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International Higher Education is the quarterly publication of the Center for International Higher Education.
Through International Higher Education, a network of distin-guished international scholars offers commentary and current information on key issues that shape higher education world-wide. IHE is published in English, Chinese, French, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, and Vietnam-ese. Links to all editions can be found at http://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/ihe. IHE articles appear regularly on UWN’s web-site and monthly newsletter.
Number 89: SpriNg 2017
The #MeToo Movement and Gender Issues
2 Women’sIssuesinLatinAmericanHigherEducation Alma Maldonado-Maldonado and Felicitas Acosta4 SexualHarassmentatAfricanHigherEducationInstitutions
Christine Dranzoa5 The#MeTooMovementasaGlobalLearningMoment
Joanna Regulska7 GenderandHigherEducation:HarassmentandPayGaps
Ellen Hazelkorn
8 SexualViolenceandHarassmentinEthiopia Ayenachew A. Woldegiyorgis
Internationalization and International Issues10 BrexitandUniversities:ReconfigurationofEuropeanHigherEducation?
Aline Courtois
12 IndiaandChina:AttractingInternationalStudents P. J. Lavakare 13 “Super-Short-Term”StudyAbroadinJapan
Yukiko Shimmi
15 PathwayColleges:ANewInstitutionalForminCanada Dale M. McCartney and Amy Scott Metcalfe
16 InclusiveInternationalization:ImprovingAccessandEquity Hans de Wit and Elspeth Jones
Massification and Quality
18 RealizingtheBenefitsofMassification Fazal Rizvi
19 UniversalAccessandQualityinthePhilippines Miguel Antonio Lim, Sylvie Lomer, and Christopher Millora
Publishing and Journals21 The“ChampagneTower”ofSciencePublishing
Sabina Siebert22 HigherEducationJournals:AnEmergingField
Malcolm Tight
Reconsidering Private Higher Education
24 TheVanishingPublicMonopoly Daniel C. Levy
25 ReconsideringPrivateHigherEducationinBrazil Targino de Araújo Filho
African Perspectives
27 StudentMobilityandEmployability:TheEthiopianExperience Wondwosen Tamrat and Damtew Teferra
28 QualityAssuranceinGhana:AccomplishmentsandChallenges Patrick Swanzy, Patricio V. Langa, and Francis Ansah
Countries and Regions
30 China:AcademicDriftinUniversitiesofAppliedTechnology Wei Jing and Anthony Welch
31 AutonomyandAccountabilityinRussianHigherEducation Andrei Volkov and Dara Melnyk
33 CompetitiveStrategiesinVietnam Do Minh Ngoc
INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION T H E B O S T O N C O L L E G E C E N T E R F O R I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N
Number 94: Summer 2018
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I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N2 Number 94: summer 2018
AnAgendainMotion:Women’sIssuesinLatinAmericanHigherEducationAlma Maldonado-Maldonado and Felicitas Acosta
Alma Maldonado-Maldonado is researcher at the Departamento de Investigaciones Educativas (DIE)-CINVESTAV in Mexico City, Mexi-co. E-mail: [email protected]. Felicitas Acosta is researcher and professor at the Universidad Nacional de General Sarmiento, Buenos Aires, Argentina. E-mail: [email protected].
In2015,onarealityshowinBrazilcalled“MasterChef,”a12-year-oldfemaleparticipantstartedreceivingharass-
ingmessagesfrommalemembersoftheaudience.Asaresult,anorganizationforwomen’srightsdecidedtostarta campaign on Twitter to condemn sexual harassmentagainst girls, using the hashtag: #miprimeroasseido (myfirst harassment). Brazilian women reacted to that andstarted sharing their experiences of sexual harassment,mostofwhichtookplacewhentheywereyounggirls.Thefollowingyear, in2016,asimilarmovementwasstartedby a Colombian feminist who lived in Mexico City. Shepromoted the use of another hashtag: #MiPrimerAcoso (myfirstharassment) todenounce the violence sufferedbywomeninMexico.Inthedaysthatfollowed,morethan100,000womenparticipated in this initiativeofsharingearly recollections of sexual harassment. Again, most ofthese women reported having been harassed when theywereveryyoung,littlegirlsbetweensevenandnineyearsold.ViolenceagainstwomenappearstobeaverycommonpracticeinLatinAmerica.Indeed,theregionreportsthemostsignificantnumberoffemalehomicidesworldwide.
