16OUR PASTS – II

M any new dynasties emerged after the seventh century. Map 1 shows the major ruling

dynasties in different parts of the subcontinent betweenthe seventh and twelfth centuries.

2NEW KINGS AND

KINGDOMS

Map 1Major kingdoms,

seventh-twelfth

centuries

Locate theGurjara-Pratiharas,Rashtrakutas,Palas, Cholasand Chahamanas(Chauhans).Can you identifythe present-daystates over whichthey exercisedcontrol?

?

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?

The Emergence of New Dynasties

By the seventh century there were big landlords orwarrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent.Existing kings often acknowledged them as theirsubordinates or samantas. They wereexpected to bring gifts for theirkings or overlords, be present attheir courts and provide them withmilitary support. As samantas gainedpower and wealth, they declaredthemselves to be maha-samanta,maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord ofa “circle” or region) and so on.Sometimes they asserted theirindependence from their overlords.

One such instance was that of theRashtrakutas in the Deccan. Initiallythey were subordinate to the Chalukyasof Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century,Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief,overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritualcalled hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb). Whenthis ritual was performed with the help of Brahmanas, itwas thought to lead to the “rebirth” of the sacrificer as aKshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.

In other cases, men from enterprising families usedtheir military skills to carve out kingdoms. For instance,the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas who gave uptheir traditional professions and took to arms,successfully establishing kingdoms in Karnataka andRajasthan respectively.

Administration in the Kingdoms

Many of these new kings adopted high-sounding titlessuch as maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord ofkings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the threeworlds) and so on. However, in spite of such claims,

NEW KINGS ANDKINGDOMS

Do you thinkbeing born as aKshatriya wasimportant in orderto become a rulerduring this period?

Fig. 1Wall relief from Cave

15, Ellora, showing

Vishnu as Narasimha,

the man-lion.

It is a work of the

Rashtrakuta period.

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18OUR PASTS – II

?

they often shared power with their samantas as well aswith associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas.

In each of these states, resources were obtained fromthe producers – that is, peasants, cattle-keepers,artisans – who were often persuaded or compelled tosurrender part of what they produced. Sometimesthese were claimed as “rent” due to a lord who assertedthat he owned the land. Revenue was also collectedfrom traders.

Four hundred taxes!

The inscriptions of the Cholas who ruled in Tamil Nadurefer to more than 400 terms for different kinds of taxes.The most frequently mentioned tax is vetti, taken not incash but in the form of forced labour, and kadamai, orland revenue. There were also taxes on thatching thehouse, the use of a ladder to climb palm trees, a cess onsuccession to family property, etc.

Are any such taxes collected today?

These resources were used to finance the king’sestablishment, as well as for the construction of templesand forts. They were also used to fight wars, which werein turn expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth in theform of plunder, and access to land as well as trade routes.

The functionaries for collecting revenue weregenerally recruited from influential families, andpositions were often hereditary. This was true aboutthe army as well. In many cases, close relatives of theking held these positions.

Prashastis and Land Grants

Prashastis contain details that may not be literally true.But they tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves– as valiant, victorious warriors, for example. These werecomposed by learned Brahmanas, who occasionallyhelped in the administration.

?

In what ways wasthis form ofadministrationdifferent from thepresent-daysystem?

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Fig. 2This is a set of copper

plates recording a

grant of land made by

a ruler in the ninth

century, written partly

in Sanskrit and partly

in Tamil. The ring

holding the plates

together is secured

with the royal seal, to

indicate that this is an

authentic document.

Also, see if youcan find some ofthe areasmentioned in theinscription onMap 1.Other rulers madesimilar claims aswell. Why do youthink they madethese claims?

?

NEW KINGS ANDKINGDOMS

The “achievements” of Nagabhata

Many rulers described their achievements in prashastis(you read about the prashasti of the Gupta rulerSamudragupta last year).

One prashasti, written in Sanskrit and found inGwalior, Madhya Pradesh, describes the exploits ofNagabhata, a Pratihara king, as follows:

The kings of Andhra, Saindhava (Sind), Vidarbha (part of

Maharashtra) and Kalinga (part of Orissa) fell before him even

as he was a prince …

He won a victory over Chakrayudha (the ruler of Kanauj) …

He defeated the king of Vanga (part of Bengal), Anarta (part

of Gujarat), Malava (part of Madhya Pradesh), Kirata (forest

peoples), Turushka (Turks), Vatsa, Matsya (both kingdoms in

north India) …

Kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land.These were recorded on copper plates, which were givento those who received the land.

