Networks of Commemoration: Gender, Class, and the Remembrance of

General Brock, 1898-1912

by

Peter William Holdsworth, B.A. (Hons.)

A research essay submitted to Carleton University in fulfillment of the

requirements for the course HIST5908, as credit toward the degree of

Masters of Arts in History - Public History

Department of History

Carleton University

Ottawa, Canada

4 June 2013

© 2013, Peter William Holdsworth

ii

Abstract

On 19 August 1912, the General Brock Chapter of the Imperial Order Daughters of The

Empire unveiled a monument to General Sir Isaac Brock in the town of Brockville,

Ontario. This monument represented just part of the efforts of a network of upper-class

Anglo-Saxon women from the IODE, United Empire Loyalists of Ontario, and Ontario

Historical Society to celebrate the centenary of the War of 1812 as the “Brock

Centenary.” The context of the rise of the “Brock Centenary” is investigated here by

applying social network theory to historical memory studies, re-interpreting historical

evidence from 1898 to 1912. An analysis of membership lists both reaffirms some

previous arguments and points to promising avenues of inquiry regarding the importance

and influence of the groups and women involved. While focusing on the Brock

Centenary, this study also suggests further use of social network analysis for historical

memory studies and heritage organizations.

iii

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank those who have helped me to explore and expand my work

and views during this project. First I would like to thank my supervisors. Dr. Shawn

Graham helped me to understand the new concepts and tools of the digital humanities and

encouraged me when I felt like I was at a road block, and Dr. John C. Walsh encouraged

me to explore common material in a new way and to look beyond social history during

this adventure. Dr. Bruce Elliott also strengthened the final draft with his close reading

and comments. I would also like to thank Joan White and the department for their

guidance and for scholarship and teaching assistantship support. My cohort in public

history and the thesis stream contributed both general support and more particular advice

by reading and listening to parts of my work helping me to focus my work.

Special thanks go to the Brockville Museum and in particular to Bonnie Burke

and her team for helping me to find the records on the Brockville Monument and the

General Brock Chapter and I would also like to thank the members of the Ottawa

Historical Society for their suggestions. In addition to financial support from the

department, additional funding came through an Ontario Graduate Scholarship.

iv

Table of Contents

Abstract ii

Acknowledgments iii

Table of Contents iv

List of Tables v

List of Figures vi

Introduction 1

Social network methodology 3

Definitions 5

“Close” and “distant” readings in memory studies 7

Metrics 15

Social network analysis in historical memory studies practice 20

The idea of the Brock Centenary 37

Social network analysis as a way to gain insight into

general commemorative practice 44

Bibliography 47

v

List of Tables

Table Description Page

1 Network terms 5

2 Metrics 16

3 The women of 1898 in order of decreasing influence 25

4 The women of 1902 in order of decreasing influence 31

5 The women of 1910 in order of decreasing influence 36

vi

List of Figures

Figures Description Page

1 The unveiling of the Brock Monument

in Brockville. 2

2 1902 officers, from list to Gephi visualization 13-14

3 The 1907 railroad network in Niagara 19

4 Organizational ties in 1898 24

5 The network of women in 1898 25

6 The network of women for 1902 30

7 Organizational ties in 1910 35

8 The network of women for 1910 36

1

Introduction

On 19 April 1912, the citizens of Brockville, Ontario gathered in their finery in

the courthouse square to celebrate the life and times of Major-General Sir Isaac Brock,

the figure for whom the town was named after his death. Under a cloudy sky, a crowd

gathered to witness the formal unveiling of a monument that was covered by the Union

Jack. On top of a stone podium inscribed with the general’s name was a bust of Brock in

uniform. The monument was the centennial project of the General Brock Chapter of the

Imperial Order Daughters of Empire (IODE), represented by its main promoter and

recent regent Ida (Mrs. G. Crawford) McLean and her executive. On the platform were a

number of dignitaries, mostly men, including Mayor McLean, sculptor Hamilton

MacCarthy of Ottawa, along with civic and militia leaders with the guest of honour, Sir

Samuel Hughes, the Minister of Militia. To the right of the mayor were the executive

women of the local chapter along with Mrs. Albert Gooderham, the National IODE

president, who came from Toronto and Mrs. Hamilton MacCarthy, the sculptor’s wife.

After a speech to the minister that celebrated the work of the ladies of Brockville

and the IODE, the monument was unveiled by the minister with much fanfare. The

speeches that followed focused on the role of Brock in defending the Empire and his

sacrifice. In Mrs. McLean’s speech on behalf of the chapter and the IODE, she thanked

the minister and the sculptor for their role in developing the monument. Her speech

centered on the role of the ladies and emphasized their ownership of the monument up to

that point. Mrs. McLean declared to the mayor, “I hereby present to you, as the

representative of the Corporation of the Town of Brockville, this memorial of General Sir

Isaac Brock, one of the Heroes of the War of 1812, who fell at Queenston Heights on

2

October 13th

of that year ‘Fighting for King and Country,’ and for whom our beautiful

town derives its name.”1 This speech shines a light into the integral role of women in the

commemoration of the past.

