Digitally Signed by: Content manager‟s Name

DN : CN = Webmaster‟s name

O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

Madufor, Cynthia C.

ARTS

THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION

GLOBALIZATION, ADVERTISING AGENCY

AFFILIATIONS

AND ADVERTISING PRACTICE

NNOROM, WILFRED IHEJIRIKA

2

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

GLOBALIZATION, ADVERTISING AGENCY AFFILIATIONS

AND ADVERTISING PRACTICE

BY

NNOROM, WILFRED IHEJIRIKA

PG/MA/06/42062

BEING A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO

THE UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF ARTS (M.A.) DEGREE IN

THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION,

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

PROJECT SUPERVISOR: NNANYELUGO OKORO, Ph.D

OCTOBER, 2012

Table of Contents

3

Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………..... 2

Abstract …………………………………………………………………….. 7

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………. 8

1.1 Background of the Study…………………………………………………. 8

1.2 Statement of Problem ……………………………………………………… 12

1.3 Objectives of the Study ……………………………………………………..13

1.4 Significance of the Study ……………………………………………………14

1.5 Research Questions…………………………………………………………..14

1.6 Theoretical Frameworks ……………………………………………………. 14

1.7 Scope of the Study ………………………………………………………….. 17

1.8 Limitations of the Study ……………………………………………………..18

Reference……………………………………………………………………..19

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………22

2.1 Preamble……..……………………………………………………………….22

2.2 Advertising Practice………………………………………………………….23

2.3 Advert Agencies and Affiliations…………………………………………….28

2.4 Empirical Studies on Globalization and Advertising…………………………30

References……………………………………………………………………..37

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY………………………………………….39

3.1 Research Design ……………………………………………………………….39

3.2 Population of the Study ……………………………………………………….39

3.3 Sample Size ……………………………………………………………………40

3.4 Sampling Technique …………………………………………………………...40

3.5 Instrument for Data Collection …………………………………………….......41

3.6 Methods of Data Analysis ……………………………………………………. 41

Reference ……………………………………………………………..………..42

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS………………………………………………………43

4

4.1 Introduction ………….…………………………………………………………43

4.2 Data Presentation and Analysis ……………………………………………….43

4.3 Discussion of Findings ………………………………………………………..56

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary of Findings…………………………………………………………..59

5.2 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...60

5.3 Recommendations……………………………………………………………...60

BIBLIOGRAPHY .........................................................................................................62

CERTIFICATION

5

This is to certify that this research work was carried out by NNOROM, WILFRED

IHEJIRIKA PG/MA/06/42062. It satisfies the requirements for presentation of research

report to the Department of Mass Communication, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

……………………. …………………….

Nnanyelugo Okoro, Ph.D Nnanyelugo Okoro, Ph.D

Project Supervisor Head of Department

…………………….

External Supervisor

6

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to all Nigerian advertising practitioners.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

7

I am grateful to GOD ALMIGHTY for His grace upon me. Special thanks to my

supervisor, Dr. Nnanyelugo Okoro for his relentless efforts in supervising this work to

completion and to all the resource persons and authors of the books I consulted during

this research.

ABSRACT

8

The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact agency networks have on

their local affiliates in Nigeria and comparatively examine whether this feature of

globalization has impacted positively or negatively on the Nigerian Economy and its

Cultures.

The survey method of research was adopted in eliciting answers from respondents

drawn from both affiliated and non-affiliated agencies. The research questions included;

Does globalization impact positively on manpower development in the Nigerian

advertising industry? What is the correlation between agency affiliation and agency

revenue generation? And to what extent do the media output of affiliated agencies impact

on our local cultures? Answers to these questions indicated a high level of impact on the

advertising practice through affiliations particularly on manpower development, and

revenue generation. Through global creative work our various cultures were possibly

influenced. This work recommends further study to facilitate a comprehensive evaluation

of the impact of globalization on Nigerian advertising practice.

CHAPTER ONE

9

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Advertising is everywhere. We tend to ignore it, but as we tend to ignore

it, in the words of Baran (2004,p.377) advertisers find new ways to make it more

ubiquitous. As a result and as with television, no one is neutral about advertising.

We love it or we hate it. Many of us do both; consciously or unconsciously.

According to Eisenberg (2002,p.38) the typical person sees 3,000 advertising

messages a day and more than 2 million ads by the time he or she is 25years old.

Baran (2004,p.378) buttresses this view when he said that there are a lot of ads

and a lot of advertisers, so pitches are showing up in some unusual places.

Historically, those businessmen of ancient time who had products and

services to offer to the public used a form of advertising to achieve good turnover.

Sandage et al (1989,p.22) stated that advertising came to the colonies (Nigeria

inclusive) via England. British advertising was already leaning toward

exaggeration and hyperbole, but colonial advertising was more straightforward.

Advertising, however, was a small business before the Civil War. The United

States was primarily an agricultural country at that time, with 90% of the

population living in self-sufficiency on farm products. Advertising was then used

by local retailers primarily to encourage area residents to come to their

businesses. Today, we see adverts on door hangers, on urinals, deodorants, cakes,

in the mails, behind the batter, at a baseball game, on basketball backboards, in

city parks, on suspended video monitors, as we wait in line at the airports and

such other places. Even we hear ads when we are on hold on the telephone. It was

not always like this, but advertising itself has been with us for a long time.

LINTAS (1978) paints an accurate picture of the establishment of the first

advertising agency in Nigeria and consequently, modern advertising practice, in

the following words:

A way up on the Gold Coast, as Ghana was known then, a trading

company by the name of The African & Eastern Trade Corporation, was

10

operating under the commercial umbrella of the United Africa

Company. And one of its assistants was a Welshman by the name of

Gwillym I. Lloyd. Lloyd is the progenitor of Lintas today and a key

figure in early advertising events on the West Africa coast and we get

some clue to his character from Philip Harris, one of Lloyd’s

contemporaries who was later to take the helm of the West African

agency. He says this about him: ‘Lloyd was a highly mercurial and

imaginative Welshman and his foresight and intuition convinced him

that one day, the African would respond to advertising in its modern

concept.’ What Harris might have added was that Lloyd was a man who

suffered a nagging irritation over the outmoded nature of trading and

selling on the African coast and that he saw himself heading a crusade

for changing its attitudes and methods. Flushed with worthy intentions,

Lloyd put his proposals to the board of The United Africa Company.

Although met with considerable skepticism, Lloyd’s persuasive

arguments finally gained reluctant acceptance and he was given a

chance to put his ideas to work.

For today’s Lintas, this was an historic moment because the meeting

marked the birth of the Agency.

The company which emerged from Lloyd’s energetic persuasions was

named West Africa Publicity Limited and its parent was the United

Africa Company in whose offices it was registered at Africa House in

Kingsway, London, on August 31st, 1928. Lloyd’s initial objective was

to rationalize the poster business in West Africa, which in those days of

widespread illiteracy, was the single medium of any real influence in the

broad African market.

From his London office, his lines went out to concerns like Raleigh

Industries of Nottingham and Wander’s of Ovaltine fame and his small

group of artists produced the visual material which was to find its way to

the hoardings in towns and villages up and down the Country. During the

first years when WAP had been set up locally in Accra and Lagos, the

11

operation was controlled by a European manager who in turn bore

responsibility to UAC’s general manager in matters of ‘discipline’ and

‘local policy’. But as already mentioned the real client business was

drummed up by Lloyd in the U.K., and there is little doubt that his intimate

knowledge of local life and attitudes influenced many of the ideas that

came off the drawing boards in WAP’s London studio. And some were

even to become classics.

Advertising in Nigeria, therefore, had its roots in a global business environment.

However, with further nationalistic posturing, the Indigenization Decree of 1972,

reserved ownership of advertising agencies to only Nigerians. This meant that all foreign

agencies operating in the country had their ownership transferred to Nigerians. These

agencies included LINTAS: Lagos; Oglivy, Benson & Mather; Grant, among others. Not

only were agencies fully indigenized, all outdoor advertising business was indigenized as

well as ownership of the print medium.

Definition of Globalization

For Tomlinson (1997,p.170), globalization refers to the rapidly developing

process of complex interconnections between societies, cultures, in situations and

individuals world wide. It is a process which involves a compression of time and space

(Harvey,1989), shrinking distances through a dramatic reduction in the time taken –

either physically or representationally – to cross them, so making the world seem smaller

and in a certain way bringing human beings „closer‟ to one another.

Anyone interested in debates about globalization finds, no doubt, a wide range of

positions on several issues, and this is unsurprising given the complexity of this

phenomenon. In fact, some believe that the globalization process goes back to the 15th

century, when Europeans began to colonize the world; others think it belongs to the

second part of the twentieth century. Some view it as a „done deal‟, whereas for others it

is a „work in progress‟ (Block, 2004,p.75). What is more, it is sometimes thought of as a

positive process that leads to progress, and sometimes as a negative phenomenon that

takes away authenticity and compromises cultural integrity. Some put it clearly that

globalization is merely an extension of American (or more generally Western)

12

imperialism, while others think of it in more egalitarian terms. In Nigeria, multinational

agency networks are represented through affiliation with local agencies. Through this

process, the network offers its resources including global clients to the local agency. The

local agency in turn, shares its revenue with the multinational network.

The Nigerian Situation

The indigenization situation prevailed until the liberalization regime beginning in

1985 and propelled by the globalization wave in international trade. The re-colonization

of agency practice in Nigeria surfaced through the practice of affiliation of Nigerian

Advertising Agencies to foreign global advertising agency networks. For example,

Rosabel established links with Leo Burnet, Insight Communications affiliated to Grey,

Casers entered into affiliation with DDB, Concept Unit emerged as a TBWA affiliate.

By 2005, almost all the global agency networks had found their way into Nigeria.

This development was not a localized Nigerian experience. As has been clearly noted by

Shannon (1998,p.182) it defined the shape of the advertising agencies in the coming

century.

In this regard, Shannon notes inter alia:

I believe tomorrow’s industry is being inexorably shaped by today’s

exigencies. First and foremost it is clear that the mainstream of our

business is becoming progressively more regional and global in its

vision, its structures and its methods of operation – driven by the

major advertisers, which collectively account for a huge proportion of

total advertising expenditure as their marketing ambitions and

activities are spreading beyond the mature markets of North America

and Western Europe and rapidly penetrating less developed markets of

Latin America, Asia and Africa.

It is these global corporations that have supported and spurred the

development of the multinational advertising networks around the

world. This in turn has led to networks achieving local representation

mainly through buying or affiliating with local agencies. Inevitably,

this has led to a situation where in country after country one sees the

top 10 or 12 largest agencies bearing the names of the major global

13

networks; sharing the business of the world’s major multinationals

and ultimately accounting for a major share of total advertising

expenditure.

