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As a trainer of interpreters at the University of Wolverhampton, I find it very rewarding to see the development in students as they move successfully through the programme. Graduation is a very proud day for all involved. However, as you will all know, training to be an interpreter is not always easy and many student interpreters seem to lack self-belief and suffer low confidence.

The impact of nerves and anxiety on students’ ability to demonstrate their skills at the required level (even when they have the requisite skills) is clear during assessments. This type of anxiety is not limited to student interpreters; many qualified and experienced interpreters will have come out in a cold sweat when undertaking a particularly challenging assignment. There are many other professions where anxiety can be a barrier to performance.

Athletes, musicians, actors and teachers all seem to have similar experiences.

As I began to look at ways to help students manage their anxiety, I explored the following areas:

What is anxiety and how do performance anxiety and foreign language anxiety differ from general anxiety?

What is it that student/qualified interpreters fear?

How does anxiety affect them? What strategies can be used to alleviate

any negative effects from anxiety? Are there any positive aspects to

performance anxiety?

Trait, state, performance and foreign language anxietiesThe exploration of anxiety is generally broken down into either trait anxiety (‘proneness to experiencing anxiety’) or state anxiety (‘anxiety in response to a specific situation perceived to be dangerous or threatening’) (Psychology Dictionary). Historically, anxiety studies related to interpreting have also used these general anxiety types: ‘utilizing trait anxiety scales, state anxiety, or a combination of both trait and state anxiety scales’. (Chiang 2010: 596)

Spotlight stressPerformance anxiety can undermine our interpreting. Thaïsa Whistance reports on its causes and consequences and offers tips on making sure our adrenalin works to our advantage

‘There are other professions where anxiety can be a barrier to performance. Athletes, musicians, actors and teachers all seem to have similar experiences’

14 Newsli issue 95 January 2016

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However, the anxiety experienced by student/working interpreters may not fit neatly into these two categories. While it is certainly true that some interpreting students may be prone to levels of ‘trait anxiety’, it is not true of all of them. Similarly, although assessments can be nerve-wracking and their results highly significant, they are not a dangerous or threatening undertaking. For working interpreters there are, of course, some jobs which will provoke greater feelings of anxiety than others and ‘the situations triggering anxiety will also differ among a group of interpreters, even when they have similar trait anxiety scores’. (Chiang 2010: 597)

The type of anxiety experienced by interpreters may be explained by looking at other types of anxiety that researchers have categorised; for example, ‘performance anxiety’ (Csikszentmihalyi 1975) or ‘foreign-language/FL anxiety’ (Chiang 2010; Horwitz et al 1986).

Chiang (2010: 596) found that ‘trait anxiety and FL anxiety in Taiwanese student interpreters were two related but distinguishable psychological phenomena’. The sense of anxiety in the case of foreign-language learners is heightened by being called upon to use their second language to communicate ideas, when they may not necessarily feel very confident or secure in their Language 2 (L2) production. Horwitz et al describe foreign-language anxiety as ‘a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviours related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process’ (1986: 31). For sign language interpreters, our use of L2 (or 3 or 4…) is carried out in front of an audience of sorts. For a student interpreter, that may be an audience of assessors and role-play participants and for working

interpreters it will be whomever is involved in the particular assignment being undertaken. This ‘performance’ element is something we have in common with musicians, actors and sports people, as Smith and Smoll have determined. ‘Athletic performance anxiety is thus part of a family of performance-related fear-of-failure that include test anxiety, speech anxiety and the stage fright that actors, musicians and dancers can experience within their evaluative performance situations.’ (1990: 421)

So it appears that student/working interpreters may suffer from trait anxiety, or that their anxiety may be a reaction to an assessment or assignment that they perceive to be threatening in the sense that the outcome could be highly significant for them (state anxiety). There is then the added factor of the use of a language which is not their first language (FL anxiety) and the element of ‘performance’ which can add to the level of anxiety.