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20OUR PASTS – II

?

What was given with the land

This is part of the Tamil section of a land grant given bythe Cholas:

We have demarcated the boundaries of the land by making

earthen embankments, as well as by planting thorny bushes.

This is what the land contains: fruit-bearing trees, water,

land, gardens and orchards, trees, wells, open spaces, pasture-

land, a village, anthills, platforms, canals, ditches, rivers,

silt-laden land, tanks, granaries, fish ponds, bee hives, and

deep lakes.

He who receives the land can collect taxes from it. He can

collect the taxes imposed by judicial officers as fines, the tax

on betel-leaves, that on woven cloth, as well as on vehicles.

He can build large rooms, with upper stories made of baked

bricks, he can get large and small wells dug, he can plant

trees and thorny bushes, if necessary, he can get canals

constructed for irrigation. He should ensure that water is not

wasted, and that embankments are built.

List all the possible sources of irrigation mentionedin the inscription, and discuss how these might have

been used.

Unusual for the twelfth century was a long Sanskritpoem containing the history of kings who ruled overKashmir. It was composed by an author namedKalhana. He used a variety of sources, includinginscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts andearlier histories, to write his account. Unlike the writersof prashastis, he was often critical about rulers andtheir policies.

Warfare for Wealth

You may have noticed that each of these rulingdynasties was based in a specific region. At the sametime, they tried to control other areas. One particularly

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?prized area was the city of Kanauj in the Ganga valley.For centuries, rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara,Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for control overKanauj. Because there were three “parties” in this long-drawn conflict, historians often describe it as the“tripartite struggle”.

As we will see (pp. 62-66), rulers also tried todemonstrate their power and resources by buildinglarge temples. So, when they attacked one another’skingdoms, they often chose to target temples, whichwere sometimes extremely rich. You will read moreabout this in Chapter 5.

One of the best known of such rulers is SultanMahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan. He ruled from 997 to1030, and extended control over parts of Central Asia,Iran and the north-western part of the subcontinent.He raided the subcontinent almost every year – histargets were wealthy temples, including that ofSomnath, Gujarat. Much of the wealth Mahmud carriedaway was used to create a splendid capital city atGhazni.

Sultan Mahmud was also interested in findingout more about the people he conquered, andentrusted a scholar named Al-Biruni to write anaccount of the subcontinent. This Arabic work,known as the Kitab ul-Hind, remains an importantsource for historians. He consulted Sanskritscholars to prepare this account.

Other kings who engaged in warfare included theChahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, who ruledover the region around Delhi and Ajmer. Theyattempted to expand their control to the west and theeast, where they were opposed by the Chalukyas ofGujarat and the Gahadavalas of western UttarPradesh. The best-known Chahamana ruler wasPrithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghanruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, butlost to him the very next year, in 1192.

SultanAn Arabic term

meaning ruler.

Look at Map 1again anddiscuss why theChahamanas mayhave wanted toexpand theirterritories.

?

Look at Map 1 andsuggest reasonswhy these rulerswanted to controlKanauj and theGanga valley.

NEW KINGS ANDKINGDOMS

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A Closer Look: The Cholas

From Uraiyur to Thanjavur

How did the Cholas rise to power? A minor chiefly familyknown as the Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveridelta. They were subordinate to the Pallava kings ofKanchipuram. Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancientchiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured thedelta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninthcentury. He built the town of Thanjavur and a templefor goddess Nishumbhasudini there.

The successors of Vijayalaya conqueredneighbouring regions and the kingdom grew in size andpower. The Pandyan and the Pallava territories to thesouth and north were made part of this kingdom.

Map 2The Chola kingdom

and its neighbours.

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Rajaraja I, considered the most powerful Chola ruler,became king in 985 and expanded control over mostof these areas. He also reorganised the administrationof the empire. Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I continued hispolicies and even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lankaand countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy forthese expeditions.

Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture

The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda-cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, arearchitectural and sculptural marvels.

Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlementswhich grew around them. These were centres of craftproduction. Temples were also endowed with land byrulers as well as by others. The produce of this land

Fig. 3The temple at

Gangaikondacholapuram.

Notice the way in

which the roof tapers.

Also look at the

elaborate stone

sculptures used to

decorate the outer

walls.

NEW KINGS ANDKINGDOMS

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24OUR PASTS – II

went into maintaining all the specialists who workedat the temple and very often lived near it – priests,garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians,dancers, etc. In other words, temples were notonly places of worship; they were the hub ofeconomic, social and cultural life as well.

