraldaan means "gathering", or, more literally, "intergatheration". This root is the same

as in the Mongolian word хурим (khurim), which means "feast" and originally referred to large festive gatherings on the steppe but is used mainly in

the sense of "wedding" in modern times.

7. PAX MONGOLICA : The Pax Mongolica (Latin for "Mongol Peace"), less often known as Pax Tatarica[1] ("Tatar Peace"), is a historiographical term modelled after the original phrase Pax Romana which describes the stabilizing effects of the conquests of the Mongol Empire on the social, cultural and economic life of the inhabitants of the vast Eurasian territory that the Mongols conquered in the 13th and 14th centuries. The term is used to describe the eased communication and commerce the unified administration helped to create and the period of relative peace that followed the Mongols' vast conquests.

The conquests of Genghis Khan (r. 1206–1227) and his successors, spanning from Southeast Asia to Eastern Europe, effectively connected the Eastern world with the Western world. The Silk Road, connecting trade centres across Asia and Europe, came under the sole rule of the Mongol Empire. It was commonly said that "a maiden bearing a nugget of gold on her head could wander safely throughout the realm".[2][3] Despite the political fragmentation of the Mongol Empire into four khanates (Yuan dynasty, Golden Horde, Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate), nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability in the early 14th century. The end of the Pax Mongolica was marked by the disintegration of the khanates and the outbreak of the Black Death in Asia which spread along trade routes to much of the world in the mid-14th century.

8. YAM SYSTEM : Yam (Mongolian: Өртөө, Örtöö, checkpoint) was a supply point route messenger system extensively used and expanded by Genghis Khan and also used by subsequent Great Khans and Khans.[1]

Relay stations provided food, shelter and spare horses for Mongol army messengers. Genghis Khan gave special attention to Yam because Mongol armies travelled fast, so their messengers had to be even faster, covering 200–300 kilometres (120–190 mi) per day.[1] The system was used to speed up the process of information and intelligence.

The system was preserved in Tsarist Russia after the disintegration of the Golden Horde.

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9. YASSA : Yassa (alternatively: Yasa, Yasaq, Jazag, Zasag, Mongolian: Их засаг, Yehe Zasag) is/was[clarification needed] the forty millenary oral law code of the Mongols declared in public in Bokhara by Genghis Khan[1] de facto law of the Mongol Empire even though the "law" was kept secret and never made public. The Yassa seems to have its origin as decrees issued in war times. Later, these decrees were codified and expanded to include cultural and life-style conventions. By keeping the Yassa secret, the decrees could be modified and used selectively. It is believed that the Yassa was supervised by Genghis Khan himself and his stepbrother Shihihutag who was then high judge (in Mongolian: улсын их заргач) of the Mongol Empire.[2] Genghis Khan appointed his second son Chagatai (later Chagatai Khan) to oversee the execution of the laws.

10. TOROGENE KHATUN : Töregene Khatun (also Turakina) (d. 1246) was the Great Khatun and regent of the Mongol Empire from the death of her husband Ögedei Khan in 1241 until the election of her eldest son Güyük Khan in 1246.

Töregene was born into the Naiman tribe. Her first husband was a member of the Merkit clan. Some sources state that his name was Qudu.[1] However, Rashid-al-Din Hamadani named her first husband as Dayir Usun of the Merkits.[2] When Genghis conquered the Merkits in 1204, he gave Töregene to Ögedei as his second wife. While Ögedei's first wife Boraqchin had no sons, Töregene gave birth to five sons, Güyük, Kötän, Köchü, Qarachar, and Qashi.

She eclipsed all of Ögedei's wives and gradually increased her influence among the court officials. But Töregene still resented Ögedei's officials and the policy of centralizing the administration and lowering tax burdens. Töregene sponsored the reprinting of the Taoist canon in North China.[3] Through the influence of Töregene, Ögedei appointed Abd-ur-Rahman as tax farmer in China.

11. KUBLAI KHAN : Kublai (/ˈkuːblaɪ/; Mongolian: Хубилай, romanized: Hubilai; Chinese: 忽必烈; pinyin: Hūbìliè) was the fifth Khagan (Great Khan) of the Mongol Empire (Ikh Mongol Uls), reigning from 1260 to 1294 (although due to the division of the empire this was a nominal position). He also founded the Yuan dynasty in China as a conquest dynasty in 1271, and ruled as the first Yuan emperor until his death in 1294.

Kublai was the fourth son of Tolui (his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki) and a grandson of Genghis Khan. He succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War lasting until 1264. This episode marked the beginning of disunity in the empire.[1] Kublai's real power was limited to China and Mongolia, though as Khagan he still had influence in the Ilkhanate and, to a significantly lesser degree, in the Golden Horde.[2][3][4] If one counts the Mongol Empire at that time as a whole, his realm reached from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea, from Siberia to what is now Afghanistan.[5]

In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty, which ruled over present-day Mongolia, China, Korea, and some adjacent areas, and assumed the role of Emperor of China. By 1279, the Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty was completed and Kublai became the first non-Han emperor to conquer all of China.