Causes and negative effects of anxietyHaving determined the types of anxiety that interpreters and students may be experiencing, it is important to explore the reasons why that anxiety is triggered. Fullager et al (2013) used Csikszentmihalyi’s construct of ‘flow’ (1975) (a state of concentration so focused that it amounts to absolute absorption in an activity) to examine the role

‘Anxiety may be elevated when undertaking an assignment where there may be high demand but low control’


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of skill/challenge balance in music performance anxiety (MPA). They found that ‘both flow and performance anxiety were associated with the balance between the perceived skills necessary to perform a task and the perceived challenges inherent in the task. Flow was more likely to occur for tasks where challenges and skills were balanced, whereas performance anxiety was associated with tasks where the challenge did not match the skills of the performer.’ (2013: 246)

Students undertaking assessments may not be confident that their skills are at the requisite level for flow to occur. It is likely that this is part of what creates the anxiety associated with assessments. For practising interpreters, anxiety may be elevated when undertaking an assignment where we are less experienced or where there may be high demand but low control (Dean and Pollard 2001).

Smith and Smoll found that ‘the most salient sources of threat are the possibilities of failure and of disapproval by significant others who are evaluating the athlete’s performance in relation to some standard of excellence’ (1990: 421). This is also discussed by Lasagabaster and Sierra who discuss the ‘unpleasantness that a feeling of being monitored can cause’ when teachers are being observed in the classroom (2011: 456).

Similarly, Horwitz et al found that: ‘Foreign language anxiety concerns performance evaluation within an academic and social context. It is useful to draw parallels between it and three related performance anxieties: 1) communication apprehension; 2) test anxiety; and 3) fear of negative evaluation.’ (1986: 127)

Fear of negative evaluation is also a factor in music performance anxiety. Wells et al, in their research into the impact of slow breathing techniques to alleviate MPA, found that this type of anxiety ‘may arise from acute awareness of the possibility for negative evaluation leading to physiological symptoms which subsequently interfere with successful performance’ (2012: 9).

What is interesting here is that the anxiety actually leads to symptoms which prevent the musician from performing their tasks successfully. Nieuwenhuys and Oudejans (2011: 747) explore the effects of anxiety on ‘cognitive performance (eg, taking an important exam) as well as perceptual- motor performance (eg, picking up a cup from a table).’ For sign language interpreters, any negative impact on perceptual motor skills will inhibit their ability to produce signs. In my experience, this can be seen in students, specifically in relation to the production of fingerspelling and numbers in BSL, which seem to be negatively affected during assessments.

There are other negative effects of anxiety on the student interpreters’ ability to produce a rendition which reflects their skill level. Firstly, the fear of negative evaluation by their peers can affect students’ attendance and they may miss out on important learning and development opportunities. Horwitz et al describe anxious students as experiencing ‘apprehension, worry, even dread. They have difficulty concentrating, become

‘Any negative impact on perceptual motor skills will inhibit the ability to produce signs. This can be seen in students, specifically in the production of fingerspelling and numbers in BSL’


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forgetful, sweat, and have palpitations. They exhibit avoidance behaviour such as missing class and postponing homework.’ (1986:126)

In a review paper looking at literature which explores the effects of acute stress on health professionals, LeBlanc came to the following conclusion: ‘Elevated stress levels can impede performance on tasks that require divided attention, working memory, retrieval of information from memory, and decision making’ (2009). This is obviously very significant for interpreters who are required to use all of these functions.

It may be that these effects lead students to stick to less risky or complex linguistic constructions than they may otherwise have chosen. ‘The more anxious student tends to avoid attempting difficult or personal messages in the target language,’ Horowitz et al have found (1986:126).

So it is clear that there are several debilitating effects associated with being excessively anxious during an exam or assignment. It does seem, however, that the way you perceive the upcoming event can be significant.

How do we alleviate the negative effects of performance or foreign language anxiety?In a study of performance anxiety in musicians, Tomaka et al (1993, cited in Simoens 2013: 12) demonstrated that individuals who perceived a task as a challenge had more positive physiological changes leading towards energy mobilisation than those who perceived the task as a threat. The psychological shift in perspective, to seeing the assessment as a great opportunity to demonstrate how far you have come and how well your skills have developed, can be

helpful in reducing feelings of anxiety and the associated ‘symptoms’. Those students who have prepared effectively for an assessment, who have attended classes and done the work required outside of the classroom, may find that looking at assessments through the lens of challenge and opportunity is an effective strategy.