Figure 1: The unveiling of the Brock Monument in Brockville. Photo from the Doug

Grant photo collection.2

1 Brockville Museum Library and Archives (BMLA), Brockville Recorder account, “Canadians and Many

Prominent People Took Part. Occurred in the Presence of Hundreds of Citizens at One of the Island City’s

Beauty Spots Yesterday,” Brockville Recorder, Friday August 23, 1912 from the Tuesday daily. In the

“Courthouse Avenue /Square” Library file of BMLA, photocopied article. This account is used to set the

scene in other details presented in the paragraph along with Doug Grant, “The General Isaac Brock

Monument: unveiled August 19th, 1912,” Brockville History: All About the History of Brockville. Posted

June 14th, 2008. http://brockvillehistoryalbum.wordpress.com/2008/06/14/the-general-isaac-brock-

monument/(accessed 12 April 2013). 2 While located at the BMLA, this version of the photograph is found at Doug Grant, “The General Isaac

Brock Monument: unveiled August 19th, 1912,” Brockville History: All About the History of Brockville.

Posted June 14th, 2008. http://brockvillehistoryalbum.wordpress.com/2008/06/14/the-general-isaac-brock-

monument/(accessed 12 April 2013).

3

Who were the women behind the Brock Centenary in 1912? How did ideas of

what was appropriate to commemorate spread through Ontario society at the turn of the

twentieth century? Who was connected to whom? Who were the linchpins? As Canadians

and, more particularly, women commemorated and put up a monument to General Brock

in Brockville, Ontario, how did patterns of network connectivity cement ideas of an

‘Ontarian’ identity? These are questions that a formal network methodology applied to

the study of social and cultural heritage can address and in so doing, suggest new avenues

for exploration and understanding of this crucial period in the history of public

commemorations.

Social network methodology

While identifying social networks is not entirely new for historical memory

studies scholars, most have used networks as a metaphor or as a descriptive concept

rather than an explicit category of analysis. Work in other subfields, though, has begun

to use it as a conceptual framework and a formal methodology, providing some sense of

how (and why) social network theory could be used in a more comprehensive way within

historical memory studies.3 Of course, this development is not specific to historical

3 For historians using network theory as a metaphor, see R. Darrell Meadows, “Engineering Exile: Social

Networks and the French Atlantic Community, 1789-1809,” French History Studies, Vol. 23, no. 1

(Winter 2000): 67-102 and Marsha L. Hamilton, Social Networks in Early Massachusetts Atlantic

Connections (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2009). Those who have dealt

with networks on their own terms include John C. Walsh and Steven High, “Re-thinking the Concept of

Community,” Histoire sociale/Social History, Vol. 32, no. 64 (1999): 255-73; Shawn Graham, and

Giovanni Ruffini, “Network Analysis and Greco-Roman Prosopography,” in Prosopography Approaches

and Application: A Handbook, ed. K. S. B. Keates-Rohan (Oxford, UK: Prosopographica et Genealogica,

2007),326-36; Nuno Camarinhas, “The Crown’s Judges - The Judicial Profession in Ancien Regime

Portugal, 1700-1709,” in Prosopography: Approaches and Applications, A Handbook, ed. K. S. B. Keates-

Rohan (Oxford, UK: Prosopographica et Genealogica, 2007),541-54; Carolyn Dougherty, “George

4

memory studies as the impact of web-based technologies, network perspectives and ideas

around ‘connections’ have had an enormous impact in a wide variety of fields. 4

The more comprehensive use of social network analysis for historical memory

studies focuses on the ties between members, which can be considered at some level to be

“more important than the individual people themselves.”5 That is, it is how people are

connected that matters, as much as or even more so than the individuals themselves,

because different patterns of connectivity have differing implications for individuals to

act in particular social situations. The “ties” between the individuals help show the

broader picture of how a network functions.6 In the social sciences, this theory has been

most developed in sociology.7 The growth of the World Wide Web has given scholars a

real-time laboratory for studying millions of actors and their social connections (in

contrast to earlier sociological studies of a few tens of individuals at a time).