The culture of machismo seems to be an intrinsiccharacteristic of the relationship between women andmen in most Latin American countries. Women livingin these countries experiencephysical andpsychologicalviolence,discrimination,lackofequalopportunities,andlimitedrecognitionfortheirwork,abilities,andcapacities.In40years,therehavebeenonlytenwomenpresidentsin Latin American—in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile,Costa Rica, Ecuador, Nicaragua, and Panama. However,theroleofwomeninthemostprestigiouspositionsinthelegislature,government, industry, science,business, andsocietyingeneralismarginal.TheMeTooandTime’sUpmovements(2017)dealwiththeissueofwomen’sroleinpresent-daysocietyandexhibitcasesofmalepowerdirect-edagainstwomen,particularly thoseinmorevulnerablepositions.Thisarticleoffersareflectionaboutwhatishap-peninginthisregardatuniversitiesintheregion.
The Center for International Higher Education (CIHE)
The Boston College Center for International Higher
Education brings an international consciousness
to the analysis of higher education. We believe
that an international perspective will contribute to
enlightened policy and practice. To serve this goal,
the Center publishes the International Higher Education
quarterly newsletter, a book series, and other
publications; sponsors conferences; and welcomes
visiting scholars. We have a special concern for
academic institutions in the Jesuit tradition worldwide
and, more broadly, with Catholic universities.
The Center promotes dialogue and cooperation
among academic institutions throughout the
world. We believe that the future depends on effective
collaboration and the creation of an international
community focused on the improvement
of higher education in the public interest.
Opinions expressed here do not necessarily reflect
the views of the Center for International Higher
Education.
The Center is closely related to the graduate program
in higher education at the Lynch School of Educa-
tion, Boston College. The Center offers an M.A. and a
Certificate of International Higher Education. For ad-
ditional information see: https://www.bc.edu/IHEMAhttps://www.bc.edu/IHECert
Editor
Philip G. Altbach
AssociAtE Editors
Laura E. Rumbley, Hans de Wit PublicAtions Editors Hélène Bernot Ullerö, Lisa Unangst EditoriAl AssistAnt Salina Kopellas
EditoriAl officE
Center for International Higher EducationCampion HallBoston College Chestnut Hill, MA 02467- USATel: (617) 552-4236 Fax: (617) 552-8422 E-mail: [email protected]://www.bc.edu/cihe
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I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N 3Number 94: summer 2018
Women in Higher Education InLatinAmerica,thegendergapineducationisnotaspro-nouncedasinotherregionsoftheworld: in2013,highereducation enrollment was about 13.15 million women vs.10.44 million men. Access is not a significant issue butotherproblemsdemandattention,forinstancewhattypesofhighereducationinstitutionsandprogramswomenareable to access, women’s drop-out rate due to youth preg-nancy, and disparities regarding the labor market as wellassalaries.
There are three primary areas of concern in currentdebates regardinggender andharassment:disparitiesbe-tween men and women concerning the most prestigiousand best paid positions in academia and administration;sexualharassmentsufferedbyfemalecollegestudents;andfemalefacultyfallingvictimtoabuseofpowerbymeninhigherpositions.
In Mexico, during the most optimistic periods, onlyabout16percentofuniversitypresidentshavebeenwom-en; there is still a long way to go in this area. While thenumberofwomeninsenior leadershiphasincreased,onthewholethisisareflectionofhowharditisforwomentoreachtoppositionsinuniversities.Theglassceilingseemsunbreakable.Thesametakesplaceinscience,technology,engineering,andmathematics(STEM)areas,wherefemaleenrollmentrepresentslessthan10percentofrecruitment.In 2009, only 19 percent of women belonged to the toplevelofthemostimportantpeerreviewsystemforfaculty.