In their work exploring emotional stability as a predictor of interpreter aptitude, Bontempo and Napier advise that ‘teaching interpreting students and accredited practitioners to better manage anxiety and occupational stress may be conducive to improving their interpreting performance’ (2011: 10). How do we go about this, though?

LeBlanc (2009: s30) categorises the two possible approaches to this as ‘skills-based training or as stress management interventions’.

The current focus in the classroom tends to be on the skills-based training element, but perhaps building in some stress management techniques and awareness of other ways to view assessment could be helpful. For example, the final year interpreting students this year at the University of Wolverhampton have been tasked with watching a lecture by Dr Steve Joordens (2015), who gives some very sound advice on how to turn something which feels

‘Individuals who perceived a task as a challenge had more positive physiological changes leading towards energy mobilisation than those who perceived the task as a threat’


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like a ‘failure’ into an opportunity to learn and grow. He talks about how to change your perspective on failure or critical feedback and this was well received by the students.

Dr Joordens’ philosophy is echoed by Nishitani and Matsuda, who state that it is important for students to ‘understand that they can learn much through their mistakes, and that their fear of making a mistake may be because they wrongly assume that it gives others a bad impression’ (2011: 444).

One of the changes in mindset that can be helpful is to view any form of feedback as something to be valued or treasured. I encourage students to welcome all feedback, regardless of what they may perceive the motivation of the giver of feedback to be. Anything that helps you to gain an understanding of someone else’s perception of your skills is useful, in the sense that it allows you to examine your part in creating that perception and decide what action you can take to improve it; after all, that is all you can realistically change.

It seems wise then to encourage a classroom culture where ‘mistakes’ are seen as learning opportunities for the student and their classmates. This helps to alleviate the stress associated with fear of negative evaluation from peers and leads to a more open learning environment. When assessment time comes around, students

may then feel a little more relaxed, having been happy to participate and ‘perform’ in class more often in the lead up to the assessment period. This would tie in with Horwitz et al’s assertion that ‘educators have two options when dealing with anxious students: 1) they can help them learn to cope with the existing anxiety-provoking situation; or 2) they can make the learning context less stressful.’ (1986: 131)

Cho and Roger (2010: 169) found a ‘number of possible benefits of linking theatrical training to interpreting study for the purpose of overcoming performance anxiety and improving extemporaneous performance skills’. The exercises undertaken by the student interpreters in their study included memory, anticipation and improvisation tasks. It may be that the introduction of this type of exercises into the classroom would be of some benefit.

It seems obvious, but actually putting in the required amount of work is a way to alleviate anxiety. Students need to undertake the learning tasks and self-directed learning that is given to them to give themselves the very best chance of being ready to view the assessment as a challenge, but not outside of their ability level. Interpreters undertaking a job that has the potential to cause anxiety can ensure that they have adequately prepared themselves. In a study of MPA in flute players, Kenny et al found that ‘those practising least reported the highest levels of MPA’ (2011: 322).

There may be other ways that students can help themselves be emotionally ready for assessment time. Lin et al (2008) studied the effects of Chan (Zen) meditation on MPA and found that ‘enhanced concentration and mindfulness (silent illumination), cultivated by Chan practice, might enable one to channel

‘It seems wise then to encourage a classroom culture where “mistakes” are seen as learning opportunities for the student and their classmates’


performance anxiety to improve musical performance’ (2008: 139). The rise of ‘mindfulness’ as a practice is worth exploring. Barbosa et al (2013: 13) found that there had been a ‘significant reduction in students’ levels of anxiety’ following their participation in ‘The Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program… founded by Jon Kabat-Zinn, PhD, in 1979’.