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13. MARCO POLO : Marco Polo (/ˈmɑːrkoʊ ˈpoʊloʊ/ ( listen), Venetian: [ˈmaɾko ˈpolo], Italian: [ˈmarko ˈpɔːlo]; 1254 – January 8–9, 1324)[1] was an Italian merchant, explorer, and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295.[2][3][4] His travels are recorded in The Travels of Marco Polo (also known as Book of the Marvels of the World and Il Milione, c. 1300), a book that described to Europeans the then mysterious culture and inner workings of the Eastern world, including the wealth and great size of China and its capital Peking, giving their first comprehensive look into China, India, Japan and other Asian cities and countries.[5]

Born in the Republic of Venice,[6][7] Marco learned the mercantile trade from his father and his uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, who travelled through Asia and met Kublai Khan. In 1269, they returned to Venice to meet Marco for the first time. The three of them embarked on an epic journey to Asia, exploring many places along the Silk Road until they reached Cathay (China) where they were received by Kublai Khan's royal court. Impressed by Marco's intelligence and humility, Khan appointed him to serve as his foreign emissary to India and Burma. As part of this appointment, Marco also traveled extensively inside China, living in the emperor's lands for 17 years and seeing many things that had previously been unknown to Europeans.[3] Around 1292, the Polos also offered to accompany the Mongol princess Kököchin in Persia, arriving around the following year. After leaving the princess, they travelled overland to Constantinople and then to Venice, returning home after 24 years.[3] At this time, Venice was at war with Genoa; Marco was imprisoned and dictated his stories to Rustichello da Pisa, a cellmate. He was released in 1299, became a wealthy merchant, married, and had three children. He died in 1324 and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo in Venice.

Though he was not the first European to reach China (see Europeans in Medieval China), Marco Polo was the first to leave a detailed chronicle of his experience. This book inspired Christopher Columbus[8] and many other travellers. There is substantial literature based on Polo's writings; he also influenced European cartography, leading to the introduction of the Fra Mauro map.

14. IBN BATTUTA : Ibn Battuta (/ˌɪbənbætˈtuːtɑː/; Arabic: محمد ابن بطوطة; fully: Shams al-Dīn ʾAbū ʿAbd al-Lāh Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Lāh l-Lawātī ṭ-

Ṭanǧī ibn Baṭūṭah; Arabic: شمس الدين أبو عبد هللا محمد بن عبد هللا اللواتي الطنجي بن بطوطة; February 25, 1304 – 1368 or 1369) was a Muslim

Berber Moroccan scholar, and explorer who widely travelled the medieval world.[1][2] Over a period of thirty years, Ibn Battuta visited most of

the Islamic world and many non-Muslim lands, including Central Asia, Southeast Asia, India and China. Near the end of his life, he dictated an account

of his journeys, titled A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling.'

All that is known about Ibn Battuta's life comes from the autobiographical information included in the account of his travels, which records that he was

of Berber descent,[1] born into a family of Islamic legal scholars in Tangier, Morocco, on 25 February 1304, during the reign of the Marinid dynasty.[3] His

family belonged to a Berber tribe known as the Lawata.[4] As a young man, he would have studied at a Sunni Maliki madh'hab (Islamic

jurisprudence school), the dominant form of education in North Africa at that time.[5] Maliki Muslims requested Ibn Battuta serve as their religious

judge as he was from an area where it was practised.[6]

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15. TAMERLANE : Timur[3] (Chagatai: تيمور Temür "Iron"; 9 April 1336 – 18 February 1405), later Timūr Gurkānī, sometimes spelled Taimur and historically best known as Amir Timur or Tamerlane[4] (Persian: تيمور لنگ Temūr(-i) Lang, "Timur the Lame"), was a Turco-Mongol Persianate[5][6] conqueror who founded the Timurid Empire in and around modern-day Iran and Central Asia, becoming the first ruler of the Timurid dynasty. As an undefeated commander, he is widely regarded to be one of the greatest military leaders and tacticians in history.[7][8] Timur is also considered as a great patron of art and architecture, as he interacted with intellectuals such as Ibn Khaldun and Hafiz-i Abru.[7]:341–2 He is often credited with the invention of the Tamerlane chess variant, played on a larger 10×11 board.[9] According to John Joseph Saunders, Timur was "the product of an Islamized and Iranized society", and not steppe nomadic.[10]

Born into the Barlas confederation in Transoxiana (in modern-day Uzbekistan) on 9 April 1336, Timur gained control of the western Chagatai Khanate by 1370. From that base, he led military campaigns across Western, South and Central Asia, the Caucasus and southern Russia, and emerged as the most powerful ruler in the Muslim world after defeating the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria, the emerging Ottoman Empire, and the declining Delhi Sultanate of India.[11] From these conquests, he founded the Timurid Empire, but this empire fragmented shortly after his death.

Timur was the last of the great nomadic conquerors of the Eurasian Steppe, and his empire set the stage for the rise of the more structured and lasting Islamic Gunpowder Empires in the 16th and 17th centuries.[12][13]:1 Timur envisioned the restoration of the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan (died 1227) and according to Gérard Chaliand, saw himself as Genghis Khan's heir.[14] Though not a Borjigid or a descendant of Genghis Khan,[15] he clearly sought to invoke the legacy of the latter's conquests during his lifetime.[16] According to Beatrice Forbes Manz, "in his formal correspondence Temur continued throughout his life to portray himself as the restorer of Chinggisid rights. He justified his Iranian, Mamluk, and Ottoman campaigns as a re-imposition of legitimate Mongol control over lands taken by usurpers."[17] To legitimize his conquests, Timur relied on Islamic symbols and language, referred to himself as the "Sword of Islam", and patronized educational and religious institutions. He converted nearly all the Borjigin leaders to Islam during his lifetime. Timur decisively defeated the Christian Knights Hospitaller at the Siege of Smyrna, styling himself a ghazi.[7]:91 By the end of his reign, Timur had gained complete control over all the remnants of the Chagatai Khanate, the Ilkhanate, and the Golden Horde, and even attempted to restore the Yuan dynasty in China.