Asaconsequenceof thepublicdebateon theMeTooandTime’sUpmovementsandthe#MiPrimerAcoso cam-paign,Mexicanstudentactivistsbecamemoreproactiveindenouncingmalefacultymembersaccusedofharassingfe-malestudents.Accusationshavetakenplaceatthelargestandmostprestigiousuniversities inMexico: theNationalAutonomousUniversityofMexico,theCenterforEconom-icsResearchandTeaching,AutonomousMetropolitanUni-versity,Ibero-AmericanUniversity,andothers.Duetothelackofrelevantprotocols,publicaccusationsviasocialnet-worksanddemonstrationsoncampusesweretheprimarymeans used by students to highlight sexual harassment.In cases of power abuse against students, sexual favorsforinstance,formalmechanismsmustbeinplacetostartproceduresagainstfacultyattheseinstitutions.Atpresent,many universities are working on this topic. Fewer cases
ofharassmentortargetingoffemalefacultycometolightfordifferentreasons:thepowerstructureinacademia,thecareer implications of denouncing male peers or manag-ers,andthefactthatwomenmayfeelmorevulnerable.Ifamovementsimilarto#MyFirstHarrasmentwaspromotedinhighereducationinstitutions, it isnothardtoimaginethatmanywomenwouldfollowsuit.
Public universities in Argentina share characteristicswithMexico.Around48percentofuniversityscholarsarewomen,buttheydonotoccupyleadingpositionsinsimilarproportions.Thereareremarkablyfewfemalerectors,onlyfiveatmorethan57nationalpublicuniversities,althoughthenumberoffemaledeanshasgrowninrecentyears.Thissituationisalsoreflectedatthenationalcouncilforscien-tificandtechnicalresearch,where54percentofearly-careerresearchersarewomen,butonly25percentmakeittothetopofthecareerladder.
Therehasbeensomeprogresstowardagenderagendain recent years. A national university became the first toextendmaternity leave tosixmonthsforwomenandonemonthformen(itisusuallythreemonthsforwomenandthree days for men). National universities created overthepast20yearshaveadoptedgenderpoliciesandactionprotocols for the prevention of gender or sexual violenceordiscrimination. In2015, themostwell-knownnationaluniversity, Universidad de Buenos Aires, passed a reso-lutionforsuchaprotocol,whichprovedtobetimelyasacaseofsexualharassmentwasbroughtbystudentsagainsta facultymember in thesame timeperiod.Since then, ithasprimarilybeenstudentswhohavebroughtnewaccu-sationsusingresourcessuchassocialmedia.Additionally,studentorganizations,whichhistoricallyhavebeenactiveindemonstrations,haveshownsignificantpresenceattheInternationalWomen’sDaymarchonMarch8.Uptonow,theyseemtobetakingtheleadinsettinganagendathatad-dressesdiscriminationagainstwomeninthecountry.
Moving ForwardClearly, thesituation inLatinAmerica regardingviolenceand discrimination against women needs much more at-tention,andcallsforthedevelopmentofprotocolsaswellasacontinuingdiscussionabouthowtoincreaseequalop-portunitiesinacademia,universities,andthelabormarket.Inthecaseofhighereducationinstitutions,thereseemstobe a convergence between groups of activists demandingpublicattentiontoparticularcases—mainlywiththehelpofsocialnetworksandmassmedia—andauthorities,whocannotignorethevictimsanylonger.Thiscouldbeasig-nalthathighereducationinstitutionsaremovingtochangetheirpolicies inorder topreventsexualharassment fromhappening,andshapingpoliciestosolvethedisparitiesbe-tweenwomenandmenatalllevels.Bothstudentsandfac-
In Latin America, the gender gap in edu-
cation is not as pronounced as in other
regions of the world.
I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N4 Number 94: summer 2018
ultyaremoreawareoftheirrightsandlimits.Thisisgoodnewsfortheregion,butitalsomeansamajorchallengeforhighereducationinstitutions.