Rathsclag and Memmert (2015) looked at the effects of ‘self-generated emotions’ on the

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‘Understanding what it is that you are really afraid of gives you the opportunity to get to grips with why you may be feeling anxious’

Barbosa, P, Raymond, G, Zlotnick, C, Wilk, J, Toomey, R and Mitchell, J (2013) ‘Mindfulness-based stress reduction training is associated with greater empathy and reduced anxiety for graduate healthcare students’ in Education for Health: Changes in learning & practice 26(1) pp9-14. Bontempo, K and Napier, J (2011) ‘Evaluating emotional stability as a predictor of interpreter competence and aptitude for interpreting’ in Interpreting 13(1) pp85-105. Chiang, Y N (2010) ‘Foreign Language Anxiety and Student Interpreters’ Learning Outcomes: Implications for the Theory and Measurement of Interpretation Learning Anxiety’ in Meta: journal des traducteurs/Meta: Translators’ Journal 55(3) pp589-601. Cho, J and Roger, P (2010) ‘Improving Interpreting Performance through Theatrical Training’ in The Interpreter and Translator Trainer 4(2) pp151-171. Clifford, A (2015) Three tips for coping with performance anxiety [Blog entry, Accessed 28.09.15] Available at: www.glendon.yorku.ca/interpretation/three-tips-for-coping-with-performance-anxiety/. Csikszentmihalyi, M (1975) Beyond boredom and anxiety: Experiencing flow in work and play, San Fransisco, CA: Jossey: Bass. Cuddy, A (2012) Your body language shapes who you are [Accessed 28 September 2015] Available at: http://www.ted.com/talks/amy_cuddy_your_body_language_shapes_who_you_are?language=en. Davis, J (2005) ‘Teaching observation techniques to interpreters’ in Roy, C (ed) (2005) Advances in teaching Sign Language Interpreters, Washington Gallaudet: University Press. Dean, R and Pollard, R Q (2001) ‘The application of demand-control theory to sign language interpreting: Implications for stress and interpreter training’ in Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 6 pp 1-14. Dean, R and Pollard, R Q (2013) DC-S The Demand Control Schema: Interpreting as a Practice Profession, North Charleston: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. Fullager C J, Knight, P A, and Sovern, H S (2013) ‘Challenge/Skill Balance, Flow, and Performance Anxiety’ in Applied Psychology: An International review 62(2) pp236–259. Horwitz, E K, Horwitz, B and Cope, J (1986) ‘Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety’ in The Modern Language Journal 70(2) pp125-132. Jimenez, A and Pinazo, D (2001) ‘I failed because I got very nervous: Anxiety and performance in interpreter trainees: an empirical study’ in The Interpreters’ Newsletter 11, EUT.

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sprint performance of 24 sports students. The emotions that students were encouraged to invoke were ‘happiness’ (done by recalling


a happy personal event), ‘anxiety’ (recalling an anxious moment) and ‘emotion-neutral’ (invoked by imagining themselves brushing their teeth). ‘Participants’ sprint performances were significantly enhanced in the happiness condition compared with the emotion-neutral and anxiety conditions, and, thus, we found a performance-increasing effect for the emotion of happiness.’ (2015: 191)

The authors therefore recommend that athletes, having settled upon a particularly