Globalization has become a reality. At the same time it presents two edges of

opportunity and threat. As Sorrel (1998,p.168) clearly pointed out, the final area of

opportunity is the globalization of our business. What is remarkable is that we have

started to work with our major clients, our top 10 multinational clients, on a coordinated

and integrated basis in 30 or 40 countries throughout the world. So what we‟ve seen,

partly because of the re-engineering that has gone on inside our clients, and the stripping

out of resources, but also for more positive reasons, because if the global execution or

coordination that they are demanding …… Needless to say, unless we deal with these

issues, in the ever more competitive industry which we operate, they will become threats.

While we look at the economic issues thrown up by the globalization of

advertising practice, we remain ever mindful of the social cultural issues. McQuail

(2005,p.256) points out the positive and negative aspects of globalization of culture.

According to him “global media flows given rise to a state of cultural homogenization or

synchronization, leading to a dominant form of culture that has no specific connection

with real experience for most people”. Globalization of culture can even look good

compared with the ethnocentrism, nationalism and even xenophobia that characterize

some national media systems.

Assessment of the impact of globalization on advertising agency practice in Nigeria

raises questions which had previously remained unanswered. These questions were

addressed by this study

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Globalization has become a reality, not only in the movement of goods and raw

materials, but in the production and transfer of professional services across international

borders. Baran (2004,p.406) states that as media and national economies have globalised,

advertising has adapted. As Shannon (1998,p.186) clearly points out, globalization will

become the norm for mega-brand accounts, in terms of their alignment internationally

among the major networks and the way they are centrally directed and managed across a

region or the world in general.

14

In view of the prevailing attitude of Nigerian advertising practitioners towards

affiliation and globalization, there is the urgent need to address the issue scientifically.

As Lolu Akinwumi, President of the Association of Advertising Agencies of Nigeria, said

“you have to believe in affiliation. You know why, the whole world has become a world

market.” (quoted in Advertising News, 2008, p.45).

According to Lyons (2005) the driving force behind globalization is motivated by

economic interests. And that is the problem. According to Stiglitz (2006,4), the problem

is not with globalization itself but in the way globalization has been managed.

Economics has been driving globalization. But politics has shaped it. The rules of the

game have been largely set by the advanced industrial countries – and particularly by

special interests within those countries and not surprisingly, they have shaped

globalization to further their own interests. They have not sought to create a fair set of

rules, let alone a set of rules that would promote the well-being of those in the poorest

countries of the world.

From the foregoing viewpoints, it is clear that most of the „poor‟ or „developing‟

countries do not really benefit from the affiliated agencies. Therefore, it is perceived that

globalization does not impact positively on advertising practice in Nigeria.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The following objectives were set for this study:

a. To assess the economic impact of affiliation on agency business and growth.

b. To assess the impact of globalization on development of human resources in

advertising practice in Nigeria.

c. To evaluate the tendency of affiliated agencies to adhere to the code of ethics

of advertising practice in Nigeria.

d. To determine the effect of globalization on the development of the local

advertising creative production industry.

e. To evaluate the effect of globalization of advertising practice on Nigerian

culture.

f. To identify means of adapting globalization for the benefit of Nigerian

advertising practice and the Nigerian society.

15

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The timely nature of this study makes it both theoretically and practically

significant in many ways. First, it will improve the researcher‟s knowledge on

globalization and advertising practice in Nigeria. Secondly, it will not only add to the

body of existing knowledge on contemporary advert practice, but also serve as a trail-

blazing material that will engender the much needed interest in this area of

globalization and advertising practice in developing countries.

By evaluating the level of impact globalization has on advertising profession, as

regards agency affiliations, the study should aid advertising practitioners and scholars

alike in articulating appropriate ways of actualizing the benefits of the modern trends

in the course of discharging their duties.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following research questions were formulated to guide the study:

1. What is the correlation between agency affiliation and agency revenue generation?

2. Does globalization impact positively on manpower development in the Nigerian

advertising industry?

3. What is the effect of agency affiliation on the use and growth of the local creative

production industry comprising artistes, models, writers, musicians, photographers

and film producers?

4. To what extent does the media output of affiliated agencies impact on our local

cultures?

1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This study is rooted in the cultural imperialism theory

Cultural Imperialism and Critical Cultural Theory:

One of the oldest theories of mass media which is also critical of globalization is

cultural imperialism. Tomilson (2002,p.228) has addressed a number of issues related to

cultural imperialism discourse. He recognized that traditional Marxism divided the world

into a political-economic dialectic struggle between an elite ruling class and a larger

working class. For the Marxist, capitalism is interpreted as a “homogenizing cultural

force.” The idea is that globalization propels a sort of “cultural convergence” which

16

people are unable to resist and that cultural imperialism implies a spreading culture of

worldwide consumerism.

Critical theory was founded in 1923. Critical theory and cultural imperialism theory

share common roots in Marxist ideology, which are both anti-capitalist in their approach

to the study of media globalization.

Critical theorists have coined various phrase in reference to notions of “cultural

imperialism.” An examination of the international communication literature will reveal

several different terms such as “media imperialism” (Boyd-Barrett,1977); “structural

imperialism” (Galtung,1979); “cultural dependency and domination” (Link,1984);

“cultural synchronization” (Hamelink,1983); “electronic colonialism” (McPhail,1987);

“communication imperialism” (Sui-Nam Lee,1988); “ideological imperialism”, and

“economic imperialism” (Mattleart,1994) - all relating to the same basic notion of

cultural imperialism. Different international scholars who have written on the subject

attribute its beginnings to different sources as well.

According to Salwen (1991), the issue of cultural imperialism emerged largely from

communication literature involving development and political economy. These

orientations ultimately constructed formulations concerning cultural heritage and

behavior based on an analysis of government, corporate policy and practice. Mattelart

(1994) argues that since the end of the 1960s, these terms, used by a Jacques Rigaud,

alarmed about the loss of French cultural influence in the era of information technologies,

and by a Zbigniew Brzezinski, who believed them outmoded, have run through studies on

the role of communications in the relations among nations.

Cultural imperialism gained prominence in the 1970s. The theory, according to

Roach (1997), was most prominent in Latin America producing “a host of adherents

including Antonio Pasquali (1963)‟ Luis Ramiro Beltran (1976), Fernandez Reyes Matta

(1977) and Mario Kaplun (1973)”. The theory provided one of the major conceptual

thrusts behind the movement for a New World Information and Communication Order.

At that time, scholars proposed grouping the various currents of critical research on

international communication under the heading “media imperialism.” Among them was

British scholar J. Oliver Body-Barrett who defined media imperialism as “the process

whereby the ownership, structure, distribution, or content of the media in any county are

17

singly or together subject to substantial external pressures from the media interests of any

other country or countries, without proportionate reciprocation of influence by the

country so affected” (Boyd-Barrett,1977, p.117). However, many felt that Boyd-Barrett‟s

definition was much too narrow to account for the multiplicity of forms taken by power

relations among various cultures.

Although several authors have posited their own interpretations of cultural

imperialism, the main proposition of the theory can be identified in the work of one of the

main cultural imperialism theorists. Cultural imperialism proposes that a society is

brought into the modern world system when its dominating stratum is attracted,

pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping its social institutions to correspond

to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating center of the system

(Schiller, 1976).

Cultural imperialists can be considered actional realists (Potter, 1996) who believe

that there is a fixed reality that exists alongside an individual‟s or an organization‟s own.

Epistemologically, the proponents of cultural imperialism can be considered

constructivists (Potter, 1996) who assume that ways of interpreting information about

culture are created by transnational media organizations. These are the very basic

assumptions guiding cultural imperialist thinking.

In addition to these, one can identify other axioms of cultural imperialism that were

present when the theory was just gaining prominence. However, these have been tested

and can no longer be seen as assumptions of the theory. Sui-Nam Lee (1988), for

example, purported an active role on the part of the dominating country and a deleterious

effect on the dominated one. Ogan (1988) posited another axiom that Third World

consumers of [foreign] media products will be influenced by the values inherent in that

content, the values of an alien and predominantly capitalist system. Arguably, at the time

the theory was gaining currency in the 1970s, these were major assumptions behind the

thinking of some theoreticians who proposed the theory.

Another assumption of cultural imperialism is that media play a central role in

creating culture. This axiom is linked to the interchangeable use of various terms to refer

to cultural imperialism. Writers who talk about “cultural imperialism” as “media

18

imperialism,” treating the two terms as synonyms, bring into question the centrality of the

media in claims of cultural imperialism. This practice implies that the media have such

an overwhelming role in the process referred to as “cultural imperialism” that the word

“cultural” can be interchanged with “media” from time to time. Of course, one must be

careful in attributing this massive central significance to the media. To understand claims

about media imperialism, one would need to examine the relationship of the media to

other aspects of culture without assuming its centrality from the outset (Tomlinson,

1991).

Another assumption of the theory is that it presumes a centralized approach to the

development and distribution of media products. The thinking here is that all media

products originate from only center nations that have devious ulterior motives of

deliberately wanting to dominate that media of periphery nations. This belief is based

partly on the view that no periphery country will ever be able to produce media products

of its own.

As has been detailed by Baran (2004,p.436) modern critical cultural theory

encompasses a number of different conceptions of relationship between media and

culture.

1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

As had been pointed out, there is little or no research into the area of globalization

and advertising practice in Nigeria. As a forerunner of some sort, this study is limited to

the prevalent phenomenon of the affiliation of local advertising agencies to global agency

networks.

The study further limits its scope to examining how this phenomenon impacts on

agency financial well-being, manpower development and advertising content production.

Geographically this study is limited to Lagos where more than ninety-percent of

Nigerian advertising agencies are located. The related industries which are affected

locally by the operations of these agencies are predominantly based in Lagos as well as

the regulatory agency, APCON.

1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

19

Geographically, a study of this nature should cut across the 36 states of the

federation but due to financial and time constraints, one cannot survey respondents from

all the six-geo-political zones of Nigeria.

Thus, this study concentrates on the western-geo-political zone. This choice is

based on the premise that virtually all Nigerian advertising agencies affiliated to

international networks have their national headquarters in Lagos where key or top staff

members work with their team members.

The major thrust of this limitation to this study lies in the fact that the amount of

information that would have been generated, if the entire six-geo-political zones were to

be covered will not be realized.

20

REFERENCES

Akindele, S., Gidado, T., Olaopo (2002). Globalisation, its implications and

consequences for Africa. Retrieved May 12, 2007 from

http://lass.calumet.purdue.edu/cca/gmj/fa05/gmj-fa05-lyons.htm

Baran, S. (2004). Introduction to mass communication. New York: McGraw Hill.

Beltran, L.R. (1978). Communication and cultural domination: USA-Latin America case.