Amongst the crafts associated with temples,the making of bronze images was the mostdistinctive. Chola bronze images areconsidered amongst the finest in the world.

While most images were of deities,sometimes images were made ofdevotees as well.

Agriculture and Irrigation

Many of the achievements of theCholas were made possible through

new developments in agriculture. Lookat Map 2 again. Notice that the river Kaveri

branches off into several small channels beforeemptying into the Bay of Bengal. Thesechannels overflow frequently, depositingfertile soil on their banks. Water from thechannels also provides the necessarymoisture for agriculture, particularly thecultivation of rice.

Although agriculture had developed earlierin other parts of Tamil Nadu, it was only fromthe fifth or sixth century that this area wasopened up for large-scale cultivation. Forestshad to be cleared in some regions; land hadto be levelled in other areas. In the delta regionembankments had to be built to preventflooding and canals had to be constructed to

Fig. 4A Chola bronze sculpture.

Notice how carefully it is decorated.

To find out how these images were made, see Chapter 6.

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carry water to the fields. In many areas two crops weregrown in a year.

In many cases it was necessary to water cropsartificially. A variety of methods were used for irrigation.In some areas wells were dug. In other places hugetanks were constructed to collect rainwater. Rememberthat irrigation works require planning – organisinglabour and resources, maintaining these works anddeciding on how water is to be shared. Most of the newrulers, as well as people living in villages, took an activeinterest in these activities.

The Administration of the Empire

How was the administration organised? Settlementsof peasants, known as ur, became prosperouswith the spread of irrigation agriculture. Groups ofsuch villages formed larger units called nadu. Thevillage council and the nadu performed severaladministrative functions including dispensingjustice and collecting taxes.

Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercisedconsiderable control over the affairs of the nadu underthe supervision of the central Chola government. TheChola kings gave some rich landowners titles likemuvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings),araiyar (chief), etc. as markers of respect, and entrustedthem with important offices of the state at the centre.

Fig. 5A ninth-century sluice-

gate in Tamil Nadu.

It regulated the outflow

of water from a tank

into the channels that

irrigated the fields.

A sluice gate is

traditionally a wood or

metal barrier which is

commonly used to

control water levels

and flow rates in rivers

and canals.

NEW KINGS ANDKINGDOMS

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26OUR PASTS – II

Types of land

Chola inscriptions mention several categories of land:

vellanvagailand of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors

brahmadeyaland gifted to Brahmanas

shalabhogaland for the maintenance of a school

devadana, tirunamattukkaniland gifted to temples

pallichchhandamland donated to Jaina institutions

We have seen that Brahmanas often received landgrants or brahmadeya. As a result, a large number ofBrahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley asin other parts of south India.

Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assemblyor sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders. Theseassemblies worked very efficiently. Their decisions wererecorded in detail in inscriptions, often on the stonewalls of temples. Associations of traders known asnagarams also occasionally performed administrativefunctions in towns.

Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleputdistrict, Tamil Nadu, provide details of the way inwhich the sabha was organised. The sabha hadseparate committees to look after irrigation works,gardens, temples, etc. Names of those eligible to bemembers of these committees were written on smalltickets of palm leaf; these tickets were put into anearthenware pot, from which a young boy was askedto take out the tickets, one by one for each committee.

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Do you thinkwomenparticipated inthese assemblies?In your view arelotteries useful inchoosing membersof committees?

Were there anyBrahmanas in thishamlet?Describe all theactivities that weretaking placein the village.Why do youthink templeinscriptions ignorethese activities?

Inscriptions and texts

Who could be a member of a sabha? The Uttaramerurinscription lays down:

All those who wish to become members of the sabha should be

owners of land from which land revenue is collected.

They should have their own homes.

They should be between 35 and 70 years of age.

They should have knowledge of the Vedas.

They should be well-versed in administrative matters

and honest.

If anyone has been a member of any committee in the last

three years, he cannot become a member of another committee.

Anyone who has not submitted his accounts, and those of his

relatives, cannot contest the elections.

While inscriptions tell us about kings and powerful men,here is an excerpt from the Periyapuranam, a twelfth-century Tamil work, which informs us about the lives ofordinary men and women.