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Joordens, S (2015) How to learn from failure [Accessed 21/11/2015] Available at: www. youtu.be/Ju8a7LtD6Cw Kenny, D T, Fortune, J M and Ackermann, B (2011) ‘Predictors of music performance anxiety during skilled performance in tertiary flute players’ in Psychology of Music 41(3) pp306-328. Lasagabaster, D and Sierra, J M (2011) ‘Classroom observation: desirable conditions established by teachers’ in European Journal of Teacher Education 34(4) pp449-463. LeBlanc, V R (2009) ‘The Effects of Acute Stress on Performance: Implications for Health Professions Education’ in Academic Medicine 84(10) pp525-533. Lin, P, Chang, J, Zemon, V and Midlarsky, E (2008) ‘Silent illumination: a study on Chan (Zen) meditation, anxiety, and musical performance quality’ in Psychology of Music 36(2) pp139-155. Nieuwenhuys, A and Oudejans, R R D (2011) Psychological Research 76 pp747–759. Nishitani, M and Matsuda, T (2011) ‘The Relationship between Language Anxiety, Interpretation of Anxi-ety, Intrinsic Motivation and the Use of Learning Strategies’ in US-China Education Review pp438-446. Psychology Dictionary What is trait anxiety? [Accessed 21/11/2015] Available at: www.psychologydic-tionary.org/trait-anxiety/. Simoens, V L (2013) ‘Are music performance anxiety and performance boost perceived as extremes of the same continuum?’ in Psychology of Music pp1-17. Smith, R T and Smoll, F L (1990) ‘Sports Performance anxiety’ in Leitenberg, H (ed) Handbook of Social and Evaluation Anxiety, New York: Springer Science Business Media. Tomaka, J, Blascovich, J, Kelsey, R M and Leitten, C L (1993) ‘Subjective, physiological, and behavioral effects of threat and challenge appraisal’ in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65(2) pp248–260. Wells, R, Outhred, T, Heathers, J, Quintana, D and Kemp, A (2012) Matter over Mind: A Randomised-Controlled Trial of Single-Session Biofeedback Training on Performance Anxiety and Heart Rate Variability in Musicians, PLOSONE 7(10). Rathschlag, M and Memmert, D (2015) ‘Self-Generated Emotions and Their Influence on Sprint Performance: An Investigation of Happiness and Anxiety’ in Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 27(2) pp186-199.

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happy memory, ‘self-generate the emotion of happiness directly before the beginning of the sprint’. It is certainly worth interpreters giving this a try.

In his blog post with tips for interpreters coping with performance anxiety, Clifford (2015) recommends that those suffering with such anxiety ‘figure out what it is that you’re saying to yourself that is hitting your “panic button” as “thoughts create emotions” rather than the other way around’. Understanding


negative evaluation by assessors can feel daunting but what about if you thought that the assessors were waiting to catch you doing something right?

Be prepared and make sure you put in the extra hours to develop your skills to the requisite level.

Accept that you will make mistakes in your learning environment. Making an error creates a learning opportunity for everyone and an opportunity to discuss ways not to make it again. For qualified interpreters, actively engage in collaborative CPD activities that offer you this same opportunity.

Learn from your peers, tutors, and more experienced interpreters and be assured that they have all had the same anxious feelings at some point.

When someone offers you feedback (whether it be solicited or unsolicited, constructive or critical in nature), welcome it with open arms and sincerely thank the giver for taking their time to provide you with an opportunity to become a better interpreter.

Do a situational/picture analysis to ensure that you have thought through the potential demands and available controls.

View the upcoming assessment or assignment as a challenge and an opportunity to demonstrate your skills.

Ensure that you are placing your attention on what is important rather than being drawn into focusing on negative thoughts.

Take time for relaxation, slow breathing, meditation, mindfulness exercises, or whatever else works for you.

Find your happy place. What special memory can invoke those feelings of happiness and wellbeing that can enhance your performance?

Pose like a superhero and keep things in perspective!

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what it is that you are really afraid of gives you the opportunity to rationally weigh up the issue and get to grips with why you may be feeling anxious.

Along similar lines, Cuddy (2012) recommends the practice of ‘power posing’ as a way to build confidence and self-belief before a big event, as it has been shown to lower levels of the stress hormone cortisol.

Student/working interpreters may be trained to undertake picture analysis, first developed by Dean and Pollard ‘as a way to teach the analysis of the EIPI demand categories in various interpreted settings’ (Davis 2005: 34). Applying this type of thinking to a forthcoming interpreting assessment scenario is useful in allowing students to think through what the demands are in each of the EIPI categories, (see Dean and Pollard 2013 for more information about the categories and suggested class activities). This type of preparation should include the consideration of intrapersonal demands that may occur, so that students can then explore the available controls in relation to managing their feelings of stress and anxiety.

Useful strategiesHaving examined the types of anxiety that may be suffered by student interpreters, and the factors which cause the anxiety; it seems that, rather than being powerless in the face of assessment/assignment nerves, there are strategies that can be employed to mitigate the detrimental effects of anxiety.

Recognise the fact that anxiety is a natural response when you are facing something that you may perceive as threatening. There are very good reasons for the body to react in this way. However, ask yourself if the threat is as real as you fear. For example, fear of

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