Timur's armies were inclusively multi-ethnic and were feared throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe,[7] sizable parts of which his campaigns laid to waste.[18] Scholars estimate that his military campaigns caused the deaths of 17 million people, amounting to about 5% of the world population at the time.[19][20]

He was the grandfather of the Timurid sultan, astronomer and mathematician Ulugh Beg, who ruled Central Asia from 1411 to 1449, and the great-great-great-grandfather of Babur (1483–1530), founder of the Mughal Empire, which then ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent.[21][22]

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16. Explain the key social and

economic features of Eurasian

nomadic pastoralist

civilizations.

(354-357)

Nomads had very few settlements to begin with. They relied heavily on animals. They drove their herds in

migratory cycles meaning they would move a certain place depending on the season. They lived mostly on

animal products and they produced limited amounts of millet, pottery, leather goods, and iron. They

sought trade for grains and traded on caravan routes. They had two prominent social classes: the nobles or

the royals and rich and the commoners. But there was very little governing. The women could be part of

the society. They had a clan based society with Shumais (religious leaders).

2

17. Compare and contrast the

Turkish empires in Persia,

Anatolia, and India.

(357-358)

The Seljuq Turks lived on the borders of the Abbasid empire in the mid-eighth to mid-tenth centuries. They traded amonges eachother. The ended up moving further in and served as men in the Abbasid armies after that period. They overshadowed the Abbasid caliphs by the mid-eleventh century and then extended Turkish rule to Syria, Palestine and other places. (maybe add more from later in the chapter) The Saljuq Turks migrated to Anatolia in the early eleventh century. They defeated the Byzantine army in the major battle of Manzikert in 1071. This transformed Anatolia into an Islamic society and the Byzantines nevers fully recovered. This was different because the takeover was fast and painful rather than slow over time. The Ghaznavid Turks dominated northern India through sultanate of Delhi. There was cultural and social involvment and society got harsher towards the end. (look up india)

18. Explain the origins, course,

and legacy of Chinggis Khan’s

Mongol empire.

(358-361)

Chinggis Khan was known as the "universal ruler". Chinggis was born into nobility. His father was killed

when he was ten and he then moves around for fear of his life. He unified the Mongol tribes through an

alliance and many conquests. China being his first conquest. He organized the Mongols by creating new

military units and broke up tribe loyalties. He choose his officials based on their talents and loyalty to him.

He established the capital of Karakorum. He then proceeded to take his new armies to conquest northern

China in 1211. He gained control of China in 1220. The mongols conquest of Persia and destroyed their

cities. The armies were very controled and ferice. Khan died in 1227.

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Explain the origins, course,

and legacy of Chinggis Khan’s

Mongol empire.

(358-361)

Chinggis Khan was known as the "universal ruler". Chinggis was born into nobility. His father was killed

when he was ten and he then moves around for fear of his life. He unified the Mongol tribes through an

alliance and many conquests. China being his first conquest. He organized the Mongols by creating new

military units and broke up tribe loyalties. He choose his officials based on their talents and loyalty to him.

He established the capital of Karakorum. He then proceeded to take his new armies to conquest northern

China in 1211. He gained control of China in 1220. The mongols conquest of Persia and destroyed their

cities. The armies were very controled and ferice. Khan died in 1227.

19. Identify and discuss the key

features of the Mongol

empires after Chinggis Khan.

(361-364)

After his death there was a division of the Mongol empires: heirs divide into four regional empires. Khubilai

Khan was Chinggis Khan's grandson and consolidated Mongol rule in China. He promoted buddhism and

supported Daoists, Muslims, and Christians. Khubilai extended Mongol rule to all of China making the Song

capital at Hangzhou fall in 1276 and as well as the Yuan Dynasty. The Golden Horde was made up of a

group of Mongols who overran Russia between 1237 and 1241. The then continued to overrun Poland,

Hungary, and eastern Germany. They manitained hegemony in Russia until the mid-fifteenth centruy. The

Ikhanated of Persia was ran by Khubilai's brother, Hulegu who captured Baghdad in 1258. The Mongols

ruled in Persia where persians served as ministers, governors and local officals. Mongols continured to rule

in China as well where they outlawed Mongols and Chinese intermarriage.

20. Explain the importance of the

Mongols in Eurasian

integration.

(364-365)

The Mongols worked to secure trade routes and ensure safety of the merchants. They traded through

elaborate courier network with relay stations. They maintained good order for traveling merchants,

ambassadors, and missionaries. Missionaries used these trading networks to help spread the word. The

four Mongol empires maintained close diplomatic communications with each other. Through the trade

networks they established diplomatic relations with Korea, Vietnam, India, Europe. Mongols needed skilled

artisans and educated individuals from other places of the world. They often resettled them in different

locations to provide services such as working as clerks, secretaries, and administrators. Arab and Persian

Muslims served far from their homes. Skilled artisans were sent to Karakorum to become permanent

residents.

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21. Understand the reasons

behind the decline of the

Mongols in Persia and China.

(365-366)

In Persia, excessive spending and overexploitation led to decline of the Mongols in Persia and China. There

was a failure of the Ilkhan's paper money and the Mongol leadership was struggling. The last ruler died

without an heir and this is when Ilkhanate collapsed. The Decline of the Yuan dynasty also had paper

money failures as the value of it went down. There were power struggles, assassinations and civil war that

weakened the Mongols after 1320s. The Bubonic plague in southwest China around 1330 spread through

Asia and Europe. Depopulation and labor shortage undermined the mongol regime. The Golden Horde

survived the longest. They fell around the mid-sixteenth century.

22. Identify key nomadic peoples

and leaders in Eurasia after

the Mongol era.

(366-367)

Tamerlane the Whirlwind (1336-1404) built the central Asian empire. The Conqueror Timur was a self-

made conqueror who rose to power in the 1360's and established the capital in Samarkand.