Media Asia

Boyd-Barrett, J.O. (1977). Media Imperialism: Towards an international framework for

an analusis of media systems. In J. Curran. M. Gurevitch and J. Woollacott

(eds.), Mass communication and society, (pp 116-135). London: Edward Arnold.

Boyd-Barrett, O., & Rantanen, T. (2002). Theorizing the new agencies. In D. Mcquail

(Ed.), Mcquail’s reader in mass communication theory (pp.216-221). London:

Sage Publications.

Eisenberg, D. (2002) “It‟s an ad, ad, ad world” in Time Magazine. September 2, Edition.

New York.

Galtung, J. (1979). A structural theory of imperialism. In G. Modelski (ed.),

Transnational corporations and world order: Readings in international political

economy (pp 155-171) San Francisco:W.H. Freeman and Company

Gerbner, G. (1977). Comparitive cultural indicators. In G. Gerbner (Ed.), Mass media

policies in changing cultures (pp. 199-205). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1986). Perspectives on media

effects. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds). Living with television. Hillsdale:

Erlbaum

Hamelink, C.J. (1983). Cultural autonomy in global communications. New York:

Longman

Lazarsfeld, P. F., Cantril, H., & Stanton, F. (1939). Current radio research in universities.

Journal of applied psychology, 23, 201-204

Link, J.H. (1984). Test of the cultural dependency hypothesis. In R. Steveneson and D.

Shaw (eds.), Foreign news and the new world information order (pp 186-199).

Ames: Iowa State University Press.

21

Lintas: Lagos (1978). Fifty years growing. Lagos: Lintas

MacBride, S., & Roach, C. (2000).The new international information order. In F. J.

Lechner & J. Boli (Eds.), The globalization reader (pp.286-292). Malden:

Blackwell Publishers.

Mattleart, A. (1994). Mapping world communication. Minneapolis, University of

Minnesota Press

McLuhan, M., & Powers, B. R. (1989). The global village: transformations in world life

and media in the 21st century. New York: Oxford University Press.

McPhail, T.L. (1987). Electronic colonialism: The future of international broadcasting

and communication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

McQuail, D. (2005). Mcquail’s mass communication theory. London: Sage publications.

Roach, C. (1997). Cultural imperialism and resistance in media theory and literary

theory. Media, Culture and Society.

Salwen, M.B. (1991). Cultural imperialism: A media effects approach. Critical studies in

Mass Communication.

Sandage, C.H; Fryburger, V. & Rotzoll, K. (1989) Advertising Theory and Practice. New

York: Longman.

Schramm, W. (1954). The process and effects of mass communication. Urbana:

University of Illinois Press.

Shannon, J. (1998). Today‟s developments; tomorrow‟s industry. In N. Giges (Ed.), Open

communications in the 21st century. London: Atalink Ltd.

Sorrel, M (1998). Opportunities and threats. In N. Giges (Ed.), Open communications in

the 21st century. London: Atalink Ltd.

Stiglitz, J (2002). Globalisation and its discontents. London : Penguin Books.

Stiglitz, J. (2006). Making globalization work. New York: W. W. Norton

Sui-Nam Lee, P. (1995). A case against the thesis of communication imperialism: The

audience’s response to foreignTV in Hong Kong. Australian Journal of

Communication

Tomlinson, J. (2002). The discourse of cultural imperialism. In D. McQuail

22

(Ed.), Mcquail’s reader in mass communication theory (pp.223-237). London:

Sage Publication

Tomlinson, J. (1991). Cultural imperialism: A critical introduction. Baltimore: John

Hopkins University Press

23

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 PREAMBLE

It is clear and a universal statement of fact that there are numerous

literatures written on the profession of advertising practice. One cannot equally

deny the truth that all the written literatures cannot be reviewed at once. Thus, for

the purpose of this study; the researcher would only review related empirical

studies done on the topic under study. This literature review, therefore, will take

the following core aspects into consideration: Advertising Practice: A General

Overview; Advert Agencies and The Concept of Affiliations; Globalization and

Social Issues and Effects, taking into consideration the Media Convergence

Concept and its benefits to Advert Agencies in Nigeria.

The Performance of Multinational Affiliates versus Domestic Firms

While some authors argue that multinational companies have several firm

and location specific advantages over domestic firms, others point to the liability

of foreignness as a handicap.

Much of the available literature is built upon the idea that multinational firms

draw on their location advantages to expand to other countries and outperform

domestic firms. These country-based differences are also likely to last, as they are

embedded in institutions that have evolved differently over times (North, 1990),

and are very slow to change (Williamson, 2000). More recent work has reminded

us that unfamiliarity with a country is still likely to put a multinational company

at a disadvantage (Zaheer, 1995). Starting with the work of the Dunning, we are

made aware of location-specific advantage that may accrue to a firm.

Dunning argues that those firms draw on country-specific advantages that

are present in the home country and build upon them as they internationalize. As

firms employ the resources conferred by their home nations they are able to

develop a competitive advantage in foreign markets which grants them a

favourable position compared to local firms which are unable to exploit the same

assets (Nachum, 2003). Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989) also highlight the influence

of national characteristics in the global strategy employed.

24

In addition to the location specific advantages of home nations, they are

also likely to have firm specific advantages. Only companies with strategic assets

or a competitive advantage are likely to first succeed in their countries. As they

consider internationalization, these firms already have an arsenal of resources that

they can use to defend against competitors, be it local or global. In addition, these

companies are larger and are able to reap economies of scale (Caves, 1996).

While these would have us conclude that multinationals should always

outperform domestic firms, we can see below that such conclusion could not be

easily reached.

The Liability of Foreignness

Hymer (1960) pointed to the dangers that the unfamiliarity with a

particular foreign country may pose to an internationalizing firm and to the

additional cost that it has to incur when investing abroad which he referred as the

„cost of doing business abroad‟. Hymer famously stressed the distinct

disadvantages faced by foreign firms vis-à-vis national firms which possess „the

general advantage of better information about the country, its economy, its

language and its politics.‟ Zaheer (1995) fleshed out these ideas arguing that

foreign firms face a „liability‟ that is derived from the firms‟ lack of experience

and knowledge about the foreign environments in which they operate. She coined

the highly popular „liability of foreignness‟ term.

2.2 Advertising Practice

Large Promise is the soul of the advertising practice. The promise is

geared towards persuading the prospective end-users of goods, services and ideas

to buy such advertised products, goods or services. In any form advertising is

done or finally packaged, the central focus is on PROMISE. Advertising is

everywhere. As it becomes more ubiquitous, we tend to ignore it. But as we tend

to ignore it, according to Baran (2004,p.377) advertisers find new ways to make it

more ubiquitous. As a result no one is neutral about advertising.

We love it or we hate it. Many of us do both. Taking a cursory look at few

definitions of advertising, we understand why there is the frequent placement of

advertisements on daily bases. In the words of Dunn & Barban (1978,p.8)

25

advertising is paid, non-personal communication through various media by

business firms, non profit organizations identified in the advertising message and

who hope to inform or persuade members of a particular audience.

Advertising is the communications arm of the marketing process. Like

any communications technique, advertising can tell a number of stories, each with

its own goals and objectives. Advertising is a method of delivering a message

from a sponsor, through an impersonal medium to many people. Russell and

Lane (1990,p.21) posit that the word advertising comes from the Latin ad vertere,

meaning “to turn the mind toward”. From their point of view, it means that the

roles of advertising are many: it can be designed to dispose people to buy a

product, to support a cause, or even to do less consuming (demarketing). In

corroborating the definition given by Barban & Dunn, Russell and Lane

(1990:p22) state that advertising is a message paid for by an identified sponsor

and delivered through some medium of mass communication.

In a bid to discharge its function, advertising must be persuasive in nature

of its communication. These various persuasive communications are called

advertising. Pope John Paul VI as quoted in Dunn & Barban (1978,p.6) says it

intervenes in nearly all aspects of economic and cultural life. He went on to state

that advertising highlights and stimulates a certain vitality in production and trade,

and therefore also in invention. Practitioners are not without merit in their efforts

to try to reconcile what is often difficult: how to make the available products

better known and more widely known to stimulate progress while respecting the

value of goods and the truth in the elements submitted to the judgment of

consumers.

Sir Winston Churchill as cited in Dunn and Barban (1978,p.4) says

advertising nourishes the consuming power of men. It creates wants for a better

standard of living by setting up before a man the goal of a better home, better

clothing, better food for himself and his family. Advertising spurs individual

exertion and greater production. It brings together in fertile union those things

which otherwise would never have met. Upholding the above assertion,

Stevenson (1998,p.78) asserts that the American Standard of living is due to no

26

small measure to the imaginative genius of advertising; which not only creates

and sharpens demand, but also, by its impact upon the competitive process,

stimulates the never ceasing quest of improvement in the quality of the products,

goods and services.

Cutlip et al (2006,p.197) succinctly state that communication is a

reciprocal process of exchanging signals to inform, persuade, or instruct based on

shared meanings and conditioned by the communicators‟ relationship and the

social context. On the other hand, Cutlip et al (2006,p.198) while citing Schramm

1971 posit that advertising as a communication activity follows the process of

informing which involves four steps: (1) attracting attention to the

communication (2)adverting acceptance of the message (3) having it interpreted

as intended, and (4) getting the message stored for later use. The more

demanding process of instruction adds a fifth step. (5) Stimulating active learning

and practice. They went on to pinpoint the fact that the process of persuasion

(which is the core issue in advertising practice) goes beyond active learning to a

sixth step (6) Accepting change: yielding to the wishes or point of view of the

sender.

For Willamson (1978) as cited in Mc Quail (2005,p.343), the ideological

work of advertising is accomplished (with the active co-operation of the “reader”

of the advertisement) by transferring significant meanings and ideas (smoothes

myths) from experience (such as beauty, success, happiness, nature and science)

to commercial products and by that route to ourselves. The commercial product

becomes a way to achieve the social or cultural state and to be the kind of person

we would like to be. People are reconstituted by advertising but end up with an

imaginary sense of their real selves and of their relation to the real conditions of

their lives.

One may begin to ponder at what point of human existence did advertising

practice begin? Answering this question, Russell and Lane (1990,p.3) are of the

view that the urge to advertise seems to be a part of human nature, evidenced

since ancient times. Of the 5,000-year recorded history of advertising to our

present TV Satellite digital age, the part that is most significant begins when the

27

United States emerged as a great manufacturing nation about 100 years ago. The

early history of advertising, however, is far too fascinating to pass by without a

glance. Russell and Lane said that it is not surprising that the people who gave

the world the Tower of Babel also left the earliest known evidence of advertising.