On the outskirts of Adanur was a small hamlet of Pulaiyas(a name used for a social group considered “outcastes” by

Brahmanas and Vellalas), studded with small huts under old

thatches and inhabited by agrarian labourers engaged in

menial occupations. In the thresholds of the huts covered with

strips of leather, little chickens moved about in groups; dark

children who wore bracelets of black iron were prancing

about, carrying little puppies … In the shade of the marudu(arjuna) trees, a female labourer put her baby to sleep on a

sheet of leather; there were mango trees from whose branches

drums were hanging; and under the coconut palms, in little

hollows on the ground, tiny-headed bitches lay after whelping.

The red-crested cocks crowed before dawn calling the brawny

Pulaiyar (plural) to their day’s work; and by day, under the

shade of the kanji tree spread the voice of the wavy-haired

Pulaiya women singing as they were husking paddy …

?

?

NEW KINGS ANDKINGDOMS

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28OUR PASTS – II

Imagine

You are present in an election for a sabha.Describe what you see and hear.

Let’s recall

1. Match the following:

Gurjara-Pratiharas Western Deccan

Rashtrakutas Bengal

Palas Gujarat and Rajasthan

Cholas Tamil Nadu

2. Who were the parties involved in the “tripartitestruggle”?

3. What were the qualifications necessary to becomea member of a committee of the sabha in theChola empire?

China under the Tang dynasty

?

In China, an empire was established under the Tang dynasty, whichremained in power for about 300 years (from the seventh to thetenth centuries). Its capital, Xi’an, was one of the largest cities inthe world, visited by Turks, Iranians, Indians, Japanese and Koreans.

The Tang empire was administered by a bureaucracy recruitedthrough an examination, which was open to all who wished toappear for it. This system of selecting officials remained in place,with some changes, till 1911.

In what ways was this system different from those prevalentin the Indian subcontinent?

ELSE

WH

ER

E

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29

4. What were the two major cities under the control ofthe Chahamanas?

Let’s understand

5. How did the Rashtrakutas become powerful?

6. What did the new dynasties do to gain acceptance?

7. What kind of irrigation works were developed in theTamil region?

8. What were the activities associated with Chola temples?

Let’s discuss

9. Look at Map 1 once more and find out whether therewere any kingdoms in the state in which you live.

10. Contrast the “elections” in Uttaramerur with present-day panchayat elections.

Let’s do

11. Compare the temple shown in this chapter with anypresent-day temple in your neighbourhood,highlighting any similarities and differences thatyou notice.

12. Find out more about taxes that are collected at present.Are these in cash, kind, or labour services?

KEYWORDS

6

samanta

temple

nadu

sabha

5

NEW KINGS ANDKINGDOMS

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30OUR PASTS – II

In Chapter 2 we saw that regions like the Kaveri delta became the centre of large kingdoms. Did you notice

that there was no mention of a kingdom with Delhias its capital? That was because Delhi became animportant city only in the twelfth century.

Take a look at Table 1. Delhi first became the capitalof a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs, who weredefeated in the middle of the twelfth century by theChauhans (also referred to as Chahamanas) of Ajmer.It was under the Tomaras and Chauhans that Delhibecame an important commercial centre. Many richJaina merchants lived in the city and constructed several

temples. Coins minted here, calleddehliwal, had a wide circulation.

The transformation of Delhi intoa capital that controlled vast areasof the subcontinent started withthe foundation of the DelhiSultanate in the beginning of thethirteenth century. Take a look atTable 1 again and identify the fivedynasties that together made theDelhi Sultanate.

The Delhi Sultans built manycities in the area that we nowknow as Delhi. Look at Map 1and locate Dehli-i Kuhna, Siriand Jahanpanah.

3 THE DELHI SULTANS

Map 1Selected Sultanate

cities of Delhi,

thirteenth-fourteenth

centuries.

-

-

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RAJPUT DYNASTIES

Tomaras Early twelfth century-1165

Ananga Pala 1130-1145

Chauhans 1165-1192

Prithviraj Chauhan 1175-1192

EARLY TURKISH RULERS 1206-1290

Qutbuddin Aybak 1206-1210

Shamsuddin Iltutmish 1210-1236

Raziyya 1236-1240

Ghiyasuddin Balban 1266-1287

KHALJI DYNASTY 1290-1320

Jalaluddin Khalji 1290-1296

Alauddin Khalji 1296-1316

TUGHLUQ DYNASTY 1320-1414

Ghiyasuddin Tughluq 1320-1324

Muhammad Tughluq 1324-1351

Firuz Shah Tughluq 1351-1388

SAYYID DYNASTY 1414-1451

Khizr Khan 1414-1421

LODI DYNASTY 1451-1526

Bahlul Lodi 1451-1489

The rulers of DelhiTable 1

Iltutmish’s tomb

Alai Darwaza

Firuz Shah Tughluq’s tomb

THE DELHI SULTANS

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32OUR PASTS – II

?