23. Explain the foundation of the

Ottoman empire.

(367-368)

The foundation of the Ottoman empire started when a large number of nomadic Turks migrated to Persia

and Anatolia. Osman was the charismatic leader of the Ottoman empire. He carved out a small state in

northwest Anatolia. He claimed independence from the Saljuq sultan in 1299. Ottoman conquests Balkans

in 1350. Sultan Mehmed II sacked Constantinople in 1453 and renamed it Istanbul. They claimed the

remainder of the Byzantine empire.

24. How did empires collapse and

how were they replaced by

new states such as the

Mongol Khanates?

The Mongol Empire existed during the 13th and 14th centuries, and was the largest contiguous land empire in history.[2] Originating in Mongolia, the Mongol Empire eventually stretched from Eastern Europe and parts of Central Europe to the Sea of Japan, extending northwards into parts of Siberia; eastwards and southwards into the Indian subcontinent, Mainland Southeast Asia and the Iranian Plateau; and westwards as far as the Levant and the Carpathian Mountains.

The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of several nomadic tribes in the Mongol homeland under the leadership of Genghis Khan (c.  1162 - 1227), whom a council proclaimed ruler of all the Mongols in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and that of his descendants, who sent out invading armies in

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How did empires collapse and

how were they replaced by new

states such as the Mongol

Khanates?

every direction.[3][4] The vast transcontinental empire connected the East with the West in an enforced Pax Mongolica, allowing the dissemination and exchange of trade, technologies, commodities and ideologies across Eurasia.[5][6]

The empire began to split due to wars over succession, as the grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir Ögedei or from one of his other sons, such as Tolui, Chagatai, or Jochi. The Toluids prevailed after a bloody purge of Ögedeid and Chagataid factions, but disputes continued among the descendants of Tolui. A key reason for the split was the dispute over whether the Mongol Empire would become a sedentary, cosmopolitan empire, or would stay true to the Mongol nomadic and steppe-based lifestyle.

25. How did the expansion of

empires help trade and

communication?

The expansion of EMPIRES facilitated Trans-Eurasian trade and communication as new peoples were drawn

into their conquerors’ economies and trade networks.

16. How did interregional

contacts & conflicts lead to

technological & cultural

transfers?

a. Mongols

b. Greco-Islamic medical

knowledge to Western

Europe

c. Spread of numbering

systems (Arabic

numerals) to Europe

d. Adoption of Uyghur script

Inter-regional contacts and conflicts between states and empires encouraged significant technological and

cultural trannfers, for example between Tang China and the Abbasids, across the Mongol empires and

during the Crusades.

Tang China and the Abbasids

As Tang China expanded westward they came in contact with the Dar al Islam. Tang and Abbasid armies

fought near the Talas River in what became known as the Battle of Talas in 751. The Muslim Armies routed

the Chinese and ended their westward advancement into Central Asia. The major cultural result of this

battle is that Central Asia would be primarily Islamic; Buddhism would decline. Another significant result

was the transferal of technology from the Chinese to the Muslims. According to legends, knowledgeable

Chinese prisoners of war were forced to teach the Muslim Abbasids the secrets of paper-making. Within a

few decades, the Abbasid capital of Baghdad was producing quality paper. This led to an increase in

education, the transferal of knowledge, more efficient accounting, and the preservation of religion. The

Muslims tried to prevent Christian Europe from gaining this technology for as long as they could.

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How did interregional

contacts & conflicts lead to

technological & cultural

transfers?

a. Mongols

b. Greco-Islamic medical

knowledge to Western

Europe

c. Spread of numbering

systems (Arabic

numerals) to Europe

d. Adoption of Uyghur script

Across the Mongol Empires

The Mongol Empire was the largest land-based empire in history and brought together the breadth of most

of Eurasia under a single rule. This facilitated substantial technological and cultural exchange through the

medium of trade. Through the Mongols, Islamic mathematics and astronomy spread from the Dar la Islam

into China where they found a receptive audience. Kublai Khan was very interested in mathematics, such

as algebra, which the Muslims had developed in Baghdad. Accurate readings of the heavens were very

important to Daoism and Shamanism, both of which depended on astrological readings to plan weddings,

feasts and agriculture. The Chinese made advanced calculations in these areas which then made their way

back to the Muslim world. Other areas of exchange were knowledge of geography and cartography. Most

instrumental in this exchange was Rashid al-Din, the scholarly connection between the great Mongol

courts in Iran and China. Scholars combined geographic information from China to the Middle East into the

most accurate maps in the world at that time thus enabling the later Ming Dynasty to initiate its famous

explorations (Zeng He and Ma Huan). In the world of food and agriculture, the Pax Mongolia allowed for

the transfer of grapes and fruit trees to China. In return, luxury items of Chinese cuisine, such

as pepper, cinnamon and tea, were introduced into the Muslim world. Perhaps the most important

technological transfers during the Pax Mongolia were block printing and gunpowder. Through the

Mongols, block printing, which had developed during China's Song Dynasty, was transferred to the Muslim

world. Copying the Song Dynasty, the Mongol Ilkhanate in Persia even issued paper money for a brief time.

The best known technological exchange facilitated by the Mongols was gunpowder. Developed in China as

early as the Han Dynasty, gunpowder would transform warfare and realign the centers of power in the

world. With it Europeans would develop advanced firearms and dominate the Americas, the Byzantine

Empire would fall to the Ottoman Turks, and Mongol rule over China, ironically, would come to an end.