A Babylonian clay tablet of about 3000 B.C. bears inscriptions for an ointment

dealer, a scribe and a shoemaker. Papyri exhumed from the ruins of Thebes

shows that the ancient Egyptians had a better medium on which to write their

message (Alas, the announcements preserved in Papyrus offer rewards for the

return of runaway slaves). The Greeks were among those who relied on the town

criers to chant the arrival of ships with cargoes of wives, spices and metals.

Baran (2004,p.379) upholds the same view by stating that Babylonian

merchants were hiring bakers to shout out goods and prices as passersby in 3000

B.C. The Romans wrote announcements on city walls. By the 15th century, ads

as we know them now were abundant in Europe. Berkman and Gilson

(1987,p.32) gave this sample of one of ancient ads: “The Troop of Gladiators of

the Aedil will fight on the 31st of May. There will be fights with wild animals.

And an Awning to keep off the sun.”

On the same line, Sandage et al (1989,p.21) gave this advert as one of

those seen in Pennsylvania, “A plantation containing 300 acres of good land, 30

cleared, 10 or 12 Meadow and in good English Grass, a house and barn & Creek

lying in Nantmel Township, upon French-Creek, about 30 miles from

Philadelphia. Inquire of Simon Meredith now living on the said place.”

The Greeks were among those who relied on town criers to chant the

arrival of ships with cargoes of wives, spices and metals; often a crier was

accompanied by a musician who kept him in the right key. Town criers later

became the earliest medium for public announcements in many European

countries and some in their colonies like Nigeria. Outdoor advertising has proven

to be one of the most enduring forms of advertising. It survived the decline of the

Roman Empire, according to Russell and Lane (1990,p.4) to become the

decorative art of European inns in the seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries.

28

That was still an age of widespread illiteracy, so inns vied with one

another in creating attractive signs that all could recognize. This accounts for the

charming names of old inns, especially in England- such as The Three Squirrels,

The Man in the Moon, the Hole in the Wall. Russell & Lane went on to highlight

the fact that in 1614, England passed a law, probably the earliest on advertising,

that prohibited signs from extending more than 8 feet out from a building.

(Longer sings pulled down too many house fronts). Another law required signs to

be high enough to give clearance to an armoured man on horseback. Precisely,

they stated that in 1740, the first printed outdoor poster (referred to as a

“hoarding”) appeared in London. Hoarding is the forerunner of modern outdoor

advertising.

The next most enduring advertising medium, the newspaper, was the

offspring of Johann Gutenberg‟s invention of printing from movable type (about

1438), which of course, changed communication methods for the whole world.

The first printed outdoor ad in English was done by William Caxton of London –

a handbill of the rules for the guidance of the clergy at Easter. The first ad in any

language to be printed in a disseminated sheet appeared in a German news

pamphlet in about 1525. (Russell & Lane 1990,p.6).

Baran (2004,p.409) concluded the historical angle of advertising practice

by pointing out that advertising has been practiced for thousands of years and

came to the colonies via England. Industrialization and the Civil War led to more

leisure, more discretional income, and greater urbanization and industrialization,

all of which fuelled the growth of advertising.

The proliferation of the different types of sales pitches is the product of an

avalanche of advertising. Advertisers are exploring new ways to be seen and

heard, to stand out to be remembered and to be effective. Baran (2004,p.397) said

according to the purpose of the advertising and the target market, some types of

advertising we know include: institutional or corporate advertising, trade or

professional advertising, retail advertising, promotional advertising, industrial

advertising, national consumer advertising, direct market advertising and public

service advertising.

29

For these various forms or types of advertising, one would notice that each

of them creates jobs, thereby, enhancing our gross national product. They equally

foster our traditional values as we use our local (National) heroes to package such

adverts. Creating a good aesthetic value and such issues are silently handled by

advertising practitioners.

2.3 Advert Agencies and Affiliations

We have been looking at the various types of advertising. According to Russell

and Lane (1990,p.12) the media got much of that advertising through the

advertising agency, which started out as men selling advertising space on a

percentage basis for out-of-town newspapers. Later they also planned, prepared

and placed the ads and rendered further services. The story of the advertising

agencies is deeply rooted in the growth of American industry and advertising.

The world of the advertising agency is one of dramatic change. In the words of

Russell and Lane (1990,p.103) Agencies once known for their personalities and

definite ad philosophers have either disappeared or merged at the international,

national, regional, or local level. There are a lot of opinions about the changes;

pro and con. Many of the new agencies haven‟t existed long enough in their

merged state to develop a personality or a clear image of themselves.

Dunn and Barban (1978,p.144) gave the account that until about 1869, the

advert agency business in the United States was quite unstable. Fly-by-night

operations, price cutting, and private deals were common. Gradually, services

provided by agencies began to expand steadily. The perfection of halftone

engravings, the development of four-colour printing, market, media and copy

research and radio/television added greatly to the amount of service needed to

handle accounts. Categorically, they stated that there are good reasons why most

general advertisers prefer to use an agency for at least part of their advertising.

First, an agency retains high-priced and highly skilled specialists whom a single

client could not afford. Some ad agencies specialize in a single type of business.

Most offer a broad array of specialized services that can be tailored to the client‟s

needs.

30

Second, a company has difficulty in analyzing its own problems

objectively. It is valuable for it to have available an objective viewpoint. Third,

the advertiser would pay media the same amount of money for time and space

even if an agency was not used. Thus, an agency‟s services are in fact, “free”.

In the years between the Civil War and World War I, according to Baran

(2004,p.382) advertising had rapidly become more complex, more creative and

more expensive and it was conducted on a larger scale. Advertising agencies had

to expand their operations to keep up with demand. For example, Baran said

where Palmer offered merely to broker the sale of newspaper space; F. Wayland

Ayer (whose firm is now the oldest ad agency in the United States) began his “full

service” advertising agency in 1869. During this period, three factors combined

to move the advertising industry to establish professional standards and to

regulate itself – first, was the reaction of the public and the medical profession to

the abuses of patent medicine advertisers. These charlatans used fake claims and

medical data in their ads to sell tonics that at best were useless, and at worst,

deadly. The second was the critical examination of most of the country‟s

important institutions, led by the muckrakers. The third factor was the

establishment in 1914 of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) which had among

its duties monitoring and regulating advertising.

According to Baran (2004,p.396), there are approximately 6,000 ad

agencies operating in the United States employing roughly half a million people.

Fewer than 500 agencies annually earn more than $1m. Many agencies also

produce the ads they develop and virtually all buy time and space in various

media for their clients.

Each of these developments, as Dunn & Barban (1978,p.144) earlier

noted, also added to the agency‟s cost of doing business. In the average agency

today, about two-thirds of total income is paid out for payroll. The remaining

third covers rent, traveling expenses, taxes, profit and so on. Kogure (1998,p.162)

asserts that the next decade will undoubtedly be one of great transition for the

advertising industry. No advertising company will be able to respond entirely on

its own to the changes in media and marketing methods brought on by the rapid

31

advances in digital technology. He went on to say that to cope with the speed of

change, most companies are looking very closely at alliances or partnerships

(affiliations) with companies in other fields. Companies everywhere in the world

(both in advertising and other professions) are facing a similar situation, so the

search is on for alliances in which the partners can share strengths and cover

weaknesses. This is truly right about Nigerian advert agencies. It is equally in

line with the prophetic declaration of Bloom (1988,p.32) that agencies will

function with fewer levels in every department. The streamlined agency of the

future will have a layer of “thinners” and a layer of “doers”.

2.4 Empirical Studies on Globalization and Advertising.

Globalization: Social Issues, Impact and Convergence of cultures

The pace of internationalization has accelerated because of advances in

distribution technology and new economic imperatives. Mc Quail (2005,p.247)

opines that the mass media (where advertising belongs) are affected like

everything else, by the general phenomenon of globalization. They are in a

special position themselves as both an object and an agent of the globalization

process.

The recent phase of the “communications revolution, Chalaby

(2003,p.457) asserts has been marked by a new phenomenon of media

concentration, both transnational and multimedia, leading to the world media

industry being increasingly dominated by a small number of very large media

firms. Hills (2002,p.294) says an important component of international mass

communication is advertising; linked to the globalization of many product

markets and reflecting the international character of many advertising agencies

and the dominance of the market by a small number of firms. The same

advertising messages appear in different countries, and there is also an indirect

internationalizing impact on the media that carry the advertising. One of the

forces promoting globalization has been the vast expansion and the privatization

of telecommunications infrastructure and business.

According to Mc Quail (2005,p.249) the rise of the global news agencies

of the twentieth century was made possible by technology (telegraph and radio

32

telephony) and stimulated by war, trade, imperialism and industrial expansion.

For these reasons, the main press agencies in the era after the Second World War

were North American (UPI and Associated Press), British (Reuters), French

(AFP) and Russian (TASS). Then in the words of Tunstall (1992,p.97) despite

the general American media dominance, Europe had become the largest producer

and consumer of foreign news.

Paterson (1998,p.30) asserts that the three television news agencies that

originate much of the International News used by the World‟s broadcasters are

Reuters, World Television News (NTN) and Associated Press Television News

(APTV).

Tunsall and Machin (1999,p.77) refer to a virtual “world news duopoly”

controlled by the US Associated Press and the British Reuters. The Trench AFP,

German DPA and Spanish EFE are also big players. It is clear that predominance

is shaped by the domestic strength of the media organizations concerned, in terms

of market size degree of concentration and economic resources.

Meanwhile, Baran (2004,p.28) upholds the view that closely related to the

concentration of media ownership is globalization. It is primarily large,

multinational conglomerates that are doing the lion‟s share of media acquisitions.

Baran states that the potential impact of globalization on the mass communication

process speaks to the issue of diversity of expressions with distant, anonymous,

foreign corporations, each with vast holdings in a variety of non media business,

use their power to shape news and entertainment content to suit their own ends.

Opinion is divided. Yet defenders of increased globalization point to the need to

reach a fragmented and widespread audience – the same factor that fuels

concentration – as encouraging this trend. They also cite the growing economic

clout of emerging democracies (and the need to reach the people who live in them

e.g. Nigeria) and the increasing interwining of the world‟s economies as

additional reasons why globalization is necessary for the economic survival of

media businesses.

The foremost example of internationalization of media ownership,

production and distribution is that of the popular music industry (a development

33

of the last fifty years), in views of Burnet (1996,p.84) and Negus (1992,p.78) with

a high proportion of several major markets being in the hands of “big five”

companies. Burnet and Negus declares that following the merger of Bertelsmann

and Sony in 2004, there are four dominant companies: Sony, Warner; Universal;

and EMI. Hence, advertising provides another example of very high

concentration and internationalization.

Mc Quail (2005,p.251) opines that it is clear that there is no sharp dividing

line between media content that is “global: and that which is “national” or local.

Mass communication, he says, is almost by definition “global” in character and

only a few isolated societies can claim to have a purely domestic media supply.