Finding Out about the Delhi Sultans

Although inscriptions, coins and architecture providea lot of information, especially valuable are “histories”,tarikh (singular)/tawarikh (plural), written in Persian,the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans.

The authors of tawarikh were learned men:secretaries, administrators, poets and courtiers, whoboth recounted events and advised rulers ongovernance, emphasising the importance of just rule.

The circle of justice

Fakhr-i Mudabbir wrote in the thirteenth century:

A king cannot survive without soldiers. And soldiers cannot

live without salaries. Salaries come from the revenue collected

from peasants. But peasants can pay revenue only when they

are prosperous and happy. This happens when the king

promotes justice and honest governance.

Fig.1Four stages in the

making of a

manuscript:

A. Preparing the paper.

B. Writing the text.

C. Melting gold to

highlight important

words and passages.

D. Preparing the

binding.

Do you think thecircle of justice isan appropriateterm to describethe relationshipbetween the kingand his subjects?

A B

C D

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Keep the following additional details in mind: (1) theauthors of tawarikh lived in cities (mainly Delhi) andhardly ever in villages. (2) They often wrote their historiesfor Sultans in the hope of rich rewards. (3) These authorsadvised rulers on the need to preserve an “ideal” socialorder based on birthright and gender distinctions.Their ideas were not shared by everybody.

In 1236 Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter, Raziyya,became Sultan. The chronicler of the age, Minhaj-i Siraj,recognised that she was more able and qualified thanall her brothers. But he was not comfortable at havinga queen as ruler. Nor were the nobles happy at herattempts to rule independently. She was removed fromthe throne in 1240.

What Minhaj-i Siraj thought about

Raziyya

Minhaj-i Siraj thought that the queen’s rule went againstthe ideal social order created by God, in which womenwere supposed to be subordinate to men. He thereforeasked: “In the register of God’s creation, since her accountdid not fall under the column of men, how did she gainfrom all of her excellent qualities?”

On her inscriptions and coins Raziyya mentionedthat she was the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish. Thiswas in contrast to the queen Rudramadevi (1262-1289), of the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal, part ofmodern Andhra Pradesh. Rudramadevi changed hername on her inscriptions and pretended she was aman. Another queen, Didda, ruled in Kashmir (980-1003). Her title is interesting: it comes from “didi” or“elder sister”, an obviously affectionate term givento a loved ruler by her subjects.

Express Minhaj’s ideas in your own words. Do youthink Raziyya shared these ideas? Why do you thinkit was so difficult for a woman to be a ruler?

BirthrightPrivileges claimed

on account of

birth. For example,

people believed

that nobles

inherited their

rights to govern,

because they

were born in

certain families.

Genderdistinctions

Social and biological

differences between

women and men.

Usually, these

differences are used

to argue that men

are superior to

women.

THE DELHI SULTANS

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From Garrison Town to Empire:The Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate

In the early thirteenth century the control of the DelhiSultans rarely went beyond heavily fortified townsoccupied by garrisons. The Sultans seldom controlledthe hinterland of the cities and were thereforedependent upon trade, tribute or plunder for supplies.

Controlling garrison towns in distant Bengal andSind from Delhi was extremely difficult. Rebellion, war,even bad weather could snap fragile communicationroutes. Delhi’s authority was also challenged by Mongolinvasions from Afghanistan and by governors whorebelled at any sign of the Sultan’s weakness. TheSultanate barely survived these challenges. Itsconsolidation occurred during the reign of GhiyasuddinBalban and further expansion under Alauddin Khaljiand Muhammad Tughluq.

The first set of campaigns along the “internal frontier”of the Sultanate aimed at consolidating the hinterlandsof the garrison towns. During these campaigns forestswere cleared in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and hunter-gatherers and pastoralists expelled from their habitat.

Garrison townA fortified

settlement, with

soldiers.

HinterlandThe lands

adjacent to a city

or port that supply

it with goods and

services.

Map 2Major cities captured

by Shamsuddin

Iltutmish.

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Map 3Alauddin Khalji’s

campaign into

south India.

These lands were given to peasants and agriculture wasencouraged. New fortresses, garrison towns and townswere established to protect trade routes and to promoteregional trade.