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How did interregional

contacts & conflicts lead to

technological & cultural

transfers?

a. Mongols

b. Greco-Islamic medical

knowledge to Western

Europe

c. Spread of numbering

systems (Arabic

numerals) to Europe

d. Adoption of Uyghur script

The Crusades

The Crusades were a series of religious wars launched initially to route Muslims from the Holy Land

(Jerusalem). Although militarily unsuccessful in the long run, they introduced Europeans to new and exotic

lands and initiated a cultural and technological exchange. This exchange was almost exclusively a one-way

transfer from the Dar al Islam to Western Europe. Muslim science and medicine was shown to be superior

to that in Europe. Always looking for better ways to make war, Europeans borrowed the practice of making

damascene swords from the Muslims. European monarchs improved their methods of building military

fortifications based on Muslim techniques, as can be seen in castles built by William the Conqueror in

Normandy. [25] An important cultural transfer were Arabic numerals and the decimal system which helped

Europeans develop advanced mathematics and more efficient accounting systems for trade. The game

of chess as well as foods such as yogurt, coffee, sugar and dates were introduced in Europe because of the

Crusades. Europeans gained a desire for items of trade such as Persian carpets, silk, and cotton textiles.

Europeans were also introduced to their own cultural and intellectual past. Classical writers such

as Aristotle, lost to Europeans during the invasions after the fall of Rome, had been preserved in Muslim

schools. Contacts with Muslims through the Crusades and in Spain, reintroduced Europe to its own

intellectual and cultural heritage. This renewed interest in its classical past would culminate in the late

15th century as the Renaissance, a cultural flowering that would not have been possible without contact

with the Dar al Islam.

Zheng He

The most extravagant maritime outreach early in this period was that of the Chinese. After the peasant

revolt that threw out the Mongols and established the Ming Dynasty, the Chinese commissioned 7 major

voyages under the leadership of admiral Zheng He. With an estimated 317 ships and a staff of 27,000

men, [26] Zheng He set out to establish the reputation of the Ming in the Indian Ocean. He sailed initially to

southeast Asia and India but his final three voyages reached as far as the Swahili coast of east Africa. Unlike

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Page 13 of 29

How did interregional

contacts & conflicts lead to

technological & cultural

transfers?

a. Mongols

b. Greco-Islamic medical

knowledge to Western

Europe

c. Spread of numbering

systems (Arabic

numerals) to Europe

d. Adoption of Uyghur script

the European voyages that began a few decades later, these Chinese expeditions were not driven by

attempts to conquer or win converts. They were diplomatic in nature, intended to impress upon others the

prestige, wealth and superiority of Chinese civilization. Once other societies saw this, they would be willing

to pay tribute to China for the right to purchase costly Chinese luxury products such as silk and porcelain.

On his two year voyage of 1431-1433 alone, Zheng He established for China 20 tributary and diplomatic

relations across the rim of the Indian Ocean. [27]

The Chinese strategy in the Indian Ocean could not have been farther from that of the Portuguese a few

decades later. In 1911 a stele, shown on the left, was discovered in Galle, south of India (present day Sri

Lanka). It is inscribed not only in Chinese, but in Tamil and Persian, the primary languages of the

inhabitants of that area. This stele was placed by Zheng He in 1409 as a gift to the people of Galle; its

inscriptions list the extravagant gifts made by Zheng He in honor of the inhabitants' gods, in their own

languages, to demonstrate China's good will. This is to be contrasted with Vasco da Gama, who cut apart

the bodies of captured merchants and fishermen and sent their heads to the leader of Calcutta to show he

meant business. [28]

Unfortunately for Zheng He, a change of power in imperial China brought these voyages to an end. A new

emperor, under the influence of powerful Confucians long suspicious of these voyages, withdrew funds for

these diplomatic missions. The official records of Zheng's voyages were destroyed and the large treasure

ships of the Chinese were banned. China began to focus instead on establishing internal stability over

reaching out to the world.

Uyghur script was the prototype for the Mongolian and Manchu alphabets. The Old Uyghur alphabet was

brought to Mongolia by Tata-tonga.

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Explain the process of state building and decline in Eurasia over time.

Following the collapse of empires, imperial states were reconstituted in some regions, including the Byzantine Empire and the Chinese dynasties —

Sui, Tang, and Song — combining traditional sources of power and legitimacy (Patriarchy, Religion, Land-owning elites) with innovations (New methods

of taxation, Tributary systems, Adaptation of Religious Institutions) better suited to the current circumstances. In some places, new political entities

emerged, including those developed in various Islamic states, the Mongol Khanates, new Hindu and Buddhist states in South, East, and Southeast

Asia; city-states (Italian Peninsula, East Africa, Southeast Asia), and decentralized government (feudalism) in Europe and Japan. Some

states synthesized local and borrowed traditions (Persian traditions that influenced Islamic States, Chinese traditions that influenced Japan). The fate of

cities varied greatly, with periods of significant decline, and with periods of increased urbanization buoyed by rising productivity and expanding

trade networks.

Explain how the expansion of empires influenced trade and communication over time.

The expansion of EMPIRES facilitated Trans-Eurasian trade and communication as new peoples were drawn into their conquerors’ economies and

trade networks. Improved commercial practices led to an increased volume of trade and expanded the geographical range of existing trade routes—

including the Silk Roads, trans-Saharan trade network, and Indian Ocean—promoting the growth of powerful new trading cities. A diverse population

participated in Indian Ocean trade than the Silk Roads, meaning that more people and merchants existed to sell/buy goods, so some merchants built

large communities as trading posts for these ports. The development of greater urbanization led to the expansion of trade. When certain areas became

centers of political and administrative duties they emerged into towns, in which people moved in from rural areas. Trade is associated with urban

places. Town and city dwellers produce and/or collect goods to be traded. As they make more money doing things like this, they become customers for

goods that are traded from other places. Thus, towns and cities grow when trade increases.