The United States produces much and imports little, but even in this case the

content of American media culture is international by virtue of the fact that it is

shared with the rest of the world and many foreign cultural influences enter the

country through trade and immigration. Mc Quails states that it is also indirectly

globalized by the orientation of much of its own production towards world

markets.

Chalaby (2003,p.454) despite the many manifestations of media

globalization, there are few media outlets (channels publications, etc) that actually

address a significantly large foreign audience directly (even if the potentials in

terms of households reached is large). At most, certain successful products (eg a

hit film or TV show, a music recording a sporting event) will receive a worldwide

audience in the end. This implies that “exporting” countries still have a

considerable capacity to influence the “national” media experience of “receiving”

countries. According to Bilereyst (1992) as cited in Mc Quail (2005,p.252) we

have to consider how far the “foreign” content has been subject to “gatekeeping”

controls at the point of import (for instance edited, screened and selected, dubbed

or translated, given a familiar context). It is worthy of note that the main

mechanism of “control” is not usually policy or law, or even economics (which

usually encourages imports), but the audience demand for their “own” media

content in their own language.

34

There are natural barriers of language and culture that resist globalization.

The problems of global financial systems are systematic and have much to do

with the global reserve system. In the words of Stiglitz (2006,p.268) the world is

already moving out of the dollar system but that does not mean that it is moving

toward a better system and sadly, little thought has been given to where it is going

or how it should evolve. Stiglitz says this single initiative could do more to make

globalization work than any other. It would not eliminate the problems faced by

developing countries, but it would make things better.

The report of a study conducted by Branston and Stafford (2007,p.319)

shows that a major area of interest in globalization and advertising practice lies in

the usage of stars and celebrities in broadly cultural-ideological influence arising

from their double presences, both on and off screen. Not only does this relate to

narrative roles and what gets endorsed and marginalized in their values, but also

to the multinational advert agency affiliations and their tie-ins of global stars and

celebrities, and the ways these cement cultures of hyper-consumption. Global

stars/celebrities have always functioned as a key part of building trans-national

relationships to broader capitalist structures especially in terms of advertising and

marketing. Advertisement practice at a globalized level suggests and upholds free

market and or free trade which grants everyone equal opportunity to enter into

buying and selling, importing and exporting etc despite your religion, race or such

things. Crucially, the theoretical models that underpin these concepts assume an

equal access to knowledge about prices, costs, rates of interest, etc.

But, according to the report of Watt (2005,p.14) some groups always have

more knowledge of buying power than the rest of the market. He found out that

both trade and markets are often „fixed‟ or at least „controlled‟ by the most

powerful players; the US government, for instance, supports „free trade‟ in

principle usually only when its own interests are thereby advanced. Watt gave the

empirical account of what happened after a certain advert appeared; the Guardian

published a report from Ghana which explained why poor Ghanaian farmers were

unable to sell the rice they had grown locally under difficult conditions. The

markets in Ghana were full of high-quality, „branded‟ American rice. Although

35

more expensive, the American rice was perceived as „better value‟, being clean

and white (and heavily advertised). How could American producers afford to

produce rice at such low cost(i.e. by American standard) that they could afford to

„dump‟ it in African markets (i.e. paying for the transport costs on top the

fertilizers, pesticides and other technologies at home)? Simply put, these more

powerful countries engage less-developed-nations‟ advert agencies to run the

adverts of such products like rice, beverages, electrical appliances etc in the

developing nations.

Global trade and advertising practice are often distorted by major players

such as large multinational food companies, supported by governments or trading

blocs. Poorer countries have economies based on producing primary goods (eg

food, minerals, and natural resources) which are then exported to richer countries

in exchange for „high-technology goods‟. But because of the distortions outlined

above, producers in Africa and Central America are being forced to suffer

worsening labour conditions, over-use of dangerous chemical fertilizers, etc just

to stay in business. The developed nations aim to support local farmers in Africa

and Central America, in particular by guaranteeing prices and as well helping to

process the crops locally (i.e. turning coffee beans into ground coffee), so that as

much profit as possible stays in the country. They then promote the products to

supermarkets in Europe as high-quality, „fairly traded/advertised‟ goods which

can command a premium price from „ethically minded‟ consumers. At the

globalization level, the scheme works efficiently on advertisement practice in

Nigeria, for instance, fair-trade coffee brands such as Café direct advertised by

agencies affiliated to multinational advert agencies are growing faster than

traditional brands such as Nescafe and Maxwell House (from Nestle and General

Foods).

It is easy to understand why multinational corporations have played such a

central role in globalization, in the words of Stiglitz (2006,p.197) it takes

organizations of enormous scope to span the globe, to bring together the markets,

technology and capital of the developed countries with the production capacities

of the developing ones. Globalization can never be a simple process of

36

homogenization, or rendering the world all the same. Schiller(2000) as cited by

Stafford and Branston (2006,p.489) globalization is not simply the West

expanding into the rest of the world, but also other countries and their media

forms having exchanges with, and even flowing into and out of the West. Though

globalization is often characterized as a homogenizing process, it is clear, for

example, as Herman and McChesney (1997,p.209) said that much production in

Sub-Saharan Africa is not capitalist, let alone corporate-homogenized. Their

research findings showed that about 4.5 billion people worldwide do not even

have access to telecommunications: so much for the image of „us all‟ on the

internet.

Meanwhile, those who have access to internet and or other global

technologies now face the challenge of cultural imperialism. This was equally

brought to bare by the findings of Herman and McChesney(1997). The report

pointed that before the arrival of US media (advert agencies inclusive), „Third

World‟ countries (like Nigeria) were enjoying a cosy golden age of indigenous,

authentic traditions and cultural heritage, untainted by values imposed from

outside. In almost romantic fashion, this attitude risks patronizing what are seen

as weaker nations and romanticizing their pre-colonial cultures since indigenous

cultures have sophisticated traditions and ancient heritages, shaped by long and

brutal processes of cultural conflict and indeed exchange.

The Indian Experience

There has been a long tradition of advertising in India since the first

newspapers published in India in the 19th

Century carried advertising. The first

advertising agency was established in 1905, B. Datram and Company, followed

by The India-Advertising Company in 1907, the Calcutta Advertising agency in

1909, S.H.Bensen in1928, J. Walter Thompson Associates through its Indian

associate, Hindustan Thompson Associates in 1929, Lintas (Lever International

Advertising Services) in 1939 and McCann Erikson in 1956 (Pashpati and

Sengupta, 1996).

37

Advertising agencies

The profile of advertising agencies in India changed dramatically in the

1990s. prior to that advertising was dominated by Indian agencies, but foreign

agencies have increasingly come to dominate Indian advertising. In 1992-1993

11 of the top 20 Indian agencies were affiliated with multinational agencies and

those agencies were allowed to own stock in the local companies since the early

1990s (Pashupati and Sengupta, 1996,p.167).

In 1999 there were about 400 advertising agencies in India employing

about 18,000 people. 15 of the top 20 advertising agencies have affiliations or

joint ventures with foreign agencies who are among the top international agencies

and most of them are American in origin, 12 out of 15. In terms of market share

foreign joint venture advertising agencies hold more than 75% of the market, with

wholly owned Indian agencies holding the balance. The largest 25 agencies

account for 75% of the total billings. In 1999 76% was the maximum foreign

ownership in advertising agencies (Srinivas,1999). Over the decade there was

also a growing concentration of agencies. The WPP group from London acquired

a fifth local agency in 1997.

38

REFERENCES

Bartlett, C., & Ghoshal, S. (1989). Managing Across Borders. Harvard Business School

Press: Boston, MA.

Berkman, H.W. & Gilson, C. (1987) Advertising: Concept and strategies. New York:

Random House.

Bloom, R. (1988) “The Agency of the Future”, in Adweek, November 7, 1988. New

York; Advert Council.

Burnet, R. (1996) The Global Jukebox. London: Routledge.

Caves, R.E. (1999). Multinational Enterprise and Economic Analysis. Cambridge

University Press: Cambridge, UK.

Chalaby, J. (2003) “Television for a new global order”, in Television Gazette.

New York: Sage.

Cutlip, S.M; Center, A.H; & Broom,G.M (2006) Effective Public Relations (9th Edition).

New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Dunn, S.W. & Barban, A.M (1978) Advertising: its role in modern marketing.

(4th Ed).Illinois: Dryden Press.

Hymer, S. 91960). The International operations Of National Firms: A Study of Foreign

Direct Investment. MIT.

Kogure, G. (1998) “The First Decade” in open communications in the 21st century.

England Atalink Ltd.

Mc Quail, D. (2005) Mc Quail’s Mass Communication Theory (5th Ed) London: Sage

Nachum, L. (1999). The Origins of the International Competitiveness of Firms: The

Impact of Location and Ownership in Professional Service Industries. Edward

Elgar: Aldershot.

Negus, K. (1992) Producing Pop. London, Arnold

North, D. (1990) Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. New

York: Cambridge

Paterson, T. (1998) “Political roles of the journalist,” in the politics of News: the news of

politics. Grabber, D; Mc Quail, D; and Norris, P. (eds) Washington D.C:

Congressional Quarterly Press.

Russell, T. & Lane, R. (1990) Kleppner’s Advertising Procedure (11th

Ed). New Jersey:

39

Prentice Hall.

Sandage, C. H; Fryburger, V., & Rotzoll, K. (1980) Advertising Theory and Practice.

New York: Longman.

Stiglitz, J.E. (2006). Making globalization work. New York: W. W. Norton

Stiglitz, J. E. (2002). Globalization and its discontents. London : Penguin Books.

Tunstall, J. (1992) “Europe as a world news leader”, in Journal of communication.

Tunstall, J. and Machin, D. (1999) The Anglo American Media Connection. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Williamson, O. (2000). Strategy Research: Governance and Competence Perspectives.

Strategic Management Journal.

Zaheer, S. (1995). Overcoming the liability of foreignness. Academy of Management

Journal.

40

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

The survey method is adopted for this study. In the words of Okoro (2001,p.37)

survey method of research is useful in the measurement of public opinion, attitudes

and orientation which are dominant among a large population at a particular period.

Asika (2006,p.13) says survey research focuses on population or the universe and

data are collected from the population for the intensive study and analysis. From the

foregoing definitions, survey method of research becomes highly useful in the field of

social-behavioural sciences and indeed fits well into this study that deals on

contemporary globalization and advertising practice in Nigeria: the impact of agency

affiliation to multinational agency networks.

3.2 POPULATION OF STUDY

The nature of the topic under study entails that Nigerian advert agencies,

their management and staff; their clients‟ managements and staff, those who supply

creative service to these agencies (photographers, models, film makers etc) and the

advertising regulator (APCON) should constitute the population of the study.