The second expansion occurred along the “externalfrontier” of the Sultanate. Military expeditions intosouthern India started during the reign of AlauddinKhalji (see Map 3) and culminated with MuhammadTughluq. In their campaigns, Sultanate armiescaptured elephants, horses and slaves and carried awayprecious metals.

By the end of Muhammad Tughluq’s reign, 150 yearsafter somewhat humble beginnings, the armies of theDelhi Sultanate had marched across a large part of thesubcontinent. They had defeated rival armies and seizedcities. The Sultanate collected taxes from the peasantryand dispensed justice in its realm. But how completeand effective was its control over such a vast territory?

THE DELHI SULTANS

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36OUR PASTS – II

The Masjid

A mosque is called a masjid in Arabic, literally aplace where a Muslim prostrates in reverence toAllah. In a “congregational mosque” (masjid-i-jami orjama masjid) Muslims read their prayers (namaz)together. Members of the congregation choose themost respected, learned male as their leader (imam)for the rituals of prayer. He also delivers the sermon(khutba) during the Friday prayer.

During prayer, Muslims stand facing Mecca. InIndia this is to the west. This is called the qibla.

Fig. 2Quwwat al-Islam

mosque and minaret,

built during the last

decade of the twelfth

century. This was the

congregational mosque

of the first city built by

the Delhi Sultans,

described in the

chronicles as Dehli-i-

Kuhna (the old city).

The mosque was

enlarged by Iltutmish

and Alauddin Khalji.

The minar was built

by two Sultans:

Qutbuddin Aybak and

Iltutmish.

Fig. 3Begumpuri mosque,

built in the reign of

Muhammad Tughluq,

was the main mosque

of Jahanpanah, the

“Sanctuary of the

World”, his new capital

in Delhi. See Map 1.

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A Closer Look: Administration andConsolidation under the Khaljisand Tughluqs

The consolidation of a kingdom as vast as theDelhi Sultanate needed reliable governors andadministrators. Rather than appointing aristocrats andlanded chieftains as governors, the early Delhi Sultans,especially Iltutmish, favoured their special slavespurchased for military service, called bandagan inPersian. They were carefully trained to man some ofthe most important political offices in the kingdom.Since they were totally dependent upon their master,the Sultan could trust and rely upon them.

Fig. 4Moth ki Masjid, built

in the reign of

Sikandar Lodi by his

minister.

The Delhi Sultans built severalmosques in cities all overthe subcontinent. Thesedemonstrated theirclaims to be protectorsof Islam and Muslims.Mosques also helpedto create the sense of acommunity of believers

who shared a beliefsystem and a code ofconduct. It wasnecessary to reinforcethis idea of acommunity becauseMuslims came from avariety ofbackgrounds.

Fig. 5Mosque of Jamali

Kamali, built in the

late 1520s.

Compare Figures 2, 3, 4 and 5. What similarities and differences doyou notice amongst the mosques? The mosques in Figures 3, 4 and 5show an evolution in architectural tradition that culminates in ShahJahan’s mosque in Delhi (see Fig. 7 in Chapter 5).

?

THE DELHI SULTANS

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38OUR PASTS – II

?

?

ClientSomeone who isunder theprotection ofanother; adependent orhanger-on.

Slaves rather than sons

The Sultans were advised:

A slave, whom one has brought up and promoted, must be

looked after for it needs a whole lifetime and good luck to

find a worthy and experienced slave. Wise men have said that

a worthy and experienced slave is better than a son …

Can you think of any reason why a slave would bebetter than a son?

The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued to usebandagan and also raised people of humble birth, whowere often their clients, to high political positions. Theywere appointed as generals and governors. However,this also introduced an element of political instability.

Slaves and clients were loyal to their masters andpatrons, but not to their heirs. New Sultans had theirown servants. As a result the accession of a newmonarch often saw conflict between the old and thenew nobility. The patronage of these humble people bythe Delhi Sultans also shocked many elites and theauthors of Persian tawarikh criticised the Delhi Sultansfor appointing the “low and base-born” to high offices.

Officials of Sultan Muhammad Tughluq

Sultan Muhammad Tughluq appointed Aziz Khummar,a wine distiller, Firuz Hajjam, a barber, Manka Tabbakh,a cook, and two gardeners, Ladha and Pira, tohigh administrative posts. Ziyauddin Barani, a mid-fourteenth-century chronicler, reported theirappointments as a sign of the Sultan’s loss of politicaljudgement and his incapacity to rule.

Why do you think Barani criticised the Sultan?