Explain the significance of the Mongol Empire in larger patterns of continuity and change. Founded by Genghis Khan in 1206, it encompassed the majority of the territories from southeast Asia to eastern Europe. Historically the time

of Mongol Empire facilitated great cultural exchange and trade between the East, West, and the Middle East during the time between 13th century

and 14th century.

Key Takeaways: Genghis Khan's Impact on Europe The spread of the bubonic plague from Central Asia into Europe decimated the populations but increased opportunities for the survivors. An enormous variety of new consumer goods, agriculture, weaponry, religion, and medical science became available in Europe. New diplomatic channels between Europe, Asia, and the Middle East were opened. Russia became unified for the first time.

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O V E R V I E W

The Mongol Empire and the Making of the Modern World

Nomadic herders populated the steppes of Asia for centuries during the classical and postclassical eras and

periodically came into contact and conflict with the established states and empires of the Eurasian land mass. It was

not until the eleventh century, however, that the nomadic peoples like the Turks and Mongols began to raid,

conquer, rule, and trade with the urban-based cultures in a systematic and far-reaching manner. While these

resourceful and warlike nomads often left a path of destruction in their wake, they also built vast trans-regional

empires that laid the foundations for the increasing communication and exchange that would characterize the

period from 1000 to 1500 in the eastern hemisphere. The success of these nomadic empires in this era can be

attributed to the following:

They had unmatched skill on horseback. When organized on a large scale, these nomads were practically indomitable in warfare. Outstanding cavalry forces, skilled archers, and well-coordinated military strategy gave these peoples an advantage that was difficult for even the most powerful states to counter.

They had the ability to integrate vast territories through secure trade routes, exceptional courier networks, diplomatic missions, missionary efforts, and resettlement programs.

In spite of these successes and the enormous influence of these nomadic peoples, their leaders were, in general, better at warfare than administration. With the exception of the later Ottoman empire, most of these states were relatively short-lived, brought down by both internal and external pressures.

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S U M M A R Y

One of the great world migrations was that of the Turkish peoples from the Central Asian steppes. Nomadic herders,

these people were organized in clans who traveled with their herds in migratory cycles and lived mainly on animal

products. They also created pottery, leather goods, and iron for both trade and their own use, especially iron

weapons. These goods were not only used by the nomads but also traded with others along the caravan routes. This

was a society with two social classes, nobles and commoners, but still allowed for movement between the two. The

society practiced several religions, including Buddhism, Nestorians, and shamanism. Being a horse centered society,

these nomads had formidable cavalry forces organized by a “khan” into confederation of tribes.

As these peoples migrated, they came to the borders of other empires, as when the Seljuq Turks arrived at the

borders of the Abbasid Empire. From the mid-eighth to mid-tenth century, the Seljuq Turks merely lived on the

borders of the Abbasid Empire. Later they moved into the empire and into society, serving in the army. By the mid-

eleventh century they had taken control of the empire and extended their rule. The Seljuq Turks were conquered by

another group of Turks, the Ottomans, who would eventually topple the Byzantine Empire.

In the late 1100s, another nomadic people began to influence world history, the Mongols under Chinggis Khan. He

organized the Mongols into military units, used the skills of horsemanship and archery for his battle tactics, and

chose leaders based on talent and loyalty. The Mongols controlled northern China by 1220 and then moved west

into Persia, destroying Persian urban centers and their irrigation systems.

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Chinggis died in 1227, but set the foundation for a great empire. His heirs then divided his empire. His grandson,

Kuhbilai Khan, consolidated Mongol rule in China and founded the Yuan dynasty. Mongol rule in China was different

from rule in the past, in that the Mongols do away with civil service examination and dismiss Confucian scholars,

bringing in foreigners in to administer China. Although the Mongols separated themselves from Chinese society,

they were tolerant of Chinese religion and social customs, while the Mongol elite turned to Lamaist Buddhism.

The rest of Chinggis Khan’s empire was ruled by others. In Persia, Kuhbilai Khan’s brother captured Baghdad in

1258. He controlled Persia by using Persians as local governors and converting the people to Islam. Another of the

divisions, the Golden Horde, overran Russia in the early 1200s and then moved into eastern Germany. The Golden

Horde ruled in Russia until the mid-fifteenth century

While viewed as conquers, the Mongol worked to extend trade, reviving the silk roads, sent missions to Korea,

Vietnam, India, and Europe. The Mongol also brought in many different peoples into their empire such as artisans,

educators, and administrators.

The Mongols declined for a number of reasons. They were brought down by financial problems, internal power

struggles, and the ravages of the Black Death. Following the Mongols, Tamerlane built a central Asian empire that

stretched as far as northern India. Like Chiggis Khan, his heirs divided his empire after his death.

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T H E G I S T

Arguably the most important historical thing to happen in the Global Tapestry (1200-1450) is the rise and fall of the

Mongols. This group came from the middle of nowhere and rose to be the largest contiguous empire in the history

of the planet. The Mongols affect nearly everything that happens historically in this period.

1. Move over Romans, Arabs, and Chinese… allow the Mongols to introduce themselves. Never has there been a more unlikely world conqueror. 2. The Mongols unite the Steppe tribes under Genghis Khan and take their wrath out on any society nearby with plunder they might use. 3. The Mongols conquer from Egypt to Austria to Russia to Vietnam and in the process establish the largest contiguous empire in the history of the planet (sorry, Britain…) 4. The Mongols don’t bring much to the table culturally, unless you are a worshiper of the Blue Mighty Eternal Heaven. However, they do create a quasi-unified area under which a plethora of ideas, diseases, beliefs, technologies, etc. can spread around this massive empire. 5. The Mongols are awesome to study. And, although their impact is massive; they are not in charge of their empire for very long… in most places its a little more than a century.