The aforementioned sets of people are in the best position to give this study the

vital information needed to actualize the desired objectives of this research. Ideally,

the researcher chooses ten Nigeria advertising agencies, five of which are affiliated

with multinational agencies, namely, DDB.Casers; Bates:Cosse; Prima Garnet

Oglivy, TBWA/Concept, and SO&U Saatchi while the other five (Eminent, Comex,

Brand Builders, Hunters and Bluebird) are non-affiliated with multinational agencies.

41

3.3 SAMPLE SIZE

The population of advertising agencies in Nigeria, their clients and staff;

their creative services suppliers is a very large population to sample. As Wimmer

and Dominick (2003,p.96) rightly say, determining an adequate sample size is one

of the most controversial aspects of sampling.

In order to get the right sample size for this study, it is, therefore,

important to adhere to the research-based view of Nwana (1981,p.81) “if the

population is a few hundreds, a 40% or more samples will do; if many hundreds, a

20% sample will do; if a few thousand a 10% sample will do; and if several

thousands, a 5% or fewer samples will do”.

Having seen the relevance of Nwana‟s assertion, the researcher sees the

population of the Nigerian advertising agencies, their management and staff, their

creative services suppliers and the regulatory body – APCON as many hundreds

and as such have chosen to sample three hundred (300) respondents which is a

20% of the population of the ten selected advert agencies, their creative services

suppliers and APCON.

3.4 SAMPLING PROCEDURE

The purposive or judgmental sampling method is adopted in this study. In the

words of Wimmer and Dominick (2003,p.88) purposive sampling includes only

objects or elements selected for specific characteristics or qualities and eliminates

those who fail to meet these criteria.

Adopting the purposive sampling method enabled the researcher to pick those

five Nigerian advertising agencies that are affiliated with multinational agency

networks and five other agencies that are not affiliated with any multinational

agency network. The affiliation and non-affiliation is the paradigm upon which

the researcher chooses only the management and staff, clients, creative services

suppliers and regulatory bodies of the agencies to be studied.

42

3.5 DATA COLLECTION METHOD

The data for this study was generated from both secondary (books, magazines,

seminar paper, internet materials etc) and primary sources (by the use of

structured questionnaires and interviews).

3.6 DATA ANALYSIS/DISCUSSION

The generated data of this study was analyzed using frequency distribution

tables, simple percentages and such other statistical tool.

43

REFERENCES

Asika, N. (2006). Research methodology in the behavioural sciences. Lagos: Longman

Nwana, O. (1981) Introduction to educational research, Ibadan: Heinemann Educational

Book Ltd.

Okoro, N. (2001) Mass communication research: Issues and methodologies. Nsukka:

AP Express Publishers.

Wimmer, R. D. and Dominick, J. R. (2003). Mass media research: An introduction

(7th ed) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

44

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4:1 INTRODUCTION

The main thrust of this study is on Globalization and Advertising Practice in

Nigeria : a study of the impact of agency affiliations.

The survey method of research was adopted in order to generate data for the

study.

4:2 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

A population of 300 purposively selected respondents from ten Nigerian

advertising agencies, (five of which are affiliated with multinational agencies and five of

which are non-affiliated with multinational agencies); was administered questionnaire to

elicit their views on globalization and advertising practice in Nigeria. Out of the 300

respondents of the sampled population, 280 (93.33%) returned their copies of the

questionnaire and 20 (6.66%) did not return theirs.

4:2.1 RESPONDENTS’ SEX

One hundred and fifty (53.6%) were male while one hundred and twenty-four

(44.3%) were female.

Six (2.1%) did not indicate their sex.

Table 4.2.1 Respondents’ Sex

Sex Frequency Percentage

Male 150 53.6%

Female 124 44.3%

No Indication 6 2.1%

Total 280 100%

45

4:2.2 Respondents’ Age Distribution

One hundred and thirty-eight (49.3%) of the respondents were between the age of

20 and 29 years old. Sixty-eight (24.3%) were between 30 and 39 years old. Fifty-three

(18.9%) were between 40 and 49 years old while Eighteen (6.4%) were between 50 and

59 years old and three (1.1%) were between 60 years and above.

Table 4.2.2 illustrates this data better.

Table 4:2.2 Respondents’ Age Distribution

Age Brackets Frequency Percentage

20 – 29 138 49.3%

30 – 39 68 24.3%

40 – 49 53 18.9%

50 – 59 18 6.4%

60 – above 2 1.1%

Total 280 100%

Research Question 1: What is the correlation between agency affiliation and agency

revenue generation?

To elicit answers to this research question, five selected questions as reflected in

tables 3, 4, 5 and 6 below were put to test.

- How long have you been working with an advert agency?

- Have you worked with an advert agency that is not affiliated with a

multinational agency?

- Have you worked with an advert agency that is affiliated with a multi-national

agency?

- What is your assessment of the affiliated one, in terms of revenue generation?

46

Table 4:2.3: Respondents’ Views on their length of service in advert agency.

Responses Frequency Percentage

2 – 5 years 138 49.3%

6- 10 years 68 24.3%

11 – 15 years 53 18.9%

No Indication 21 7.5%

Total 280 100%

Table 3 above indicates that 138 (49.3%) respondents said they have worked with an

advert agency for 2 to 5 years, 68 (24.3%) said they have spent between 6 to 10 years, 53

(18.9%) said they have worked about 11 to15 years in an advert agency while 21 (7.5%)

did not indicate any response.

Table 4:2.4: Respondents’ Views on the specific kind of agency they have worked in.

Responses Frequency Percentage

Yes 273 97.5%

No 4 1.4%

No Indication 3 1.1%

Total 280 100%

Table 4 above shows that 273 (97.5%) said yes they have worked with an advert agency

that is affiliated with a multi-national advert agency, 4 (1.4%) said No they have not

worked with such agency while 3 (1.1%) gave no answer.

Table 4:2.5: Respondents’ Views on their assessment of the affiliated advert

agency in terms of revenue generation.

Responses Frequency Percentage

Affiliated advert agencies generate higher revenue than non-

affiliated ones due to the foreign currency support from the

multi-national firms out there.

165 58.9%

Most times one can not really say because a lot of issues are

involved.

96 34.3%

No responses 19 6.8%

Total 280 100%

47

Table 5 above brings out the fact that 165 (58.9%) of the respondents said affiliated

advert agencies generate higher revenue than non-affiliated ones due to the foreign

currency support from the multi-national firms out there; 96 (34.3%) of them said most

times, one cannot really say because a lot of issues are involved while 19 (6.8%) did not

respond.

Research Question 2: Does globalization impact positively on manpower development

in the Nigerian advertising industry?

To elicit responses to this question, the following probing questions where put to

the respondents:

- Do you think the advert agency‟s affiliation with a multi-national agency has

any impact on the agency‟s creative performance?

- Do you think the advert agency‟s non-affiliation with the multi-national

agency has any impact on the agency‟s creative performance?

- Do you think affiliation or non-affiliation with multi-national advert agency

contributes to your agency‟s adherence to ethics in advert practice in Nigeria?

- Do you think the affiliation or non-affiliation contributes to Nigerian

economic growth?

- Are you in support of the view that non-affiliation encourages the growth of

the nation‟s creative production industry?

- If yes, state how ……

- If No, state why ……

Table 4:2.6: Respondents’ Views on the impact of affiliation on the agency’s

creative performance.

Responses Frequency Percentage

Yes 174 62.1%

No 59 21.1%

No Responses 47 16.8%

Total 280 100%

Table 6 shows that 174 (62.1%) said yes the agency‟s affiliation with multi-national

agency impacts on the agency‟s creative performance. 59 (21.1%) said No, it does not

while 47 (16.8%) did not respond.

48

Table 4:2.7: Respondents’ Views on impact of non-affiliation on the agency’s

creative performance.

Responses Frequency Percentage

Yes 168 60%

No 100 35.7%

No Responses 12 4.3%

Total 280 100%

Table 7 above indicates that 168 (60%) of the respondents equally said yes, that non

affiliation with multi-national agency impacts on the agency‟s creative performance. 100

(35.7%) said No, it does not while 12 (4.3%) gave no response

Table 4:2.8: Respondents’ views on agency’s adherence to ethics in the practice.

Responses Frequency Percentage

Most agencies with multi-national affiliation do not always

adhere to the ethics of advert practice in Nigeria, because

the bulk of their advert copies come fully prepared by their

affiliates outside Nigeria. For instance, their images,

slogans/pay offs go against the Nigerian advert ethics.

170 60.7%

Non-affiliated agencies tend to obey and abide by the rules

of the game here in Nigeria except in rare cases, where they

deviate a little once in a while.

68 24.3%

No responses 42 15%

Total 280 100%

Table 8 above shows that 170 (60.7%) were of the view that agencies with multi-national

affiliation do not quite adhere to advert ethics in Nigeria. 68 (24.3%) said Non-affiliated

agencies are ethically sound while 42 (15%) did not respond.

49

Table 4:2.9: Respondents’ views on the impact of affiliation or non-affiliation on

Nigerian Economic growth.

Responses Frequency Percentage

There is no gainsaying the fact that the affiliation brings a

large foreign currencies from the multi-national firms. As

such it books our economic growth.

164 58.6%

We are not affiliated with any multi-national agency but we

do pay our taxes thereby making a substantial input to the

Nigerian economic growth.

112 40%

No responses 4 1.4%

Total 280 100%

Table 9 above indicates that 164 (58.6%) of the respondents said with their affiliation

with multi-national agency they contribute to the Nigerian economic growth. 112 (40%)

stated categorically that despite the fact that they are not affiliated with any multi-

national advert agency, they still immensely contribute to Nigerian economic growth

while 4 (1.4%) did not respond.

Table 4:2.10: Respondents’ Views on non-affiliation impact on the nation’s creative

production industry.

Responses Frequency Percentage

Yes 182 65%

No 86 30.7%

No Responses 12 4.3%

Total 280 100%

Table 10 above shows that 182 (65%) of the respondents said yes, that non-affiliation

encourages the growth of the nation‟s creative production industry 86 (30.7%) said No, it

does not while 12 (4.3%) gave no response.

50

Table 4:2.11: Respondents’ Views on their reason behind their answers to question

14 (Table 10).

Responses Frequency Percentage

As we are not affiliated we

encourage our musicians,

photographers, movie stars

etc by using in the adverts

copies we produce here.

196 70%

No Responses 84 30%

Total 280 100%

Table 11 above brings out the fact that 196 (70%) of the respondents said as they were

not affiliated they encourage our creative production industry by using our musicians,

photographers, movie stars etc in the advert copies they produce in Nigeria. While 84

(30%) gave no response.

Table 4:2.12: Respondents’ Views on their reason behind their answers to question

14 (table 10).