Consequently, advances in network studies have drawn on many of the network

principles uncovered in the mathematics of what is called “graph theory” (where the

Stephenson and Nineteenth-Century Engineering Networks,” in Prosopography: Approaches and

Applications, A Handbook, ed. K. S. B. Keates-Rohan (Oxford, UK: Prosopographica et Genealogica,

2007), 545-65; Christophe Verbruggen, “Literary Strategy during Flanders’ Golden Decades: Combining

Social Network Analysis and Prosopography, “ in Prosopography: Approaches and Applications, A

Handbook, ed. K. S. B. Keates-Rohan (Oxford, UK: Prosopographica et Genealogica, 2007), 579-601. 4 Two such studies are Nicholas A. Christakis and James H. Fowler, Connected: The Surprising Power of

Our Social Networks and How They Shape Our Lives -- How Your Friends' Friends' Friends Affect

Everything You Feel, Think, and Do (New York: Little, Brown, and Company, 2009); Albert-Laszlo

Barabási, Linked: How Everything is Connected to Everything Else and What it Means (Cambridge, MA:

Plume, 2003). 5 Christakis and Fowler 2009, 8-9.

6 Christakis and Fowler 2009, 8-9.

7 Mark S. Granovetter, “The Strength of Weak Ties,” American Journal of Sociology 78, no. 6 (May 1973):

1360-1380, introduces the concept, and its use in sociological studies caused him to revisit the idea in Mark

Granovetter, “The Strength of Weak Ties: A Network Theory Revisited,” Sociological Theory Vol. 1

(1983): 201-233.

5

physicist Albert-László Barabási is a leading figure).8 Before discussing this literature,

however, it is important to define the key terms that will be used throughout this study.

Definitions

Network analysis uses a common vocabulary that changes only slightly depending

on the discipline. This vocabulary comes less from the humanities than from

mathematics, science and social science. The key terms discussed, which are listed in the

chart below, are inspired by the synthesis provided by Scott Weingart.9

Table 1: Network terms.

Term definition

Network A system of nodes and their ties that share common

characteristics. These systems are present in social,

historical, and scientific study and can be used as a way

of analysis.

Node A person or organization that is a member of a network

and has ties to other nodes in the network. These nodes

have different attributes or elements.

Tie Connection or link between nodes within a network. It

represents a relationship of some kind between the

nodes.

There is a role for the computer in the analysis, not just description, of historical

information. In 1980, Roberto Busa described the computer as “not primarily a labor

saving device to be used to free scholars from drudgery but a means to illuminate

8 Barabási 2002. Barabási is developing a textbook for network study, Network Science, with the first three

chapters published in an e-book in October 2012. An online textbook is: Robert A. Hanneman and Mark

Riddle, Introduction to Social Network Methods. (Riverside, CA: University of California, Riverside,

2005) (published in digital form at http://faculty.ucr.edu/~hanneman/ ). 9 Scott Weingart, “Demystifying Networks, Parts I and II,” Journal of the Digital Humanities Vol. 1, no 1.

(Winter 2011), http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/1-1/demystifying-networks-by-scott-weingart/.

6

ignorance by provoking us to reconsider what we know.”10

What Busa highlights is the

inherent decisions and biases that come out when constructing data for analysis, forcing

the scholar to ask new questions from possibly the same sources.11

This realization

situates the present study squarely in the new field of the digital humanities.

Studying an idea or a commemoration cycle and how it came about and was

transferred to certain promoters can mean stepping back from the idea or concept. The

scholar can investigate all of the members of an organization and perform a systematic

analysis of the connections between the organization and members alike through

membership or executive lists. The ties between these social actors allow the scholar to

compare previous scholarship to this framework and to judge whether previously held

historiography is supported, or whether the scholar should examine people or avenues

that were missed by other forms of analysis.

10

Willard McCarty, “A Telescope of the Mind?” 113-123 in Debates in the Digital Humanities, edited by

Matthew K. Gold (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2012), 115. 11

A key argument in the digital humanities notes how the methodology itself can play a distinct role in

understanding ideas. In broad terms, digital humanities can be described as the use of computers and digital

tools to investigate questions posed by the humanities. The precise meaning of the term and the goals of

the field continue to be widely debated by its own practitioners. This work is an effort to add to the

historical memory studies views of digital humanities. For more on this emerging field of study that

combines scholars from multiple backgrounds of the humanities who use and work in the digital public

space see the multiple authors’ efforts at “How Do You Define DH?,” Day of Digital Humanities 2012,

http://dayofdh2012.artsrn.ualberta.ca/dh/ (accessed March 30th, 2013). For a discussion of the field in a

book form, see Matthew K. Gold. Editor, Debates in the Digital Humanities (Minneapolis: University of

Minnesota Press, 2012). This includes works by practitioners like Matthew Kirschenbaum, Kathleen

Fitzpatrick, Lisa Spiro, Patrick Svensson and many others in the form of published blog posts that attempt

to define DH and also sections on the theory, critique, practice, teaching, and envisioning with some

repetition of scholars. Some digital humanities scholars like Gary Hall argue that the digital humanities

should, as Dan Cohan has suggested, lead to a “post-theoretical age,” and that methodology should be the

focus of scholarship and even become the theory. See Gary Hall, “Has Critical Theory Run Out of Time

for Data-Driven Scholarship,” 127-31 in Debates in the Digital Humanities, edited by Matthew K. Gold

(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2012), 128. Margaret Masterson has suggested another route

for digital humanities, McCarty,113-4. She argues that digital tools can offer a qualitative change of

different ideas, rather than simply adding more evidence, McCarty, 113-4.