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Key Concept 3.1 Expansion and Intensification of Communication and Exchange Networks I. Improved transportation technologies and commercial practices led to an increased volume of trade, and expanded the geographical range of

existing and newly active trade networks.

Key Concept 3.2 Continuity and Innovation of State Forms and Their Interactions

II. Interregional contacts and conflicts between states and empires encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers, for example

between Tang China and the Abbasids, across the Mongol empires and during the Crusades.

THEMATIC FOCUS

Governance (GOV) A variety of internal and external factors contribute to state formation, expansion, and decline. Governments maintain order through a variety of

administrative institutions, policies, and procedures, and governments obtain, retain, and exercise power in different ways and for different purposes.

Economics Systems (ECN) As societies develop, they affect and are affected by the ways that they produce, exchange, and consume goods and services.

Cultural Developments and Interactions (CDI) The development of ideas, beliefs, and religions illustrates how groups in society view themselves, and the interactions of societies and their beliefs

often have political, social, and cultural implications.

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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Key Concept-3.2.I.B.iii Empires collapsed in different regions of the world and in some areas were replaced by new imperial states, including the Mongol khanates.

Key Concept-3.1.I.E.i The expansion of empires—including the Mongols—facilitated Afro-Eurasian trade and communication as new people were drawn into their

conquerors’ economies and trade networks.

Key Concept-3.2.II.A.ii Interregional contacts and conflicts between states and empires, including the Mongols, encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers.

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EXPANSION of COMMUNICATION/EXCHANGE NETWORKS (Key Concept 3.1)

A deepening and widening of networks of human interaction within and across regions contributed to cultural,

technological, and biological diffusion within and between various societies.

Improved commercial practices led to an increased volume of trade and expanded the geographical range of existing trade routes—including the Silk Roads, trans-Saharan trade network, and Indian Ocean—promoting the growth of powerful new trading cities.'

The growth of inter-regional trade in luxury goods was encouraged by innovations in previously existing transportation and commercial technologies, including the caravanserai, forms of credit, and the development of money economies as well as the use of the compass, the astrolabe and larger ship designs.

The economy of Song China flourished as a result of increased productive capacity, expanding trade networks, and innovations in agriculture and manufacturing.

The expansion of empires—including the Mongols—facilitated Afro-Eurasian trade and communication as new people were drawn into their conquerors’ economies and trade networks.

The expansion of empires—including Mali in West Africa—facilitated Afro-Eurasian trade and communication as new people were drawn into the economies and trade networks.

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(Key Concept 3.1)

The expansion and intensification of long distance trade routes often depended on environmental knowledge, including advanced knowledge of the monsoon winds. The growth of inter-regional trade was encouraged by innovations in existing transportation technologies.

In key places along important trade routes, merchants set up diasporic communities where they introduced their own cultural traditions into the indigenous cultures and, in turn, indigenous cultures influenced merchant cultures.

As exchange networks intensified, an increasing number of travelers within Afro–Eurasia wrote about their travels.

Increased cross-cultural interactions resulted in the diffusion of literary, artistic, and cultural traditions, as well as scientific and technological innovation.

Chinese cultural traditions continued, and they influenced neighboring regions.

Buddhism and its core beliefs continued to shape societies in Asia and included a variety of branches, schools, and practices.

Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and the core beliefs and practices of these religions continued to shape societies in Africa and Asia.

Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism, and their core beliefs and practices, continued to shape societies in South and Southeast Asia

There was continued diffusion of crops and pathogens, with epidemic diseases, including the bubonic plague, along trade routes.

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CONTINUITY and INNOVATION in STATE FORMS / INTERACTION (Key Concept 3.2)

State formation and development demonstrated continuity, innovation, and diversity in various regions.

Empires collapsed in different regions of the world and in some areas were replaced by new imperial states, including the Mongol khanates

Inter-regional contacts and conflicts between states and empires, including the Mongols, encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers

INCREASED ECONOMIC PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY & CONSEQUENCES (Key Concept 3.3)

Changes in trade networks resulted from and stimulated increasing productive capacity, with important implications

for social and gender structures and environmental processes.

Demand for luxury goods increased in Afro–Eurasia. Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans and merchants expanded their production of textiles and porcelains for export; manufacture of iron and steel expanded in China.

The fate of cities varied greatly, with periods of significant decline and periods of increased urbanization buoyed by rising productivity and expanding trade networks.

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C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

I. Turkish migrations and imperial expansion A. Nomadic economy and society

1. Turkish peoples were nomadic herders; organized into clans with related languages 2. Central Asia's steppes: good for grazing, little rain, few rivers 3. Nomads and their animals; few settlements

a. Nomads drove their herds in migratory cycles b. Lived mostly on animal products c. Also produced limited amounts of millet, pottery, leather goods, iron

4. Nomads and settled peoples sought trade, were prominent on caravan routes 5. Fluidity of classes in nomadic society

a. Two social classes: nobles and commoners b. Autonomous clans and tribes

6. Religions: shamans, Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity; by tenth century, Islam 7. Military organization

a. Khan ("ruler") organized vast confederation of individual tribes for expansion b. Outstanding cavalry forces, formidable military power