Responses Frequency Percentage

Whether we use them or not

does not really matter as

long as we get our copies

out. They can also make

their way to the top without

necessarily being used by

advert agencies in Nigeria.

158 56.4%

No Responses 122 43.6%

Total 280 100%

Table 12 above indicates that 158 (56.4%) of the respondents were of the view that

whether they used our creative production industry or not did not really matter much as

long as they get their copies from their affiliated multi-national. While 122 (43.6%) did

not respond.

51

Research Question 3: What is the effect of agency affiliation on the use and growth of

the local creative production industry comprising artistes, models, writers, musicians,

photographers and film producers?

In order to elicit answers to the above research question, the following questions guide

were asked:

- Do you think the advert agency‟s affiliation with the multi-national agency

has any impact on the agency‟s creative performance?

- Do you think the advert agency‟s non-affiliation with the multi-national

agency has any impact on the agency‟s creative performance?

- Are you in support of the view that non-affiliation encourages the growth of

the nation‟s creative productive industry?

- If yes, state how

- If No, state why

- Do you uphold the view that the affiliation discourages our creative

production industry?

- If yes, what are you reasons?

- If No, why?

Table 4:2.13: Respondents’ Views on impact of affiliation on the agency’s creative

performance.

Responses Frequency Percentage

Yes 174 62.1%

No 59 21.1%

No Responses 47 16.8%

Total 280 100%

Table 13 above shows that 174 (62.1%) said yes the agency‟s affiliation with multi-

national agency impacts on the agency‟s creative performance. 59 (21.1%) said No, it

does not while 47 (16.8%) did not respond.

52

Table 4:2.14: Respondents’ Views on impact of non-affiliation on the agency’s

creative performance.

Responses Frequency Percentage

Yes 168 60%

No 100 35.7%

No Responses 12 4.3%

Total 280 100%

Table 14 above indicates that 168 (60%) of the respondents equally said yes, that non

affiliation with multi-national agency impacts on the agency‟s creative performance. 100

(35.7%) said No, it does not while 12 (4.3%) gave no response.

Table 4:2.15: Respondents’ Views on non-affiliation impact on the nation’s creative

production industry.

Responses Frequency Percentage

Yes 182 65%

No 86 30.7%

No Responses 12 4.3%

Total 280 100%

Table 15 above shows that 182 (65%) of the respondents said yes, that non-affiliation

encourages the growth of the nation‟s creative production industry. 86 (30.7%) said No,

it does not while 12 (4.3%) gave no response.

Table 4:2.16: Respondents’ Views on their reason behind their answers to question

14 (Table 15).

Responses Frequency Percentage

As we are not affiliated, we

encourage our musicians,

photographers, movie stars

etc by using in the adverts

copies we produce here.

196 70%

No Responses 84 30%

Total 280 100%

53

Table 16 above shows that 196 (70%) of the respondents said as they were not affiliated,

they encourage our creative production industry by using our musicians, photographers,

movie stars etc in the advert copies they produce in Nigeria. While 84 (30%) gave no

response

Table 4:2.17: Respondents’ Views on their reason behind their answers to question

14 (table 15).

Responses Frequency Percentage

Whether we use them or not

does not really matter as

long as we get our copies

out. They can also make

their ways to the top

without necessarily being

used by advert agencies in

Nigeria.

158 56.4%

No Responses 122 43.6%

Total 280 100%

Table 17 above indicates that 158 (56.4%) of the respondents were of the view that

whether they used our creative production industry or not did not really matter much as

long as they get their copies from their affiliated multi-nationals, while 122 (43.6%) did

not respond.

Table 4:2.18: Respondents’ Views on affiliations discouraging our creative

production industry.

Responses Frequency Percentage

Yes 182 65%

No 84 30%

No Responses 14 5%

Total 280 100%

Table 18 above shows that 182 (65%) of the respondents said yes, that affiliation with

multi-national advert agency discourages our creative production industry. 84 (30%) did

not uphold that view while 14 (5%) gave no response.

54

Table 4:2.19: Respondents’ Views on their reason behind their answers to question

17 (Table 18).

Responses Frequency Percentage

We do not quite use our photographers, musicians etc,

because virtually everything has been packaged by our

multi-national affiliates

176 62.9%

No Responses 104 37.1%

Total 280 100%

Table 19 above states that 176 (62.9%) of the respondents clearly said they do not quite

use our photographers, musicians etc because virtually everything has been packaged by

their multi-national affiliates, while 104 (37.1%) did not respond.

Table 4:2.20: Respondents’ Views on their reason behind their answers to question

17 (table 18).

Responses Frequency Percentage

We do not discourage our creative production

industry because as we bring in concepts they take a

clue and do the right things as done outside Nigeria.

168 60%

No Responses 112 40%

Total 280 100%

Table 20 above shows that 168 (60%) of the respondents said they do not discourage our

creative production industry because as they bring in concepts, they (musicians,

photographers etc) take a clue and do the right things as done outside Nigeria while 112

(40%) gave no answers.

Research Question 4: To what extent does the media output of affiliated agencies

impact on our local cultures?

To obtain answers to the above research question, the following questions were put to the

respondents:

- Do you think affiliation or non-affiliation with multi-national avert agency

contributes to your agency‟s adherence to ethics in advert practice in Nigeria?

- Do you think the affiliation alters our national culture?

55

- It yes, state how

- Any comments on Globalization and Advertising Practice in Nigeria as

regards the role of agency affiliations or non-affiliations with multi-national

agencies.

Table 4:2.21: Respondents’ views on agency’s adherence to ethics in the practice.

Responses Frequency Percentage

Most agencies with multi-national affiliation do not

always adhere to the ethics of advert practice in Nigeria

because the bulk of their advert copies come fully

prepared by their affiliates outside Nigeria. For

instance, their images, slogans/pay offs 80 against the

Nigerian adverts ethics.

170 60.7%

Non-affiliated agencies tend to obey and abide by the

rules of the game here in Nigeria except in rare cases,

where they deviate a little once in a while.

68 24.3%

No Response 42 15%

Total 280 100%

Table 21 above indicates that 170 (60.7%) were of the view that agencies with multi-

national affiliation do not quite adhere to advert ethics in Nigeria. 68 (24.3%) said non-

affiliated agencies are ethically sound while 42 (15%) did not respond.

Table 4:2.22: Respondents’ views affiliation and national culture.

Responses Frequency Percentage

Yes 206 73.6%

No 74 26.4%

Total 280 100%

Table 22 above shows that 206 (73.6%) of the respondents said yes, the affiliation with

multi-national advert agencies alters our national culture while 74 (26.4%) said No, it

does not.

56

Table 4:2.23: Respondents’ views on their reason behind their answers to question

12 (table 22).

Responses Frequency Percentage

It is negatively adulterating our traditional values. Our

people now adopt the dressing codes/styles of the

models they see on the advert copies sent into Nigeria

by the multi-nationals advert agencies. Go out in the

streets and see things for yourself.

198 70.8%

No, it does mot alter our national culture because in the

first place Nigeria as a multi ethic nation has no single

culture so the affiliation with multi-national agencies

even helps us in getting a certain culture that fits with

the inter-national standard.

69 24.6%

No Response 13 4.6%

Total 280 100%

Table 23 above indicates that 198 (70.8%) of the respondents said the affiliation with

multi-national agencies adulterates our national culture while 69 (24.6%) were of view

that it does not because Nigeria does not even have a national culture based on its multi

ethics nature 13 (4.6%) did not respond.

Table 4:2.24: Respondents’ views on their comments on Globalization and

Advertising Practice in Nigeria as regards the impact of agency affiliations or non-

affiliations.

Responses Frequency Percentage

As every profession all over the world has virtually

globalized, advert practice in Nigeria should equally follow

the trend by affiliating with multi-national agencies but they

should endeavour to carry our creative production industry

along in other to encourage them to meet international

standard.

132 47.1%

I believe globalization is a window/door through which every

nation can show case their skills – talents, creativity, culture

94 33.6%

57

and so on. Hence Nigeria Advert sector should package their

copies here very well and portray our culture etc. There‟s no

need for affiliation.

No comments 54 19.3%

Total 280 100%

Table 24 above shoes that 132 (47.1%) of the respondents gave comments in supports of

affiliation with multi-national advert agencies while 94 (33.6%) advised that we should

avoid the affiliations and develop our advert industry and 54 (19.3%) did not comment.

4.3 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

This section of the study reviews the results presented in section 4.2 on Data

Presentation and Analysis. Relating this study‟s findings to other researchers‟ findings is

difficult as there is no known study at hand on the concept of Globalization and

Advertising Practice in Nigeria a study of the impact of agency affiliations.

This research, therefore, is a trail blazer in the direction of a study of this nature.

The discussion of findings is guided by the five research questions raised in Chapter one

section 1.5.

Research Question 1: What is the correlation between agency affiliation and agency

revenue generation?

In this question, the researcher found out that there is really a correlation between

agency affiliation and agency revenue generation. From the analysis reflected in section

4.2 tables 3, 4 and 5, it is quite clear that 49.3% of the respondents said they have worked

with an advert agency for 2 to 5 years; 97.5% of the respondents said they have worked

with an advert agency that is affiliated with a multi-national agency; and 58.9% of the

respondents said affiliated agencies generate higher revenue than non-affiliated ones.

Consequent upon the foregoing facts, it can rightly be deduced that there is

actually a correlation between agency affiliation and agency revenue generation.

Research Question 2: Does globalization impact positively on manpower development

in the Nigerian advertising industry?

58

On the aspect of this question, the researcher tried to find out if globalization

positively impacts on manpower development in the Nigerian advertising industry.

Based on the analysis of data elicited from tables 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12, it is evident

that globalization impacts positively on manpower development in the Nigerian

advertising industry. Being from the 62.1% of the respondents who said agency

affiliation with multi-national agencies positively impacts on Nigerian agencies creative

performance, 60% of the respondents equally said that non-affiliation with multi-national

agency impacts on their agencies creative performance. 58.6% of the respondents said

their affiliation with multi-national agency they contribute immensely to the Nigerian

economic growth. 65% of the respondents said that their non-affiliation encourages the

growth of the nation‟s creative production industry. 70% of the respondents stated that as

they were not affiliated they encourage our musicians, photographers, movie stars etc in

the advert copies.

Based on the above facts, the researcher found out that globalization impact

positively on manpower development in the Nigerian advertising industry.

Research Question 3: What is the effect of agency affiliation on the use and growth of

the local creative production industry comprising artistes, models, writers, musicians,

photographers and film producers?

On this question, the researcher found out the affiliation with multi-national

advert agencies is really affecting the use and growth of the local creative production

industry negatively. From the analysis stated in tables 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 and

19 above, 65% of the respondents said that non-affiliation encourages the growth of the

nation‟s creative production industry. 70% also upheld this view by their use of our

musician, photographers; movie stars etc. while 56.4% categorically stated that whether

they used the local productive industry or not did not really matter as long as they get

their advert copies out from their affiliated multi-nationals.