Note: While this article was in production, an importantprotest at Chilean universities was taking place. Severaluniversitybuildingsofatleast15institutionshavebeenoc-cupiedbyfemalestudentactivists,includingthePontificalCatholicUniversityofChile.Studentsareprotestingagainstgenderviolenceandforestablishingprotocolstoreportsex-ualharassmentcases,toachieveanon-sexisteducationandtochangethecurriculumamongotherdemands.
DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.6017/ihe.2018.94.10512
SexualHarassmentatAfricanHigherEducationInstitutionsChristine Dranzoa
Christine Dranzoa is vice-chancellor at Muni University, Arua, and president of the Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) in Uganda. E-mail: [email protected].
InAfrica,enrollinginhighereducationinstitutions(HEIs)isanaspirationofmanyyoungpeopleandtheirfamilies
andrepresentsaninvestmentintheirownsocioeconomicprogress.Thisiswhyuniversitygraduationceremoniesarecelebratedwithgreatpomp—theceremoniesanticipatesig-nificant long-term benefits. Higher education institutionsarethepowerengineofAfrica’sprogress.Additionally,is-suesofgenderequalityanddiversityhavegainedmomen-tuminthetwenty-firstcenturyasithasbecomewidelyac-knowledgedthatbalancedeconomicandsocialprogressisonlypossiblewiththesetenets.MostgovernmentsinAfricahaveadoptedandratifiedpoliciessuchastheUNUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsandFreedoms(1948)andtheAfricanUnionGenderPolicy(2009),whichmandatethemtoobserveandpracticegenderequityandempowerwomeninhighereducationinstitutions.
The Vulnerability of Women in Higher Education in Africa
InEgypt,99percentofwomenexperiencesexualharass-ment.InSouthAfrica,three-quartersofwomenexperiencesomeformofabuseorsexualviolence.In2014and2015,
South African police recorded 53,000 rape cases annu-ally.IntheDemocraticRepublicofCongoandinRwanda,manywomenreportsexualviolencebyintimatepartners.InUganda,sexualharassmentandgender-basedviolenceagainst women, including abductions and murder, makethe headlines on a weekly basis. Globally, 35 percent ofwomenexperiencephysicalorsexualviolenceofallkinds.Womensufferderogatorycommentsandunsolicitedsexualadvances.
StudentsenrollinginhighereducationinstitutionsinAfricahavedifferentbackgrounds:somearefreshlygradu-atedfromhighschool,somearemature-ageentrants.Over90percentoftheyoungerstudentsarefrompoorfamilies.Unlike higher education institutions, secondary schoolsandmosthomesarerestrictiveandheavilyregulatedwhenitcomestorelationsbetweenthesexes.Traditionally,girlsandboysaresocializeddifferently,whichhasanegativeim-
pactoutsideof these regulatedspaces.Young female stu-dentsenteringHEIsarevulnerable, innocent,unexposed,andnaïve,eagertoexploretheirnewlydiscoveredfreedom,sometimes ending up with unplanned pregnancies anddroppingoutaltogether.Therampant,sexualmanipulationofwomen,girls,andsometimesboys,happenswithinandoutside the institutions. Most universities in Africa havegenderpoliciesandpoliciesagainstsexualharassment,butseveralfactorscontributetosexualharassmentandgender-based violence. University hostels, where disadvantagedfemaleandmalestudentsstay,areoftencheapandunreg-ulated, servingas thefirst location for sexualharassmentbecause they attract sexual predators. Other contributingfactors includefinancialneed, the imperative toget goodgrades to open doors on a scarce labor market, graduateunemployment,andpeerpressure.Monitoringsystemsareofteninplace,butareweakenedbyunprofessionaladmin-istration.Astrongpatriarchaltradition,oftenaggravatedbysheer misogynistic behavior, undermine female staff andstudents systematically, contributing to denying them ad-vancementandruiningtheiracademiccareers.Someper-petratorsofgender-basedviolencearepersonsofresponsi-bilityandinfluenceonthestudents,suchasfaculty,coursecoordinators, and examination officers. Finally, substanceabusecontributestoaculturethatisunconducivetorespect
In Egypt, 99 percent of women experi-
ence sexual harassment. In South Afri-
ca, three-quarters of women experience
some form of abuse or sexual violence.