B. Turkish empires in Persia, Anatolia, and India

1. Saljuq Turks and the Abbasid empire a. Lived on borders of the Abbasid realm, mid-eighth to mid-tenth centuries b. Moved further in and served in Abbasid armies thereafter c. Overshadowed the Abbasid caliphs by the mid-eleventh century d. Extended Turkish rule to Syria, Palestine, and other parts of the realm

2. Saljuq Turks and the Byzantine empire a. Migrated in large numbers to Anatolia, early eleventh century b. Defeated Byzantine army at Manzikert in 1071 c. Transformed Anatolia into an Islamic society

3. Ghaznavid Turks dominated northern India through sultanate of Delhi

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II. The Mongol empires A. Chinggis Khan and the making of the Mongol empire

1. Chinggis Khan ("universal ruler") unified Mongol tribes through alliance and conquests 2. Mongol political organization

a. Organized new military units and broke up tribal affiliations b. Chose high officials based on talent and loyalty c. Established capital at Karakorum

3. Mongol strategy: horsemanship, archers, mobility, psychological warfare 4. Mongol conquest of northern China

a. Chinggis Khan, Mongols raided the Jurchen in north China beginning in 1211 b. Controlled north China by 1220 c. South China was still ruled by the Song dynasty

5. Mongol conquest of Persia a. Chinggis Khan tried to open trade and diplomatic relations with Saljuq leader Khwarazm shah, the ruler

of Persia, 1218 b. Upon being rejected, Chinggis Khan led force to pursue the Khwarazm c. Mongol forces destroyed Persian cities and qanat d. Chinggis died in 1227, laid foundation for a mighty empire

B. The Mongol empires after Chinggis Khan

1. Division of the Mongol empires: heirs divide into four regional empires 2. Khubilai Khan

a. Chinggis Khan's grandson, consolidated Mongol rule in China b. Promoted Buddhism, supported Daoists, Muslims, and Christians

3. Conquest of southern China a. Khubilai extended Mongol rule to all of China b. Song capital at Hangzhou fell in 1276, Yuan Dynasty founded in 1279 c. Unsuccessful conquests of Vietnam, Burma, Java, and Japan

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4. The Golden Horde a. Group of Mongols overran Russia between 1237 and 1241 b. Further overran Poland, Hungary, and eastern Germany, 1241-1242 c. Maintained hegemony in Russia until the mid-fifteenth century

5. The ilkhanate of Persia: Khubilai's brother, Hülegü, captured Baghdad in 1258 6. Mongol rule in Persia

a. Persians served as ministers, governors, and local officials b. Mongols only cared about taxes and order c. Ilkhan Ghazan converted to Islam, 1295; massacres of Christians and Jews followed

7. Mongol rule in China a. Outlawed intermarriage between Mongols and Chinese b. Forbade Chinese from learning the Mongol language c. Brought foreign administrators into China and put them in charge d. Dismissed Confucian scholars; dismantled civil service examination e. Tolerated all cultural and religious traditions in China

8. Mongol ruling elite became enchanted with the Lamaist Buddhism of Tibet

C. The Mongols and Eurasian integration 1. The Mongols and trade

a. Mongols worked to secure trade routes and ensure safety of merchants b. Elaborate courier network with relay stations c. Maintained good order for traveling merchants, ambassadors, and missionaries

2. Diplomatic missions a. The four Mongol empires maintained close diplomatic communications b. Established diplomatic relations with Korea, Vietnam, India, Europe

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3. Resettlement a. Mongols needed skilled artisans and educated individuals from other places b. Often resettled them in different locations to provide services c. Uighur Turks served as clerks, secretaries, and administrators d. Arab and Persian Muslims also served Mongols far from their homelands e. Skilled artisans were often sent to Karakorum; became permanent residents

D. Decline of the Mongols in Persia and China

1. Collapse of the ilkhanate a. In Persia, excessive spending and overexploitation led to reduced revenues b. Failure of the ilkhan's paper money c. Factional struggle plagued the Mongol leadership d. The last ruler died without an heir; the ilkhanate collapsed

2. Decline of the Yuan dynasty a. Paper money issued by the Mongol rulers lost value b. Power struggles, assassinations, and civil war weakened Mongols after 1320s

3. Bubonic plague in southwest China in 1330s, spread through Asia and Europe a. Depopulation and labor shortage undermined the Mongol regime b. By 1368, the Chinese drove the Mongols back to the steppes

4. Surviving Mongol khanates a. The khanate of Chaghatai continued in central Asia b. The Golden Horde survived until the mid-sixteenth century

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UNIT 1 The Global Tapestry c.1200 – c.1450 8-10%

UNIT 2 Networks of Exchange c.1200 – c. 1450 8-10%

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Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration Chpt. 17

pgs. 353-369 TOPICS: 2.2 / 2.5

III. After the Mongols A. Tamerlane the Whirlwind (1336-1404) built central Asian empire

1. The lame conqueror, Timur was self-made; rose to power in 1360s; established capital in Samarkand 2. Tamerlane's conquests

a. First conquered Persia and Afghanistan b. Next attacked the Golden Horde c. At the end of the fourteenth century, invaded northern India d. Ruled the empire through tribal leaders who relied on existing bureaucrats to collect taxes

3. Tamerlane's heirs struggled and divided empire into four regions

B. The foundation of the Ottoman empire 1. Osman

a. Large numbers of nomadic Turks migrated to Persia and Anatolia b. Osman, a charismatic leader, carved out a small state in northwest Anatolia c. Claimed independence from the Saljuq sultan in 1299

2. Ottoman conquests in the Balkans in 1350s a. Sultan Mehmed II sacked Constantinople in 1453, renamed it Istanbul b. Absorbed the remainder of the Byzantine empire c. During the sixteenth century, extended to southwest Asia, southeast Europe, and north Africa