From the foregoing analysis, the researcher found out that the affiliation with

multi-national advert agencies is really affecting the use and growth of the local creative

production industry negatively.

59

Research Question 4: To what extent does the media output of affiliated agencies

impact on our local cultures?

On this question, the researcher found out that the affiliation with multi-national

agencies impacts negatively on our local cultures. Following the analysis reflected in

section 4.2; tables 22, 23 and 24 it is evident that 73.6% of the respondents said that the

affiliation with multi-national advert agencies truly alters our national culture, 70.8% of

the respondents equally gave their reasons behind their stating that the affiliation with

multi-national advert agencies really alters national culture while 47.1% of the

respondents were of the view that Nigerian advert agencies should join the Globalization

trend by affiliating with other multi-nationals and 33.6% of the respondents said if

Nigerian advert agencies should affiliate they should use the opportunity to show care our

culture creativity and so on.

From the aforementioned facts the researcher found out that the affiliation with

multi-national agencies negatively affects our national culture

60

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The globalization concept has, in recent years, attracted growing research. Joseph

Stiglitz (2002,p.24) draws attention to the devastating effects globalization can have on

developing countries and especially the poor within. He came to the conclusion that

globalization can be a force for good but that the way it has been managed and imposed

on developing countries need to be radically rethought.

However, while many studies that address Mass Communication effects of

globalization have been carried out, there has been very little research interest on the

impact of globalization on the practice of advertising in a developing economy like

Nigeria. Based on this basic fact, it becomes necessarily important to ascertain the level

of impact of agency affiliations in Nigeria advert industry in terms of globalization and

advertising practice.

5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The following is a summary of the findings:

1. There is actually a correlation between agency affiliation and agency revenue

generation. This is deduced from the fact that 97.5% of the respondents who

have worked with an advert agency affiliated with multi-national agency said

affiliated agencies generate higher revenue than non-affiliated ones.

2. Globalization impacts positively on manpower development in Nigerian

advertising industry. This is clear as 62.1% of the respondents said agency

affiliation with multi-national agencies positively impacts on Nigerian advert

agencies creative performance. 58.6% of them said that through affiliation

with multi-national agency, they contribute immensely to Nigerian economic

growth.

3. The affiliation with multi-national advert agencies is really affecting the use

and growth of the local creative production industry negatively. This finding

was elicited from the fact that 65% of the respondents said that non-affiliation

61

encourages the growth of the nation‟s creative production industry. 70% also

upheld this view by stating that they use our local musician, photographers,

movie stars etc. but 56.4% categorically stated that whether they use our local

creative productive industry or not did not really matter as long as they get

their copies out from their multi-national affiliated advert agencies.

4. The affiliation with multi-national advert agencies truly alters our national

culture. This is based on the fact that 73.6% of the respondents said it alters

our national culture as our people now adopt the dressing codes/styles of the

models they see on the advert copies sent into Nigeria by the multi-national

agencies.

5.2 CONCLUSION

This research work was undertaken so as to ascertain the level

globalization and advertising practice in Nigeria have gone in terms of the impact

of agency affiliations. The researcher‟s findings, so far, revealed that the concept

of globalization and advertising practice in Nigeria has actually a correlation

between agency affiliation and agency revenue generation; Globalization impacts

positively on manpower development in Nigerian advertising industry; the

affiliation with multi-national advert agencies is really affecting the use and

growth of the local creative production industry negatively and the affiliation with

multi-nationals truly alters our national culture.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

Generated data and analysis of findings in this study have clearly shown

that there is actually a correlation between agency affiliation and agency revenue

generation which invariably indicates that globalization impacts positively on

manpower development in Nigerian advertising industry.

The research findings also confirmed that affiliation with multi-national

advert agencies is really affecting the use and growth of our local creative

production industry negatively and our national culture has been altered

drastically.

62

It is therefore, recommended that further inquiries into globalization and

advertising practice in Nigeria (a study of impact of agency affiliations) be done

regularly in order to update the records.

There is also the need for a pan-Nigerian study of the effects of foreign produced

commercials (in terms of concepts and models) on the evolution of local culture.

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Akindele, S., Gidado, T., Olaopo (2002). Globalisation, its implications and

consequences for Africa. Retrieved May 12, 2007 from

http://lass.calumet.purdue.edu/cca/gmj/fa05/gmj-fa05-lyons.htm

Asika, N. (2006). Research methodology in the behavioural sciences. Lagos: Longman

Baran, S. (2004). Introduction to mass communication. New York: McGraw Hill.

Bartlett, C., & Ghoshal, S. (1989). Managing Across Borders. Harvard Business School

Press: Boston, MA.

Berkman, H.W. & Gilson, C. (1987) Advertising: Concept and strategies. New York:

Random House.

Bloom, R. (1988) “The Agency of the Future”, in Adweek, November 7, 1988. New

York; Advert Council.

Boyd-Barrett, J.O. (1977). Media Imperialism: Towards an international framework for

an analusis of media systems. In J. Curran. M. Gurevitch and J. Woollacott

(eds.), Mass communication and society, (pp. 116-135). London: Edward Arnold.

Boyd-Barrett, O., & Rantanen, T. (2002). Theorizing the new agencies. In D. Mcquail

(Ed.), Mcquail’s reader in mass communication theory (pp.216-221). London:

Sage Publications.

Burnet, R. (1996) The Global Jukebox. London: Routledge.

Caves, R.E. (1999). Multinational Enterprise and Economic Analysis. Cambridge

University Press: Cambridge, UK.

Chalaby, J. (2003) “Television for a new global order”, in Television Gazette.

New York: Sage.

Cutlip, S.M; Center, A.H; & Broom,G.M (2006) Effective Public Relations (9th Edition).

New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Dunn, S.W. & Barban, A.M (1978) Advertising: its role in modern marketing.

(4th Ed).Illinois: Dryden Press

Eisenberg, D. (2002) “It‟s an ad, ad, ad world” in Time Magazine. September 2, Edition.

New York.

64

Galtung, J. (1979). A structural theory of imperialism. In G. Modelski (ed.),

Transnational corporations and world order: Readings in international political

economy (pp 155-171) San Francisco:W.H. Freeman and Company

Gerbner, G. (1977). Comparitive cultural indicators. In G. Gerbner (Ed.), Mass media

policies in changing cultures (pp. 199-205). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1986). Perspectives on media

effects. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds). Living with television. Hillsdale:

Erlbaum

Hamelink, C.J. (1983). Cultural autonomy in global communications. New York:

Longman

Hymer, S. 91960). The International operations Of National Firms: A Study of Foreign

Direct Investment. MIT.

Kogure, G. (1998) “The First Decade” in open communications in the 21st century.

England Atalink Ltd.

Lazarsfeld, P. F., Cantril, H., & Stanton, F. (1939). Current radio research in universities.

Journal of applied psychology, 23, 201-204

Link, J.H. (1984). Test of the cultural dependency hypothesis. In R. Steveneson and D.

Shaw (eds.), Foreign news and the new world information order (pp 186-199).

Ames: Iowa State University Press.

Lintas: Lagos (1978). Fifty years growing. Lagos: Lintas

MacBride, S., & Roach, C. (2000).The new international information order. In F. J.

Lechner & J. Boli (Eds.), The globalization reader (pp.286-292). Malden:

Blackwell Publishers.

Mattleart, A. (1994). Mapping world communication. Minneapolis, University of

Minnesota Press

McLuhan, M., & Powers, B. R. (1989). The global village: transformations in world life

and media in the 21st century. New York: Oxford University Press.

McPhail, T.L. (1987). Electronic colonialism: The future of international broadcasting

and communication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Mc Quail, D. (2005) Mc Quail’s Mass Communication Theory (5th Ed) London: Sage

McQuail, D. (2005). Mcquail’s mass communication theory. London: Sage publications.

65

Nachum, L. (1999). The Origins of the International Competitiveness of Firms: The

Impact of Location and Ownership in Professional Service Industries. Edward

Elgar: Aldershot.

Negus, K. (1992) Producing Pop. London, Arnold

North, D. (1990) Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. New

York: Cambridge

Nwana, O. (1981) Introduction to educational research, Ibadan: Heinemann Educational

Book Ltd.

Okoro, N. (2001) Mass communication research: Issues and methodologies. Nsukka:

AP Express Publishers.

Paterson, T. (1998) “Political roles of the journalist,” in the politics of News: the news of

politics. Grabber, D; Mc Quail, D; and Norris, P. (eds) Washington D.C:

Congressional Quarterly Press.

Roach, C. (1997). Cultural imperialism and resistance in media theory and literary

theory. Media, Culture and Society.

Russell, T. & Lane, R. (1990) Kleppner’s Advertising Procedure (11th

Ed). New Jersey:

Prentice Hall.

Salwen, M.B. (1991). Cultural imperialism: A media effects approach. Critical studies in

Mass Communication.

Sandage, C. H; Fryburger, V., & Rotzoll, K. (1980) Advertising Theory and Practice.

New York: Longman.

Schramm, W. (1954). The process and effects of mass communication. Urbana:

University of Illinois Press.

Shannon, J. (1998). Today‟s developments; tomorrow‟s industry. In N. Giges (Ed.), Open

communications in the 21st century. London: Atalink Ltd.

Sorrel, M (1998). Opportunities and threats. In N. Giges (Ed.), Open communications in

the 21st century. London: Atalink Ltd.

Stiglitz, J (2002). Globalisation and its discontents. London : Penguin Books.

Stiglitz, J. (2006). Making globalization work. New York: W. W. Norton

Stiglitz, J.E. (2006). Making globalization work. New York: W. W. Norton

66

Stiglitz, J. E. (2002). Globalization and its discontents. England : Penguin Books.

Sui-Nam Lee, P. (1995). A case against the thesis of communication imperialism: The

audience’s response to foreignTV in Hong Kong. Australian Journal of

Communication

Tomlinson, J. (1991). Cultural imperialism: A critical introduction. Baltimore: John

Hopkins University Press

Tomlinson, J. (2002). The discourse of cultural imperialism. In D. McQuail

(Ed.), Mcquail’s reader in mass communication theory (pp.223-237). London:

Sage Publications.

Tunstall, J. (1992) “Europe as a world news leader”, in Journal of communication.

Tunstall, J. and Machin, D. (1999) The Anglo American Media Connection. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Williamson, O. (2000). Strategy Research: Governance and Competence Perspectives.

Strategic Management Journal.

Wimmer, R. D. and Dominick, J. R. (2003). Mass media research: An introduction

(7th ed) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Zaheer, S. (1995). Overcoming the liability of foreignness. Academy of Management

Journal.