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Like the earlier Sultans, the Khalji and Tughluqmonarchs appointed military commanders asgovernors of territories of varying sizes. These landswere called iqta and their holder was called iqtadar ormuqti. The duty of the muqtis was to lead militarycampaigns and maintain law and order in their iqtas.In exchange for their military services, the muqtis

collected the revenues of their assignments as salary.They also paid their soldiers from these revenues.Control over muqtis was most effective if their officewas not inheritable and if they were assigned iqtas fora short period of time before being shifted. These harshconditions of service were rigorously imposed duringthe reigns of Alauddin Khalji and MuhammadTughluq. Accountants were appointed by the state tocheck the amount of revenue collected by the muqtis.Care was taken that the muqti collected only the taxesprescribed by the state and that he kept the requirednumber of soldiers.

As the Delhi Sultans brought the hinterland of thecities under their control, they forced the landedchieftains – the samanta aristocrats – and richlandlords to accept their authority. Under AlauddinKhalji the state brought the assessment and collectionof land revenue under its own control. The rights ofthe local chieftains to levy taxes were cancelled andthey were also forced to pay taxes. The Sultan’sadministrators measured the land and kept carefulaccounts. Some of the old chieftains and landlordsserved the Sultanate as revenue collectors andassessors. There were three types of taxes: (1) oncultivation called kharaj and amounting to about 50per cent of the peasant’s produce, (2) on cattle and(3) on houses.

It is important to remember that large parts of thesubcontinent remained outside the control of the DelhiSultans. It was difficult to control distant provinceslike Bengal from Delhi and soon after annexingsouthern India, the entire region became independent.Even in the Gangetic plain there were forested areas

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that Sultanate forces could not penetrate. Localchieftains established their rule in these regions.Sometimes rulers like Alauddin Khalji andMuhammad Tughluq could force their control in theseareas but only for a short duration.

Chieftains and their fortifications

Ibn Battuta, a fourteenth-century traveller from Morocco,Africa, explained that chieftains sometimes

fortified themselves in mountains, in rocky, uneven and rugged

places as well as in bamboo groves. In India the bamboo is

not hollow; it is big. Its several parts are so intertwined that

even fire cannot affect them, and they are on the whole very

strong. The chieftains live in these forests which serve them

as ramparts, inside which are their cattle and their crops.

There is also water for them within, that is, rain water which

collects there. Hence they cannot be subdued except by

powerful armies, who entering these forests, cut down the

bamboos with specially prepared instruments.

Describe the ways in which the chieftains arrangedfor their defence.

The Mongols under Genghis Khan invadedTransoxiana in north-east Iran in 1219 and the DelhiSultanate faced their onslaught soon after. Mongolattacks on the Delhi Sultanate increased during thereign of Alauddin Khalji and in the early years ofMuhammad Tughluq’s rule. This forced the two rulersto mobilise a large standing army in Delhi which poseda huge administrative challenge. Let us see how thetwo Sultans dealt with this.

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Delhi was attacked twice, in1299/1300 and 1302-1303.As a de f ens i ve measure ,Alauddin Khalji raised a largestanding army.

Alauddin constructed a newgarrison town named Siri forhis soldiers. See Map 1.

The soldiers had to be fed. Thiswas done through the producecollected as tax from landsbetween the Ganga and Yamuna.Tax was fixed at 50 per cent ofthe peasant’s yield.

The soldiers had to be paid.Alauddin chose to pay hissoldiers salaries in cash ratherthan iqtas. The soldiers wouldbuy their supplies frommerchants in Delhi and it wasthus feared that merchantswould raise their prices. To stopthis, Alauddin controlled theprices of goods in Delhi. Priceswere carefully surveyed byofficers, and merchants who didnot sell at the prescribed rates

were punished.

Alauddin’s administrativemeasures were quite successfuland chroniclers praised his reignfor its cheap prices and efficientsupplies of goods in the market.He successfully withstood thethreat of Mongol invasions.

The Sultanate was attacked in the early years ofMuhammad Tughluq’s reign. The Mongol army wasdefeated. Muhammad Tughluq was confident aboutthe strength of his army and his resources to plan anattack on Transoxiana. He therefore raised a largestanding army.

Rather than constructing a new garrison town, theoldest of the four cities of Delhi (Dehli-i Kuhna) wasemptied of its residents and the soldiers garrisonedthere. The residents of the old city were sent to thenew capital of Daulatabad in the south.

Produce from the same area was collected as tax tofeed the army. But to meet the expense of maintainingsuch a large number of soldiers the Sultan leviedadditional taxes. This coincided with famine in thearea.

Muhammad Tughluq also paid his soldiers cashsalaries. But instead of controlling prices, he used a“token” currency, somewhat like present-day papercurrency, but made out of cheap metals, not gold andsilver. People in the fourteenth century did not trustthese coins. They were very smart: they saved theirgold and silver coins and paid all their taxes to thestate with this token currency. This cheap currencycould also be counterfeited easily.

Muhammad Tughluq’s administrative measureswere a failure. His campaign into Kashmir was adisaster. He then gave up his plans to invadeTransoxiana and disbanded his large army.Meanwhile, his administrative measures createdcomplications. The shifting of people to Daulatabadwas resented. The raising of taxes and famine in theGanga-Yamuna belt led to widespread rebellion. Andfinally, the “token” currency had to be recalled.

Alauddin Khalji Muhammad Tughluq

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In this list of Muhammad Tughluq’s failures wesometimes forget that for the first time in the historyof the Sultanate, a Delhi Sultan planned a campaignto capture Mongol territory. Unlike Alauddin’sdefensive measures, Muhammad Tughluq’s measureswere conceived as a part of a military offensive againstthe Mongols.

The Sultanate in the Fifteenth andSixteenth Centuries

Take a look at Table 1 again. You will notice that afterthe Tughluqs, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled fromDelhi and Agra until 1526. By then, Jaunpur, Bengal,Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the entire south Indiahad independent rulers who established flourishingstates and prosperous capitals. This was also the periodwhich saw the emergence of new ruling groups like theAfghans and the Rajputs.

Some of the states established in this period weresmall but powerful and extremely well administered.Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545) started his career as themanager of a small territory for his uncle in Bihar andeventually challenged and defeated the Mughal emperorHumayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556). Sher Shahcaptured Delhi and established his own dynasty.Although the Sur dynasty ruled for only fifteen years(1540-1555), it introduced an administration thatborrowed elements from Alauddin Khalji and madethem more efficient. Sher Shah’s administration becamethe model followed by the great emperor Akbar(1556-1605) when he consolidated the Mughal Empire.

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Imagine

You are a peasant in Alauddin Khalji’sor Muhammad Tughluq’s reign and youcannot pay the taxes demanded by theSultan. What will you do?

Let’s recall

1. Which ruler first established his or her capital at Delhi?

2. What was the language of administration under theDelhi Sultans?

3. In whose reign did the Sultanate reach its farthestextent?

4. From which country did Ibn Battuta travel to India?

The “Three Orders”, the “Peace of God”,Knights and the Crusades

The idea of the “Three Orders” was first formulated in France in theearly eleventh century. It divided society into three classes: thosewho prayed, those who fought, and those who tilled the land. Thisdivision of society into “Three Orders” was supported by the Churchto consolidate its dominant role in society. This helped theemergence of a new warrior group called Knights.

The Church patronised this group and used them to propagatetheir idea of “Peace of God”. The attempt was to direct warriorsaway from conflict amongst themselves and send them instead ona campaign against the Muslims who had captured the city ofJerusalem. This led to a series of campaigns called the Crusades.These campaigns in the service of God and the Church completelyaltered the status of Knights. Originally, these Knights did not belongto the class of nobles. But by the end of the eleventh century inFrance, and a century later in Germany, the humble origins of thesewarriors were forgotten. By the twelfth century, nobles also wantedto be known as Knights.

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Let’s understand

5. According to the “circle of justice”, why was itimportant for military commanders to keep theinterests of the peasantry in mind?

6. What is meant by the “internal” and “external” frontiersof the Sultanate?

7. What were the steps taken to ensure that muqtis

performed their duties? Why do you think they mayhave wanted to defy the orders of the Sultans?

8. What was the impact of the Mongol invasions on theDelhi Sultanate?

Let’s discuss

9. Do you think the authors of tawarikh wouldprovide information about the lives of ordinarymen and women?

10. Raziyya Sultan was unique in the history of the DelhiSultanate. Do you think women leaders are acceptedmore readily today?

11. Why were the Delhi Sultans interested in cuttingdown forests? Does deforestation occur for the samereasons today?

Let’s do

12. Find out whether there are any buildings built by theDelhi Sultans in your area. Are there any otherbuildings in your area that were built between thetwelfth and fifteenth centuries? Describe some of thesebuildings, and draw sketches of them.

KEYWORDS

6

iqta

tarikh

garrison

Mongols

gender

kharaj

5

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