7

“Close” and “distant” readings in memory studies

Social network theory has already contributed to the study of the past and so this

methodology should be seen by historical memory studies scholars as a useful tool that is

not necessarily incompatible with current approaches to historiography. Work by

Rosenthal et al. has shown the theory’s historical potential to provide new ideas and

interpretations in the study of commemoration and memory.12

In memory studies, social

historians and geographers like Katie Pickles, Norman Knowles, Gerald Killan, Cecilia

Morgan and Colin Coates, and Alan Gordon have sought to go beyond the ceremonies

and symbols to investigate how and who constructed memory.13

In most cases, it turns

out that multiple people and organizations have shaped memory. The case study format,

which focuses on just one group or element, has limited the effectiveness of documenting

disputes, meetings and correspondence. The digital humanities scholar, Matthew

Kirschenbaum, delineates close and distant reading as ways of examining texts. Close

reading focuses on a single text, understanding it at many levels. Distant reading, on the

other hand, looks at a corpus, or set of work as a whole, and pulls out trends or themes

12 Rosenthal, Naomi, Meryl Fingrutd, Michelle Ethier, Roberta Karant and David McDonald, “Social

Movements and Network Analysis: A Case Study of Nineteenth-Century Women’s Reform in New York

State,” American Journal of Sociology 90, no. 5 (March 1985): 1022-1054. 13

Katie Pickles, Female Imperialism and National Identity: Imperial Order Daughters of the Empire

(Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2002). See also the master and doctoral work of

Lisa Gaudet; Lisa S. Gaudet, “The Empire is Woman's Sphere: Organized Female Imperialism in Canada,

1880s-1920s,” Ph.D. diss., Carleton University, 2001; Lisa S. Gaudet, “Nation’s Mothers, Empire’s

Daughters: The Imperial Order Daughters of The Empire, 1920-1930,” M.A. Thesis, Carleton University,

1993; Norman Knowles, Inventing the Loyalists: The Ontario Loyalist Tradition & the Creation of Usable

Pasts (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997); Colin M. Coates and Morgan, Cecilia, Heroines and

History: Representations of Madeline de Verchères and Laura Secord, First reprint ed. (Toronto:

University of Toronto Press, 2007). See also Cecilia Morgan, “History, Nation, and Empire: Gender and

Southern Ontario Historical Societies, 1980-1920’s,” Canadian Historical Review 82, 3 (September 2001):

491-528; Alan Gordon, The Hero and the Historians: Historiography and the Use of Jacques Cartier

(Vancouver, UBC Press, 2010). For another approach to the memory of a person as a symbol, see Barry

Schwartz, George Washington: The Making of an American Symbol (New York: Free Press, 1987).

8

that may become apparent upon more comparative work.14

By enabling both close and

distant readings, social network theory could allow the historical memory studies scholar

to get a better understanding of the key debates surrounding the memory of a war, group

or person, as in the construction of the meaning of the War of 1812 and in particular the

role of Sir General Isaac Brock in the centenary celebrations. Such an approach is

supported by Matthew Kirschenbaum’s discussion of the relative merits of close and

distant reading by scholars and machines.15

The methodology of this study illustrates Busa’s point. The construction of a

database from which network analysis can be visualized forces the scholar to think about

how the study can help get to the heart of the time period. To understand the centennial

commemoration of the War of 1812 that centered on General Brock and even to explore

emerging notions of maternal feminism and imperial nationalism (from the same

historical materials), we need to turn to a selection of patriotic and historical societies that

were formed and were active around the turn of the twentieth century. The archive for the

present study includes a wide range of routinely-produced materials of which historians

are aware, but which have generally been set aside because of their seemingly limited

14

Matthew G. Kirchenbaum, “The Remaking of Reading: Data Mining and The Digital Humanities,”

http://www.csee.umbc.edu/~hillol/NGDM07/abstracts/talks/MKirschenbaum.pdf (accessed April 14th

,

2013), looks at the merits of using tools like data mining and computer reading of huge sets of literatures,

or corpuses and making scholarly conclusions against interpretations based on scholarly close-reading of

single books and documents and extrapolating. 15

For Kirchenbaum, like Busa, the computer is just an aid or tool to help the scholar re-examine

conclusions, and not to replace closer examination. While the concept of the strength of weak ties is not

applicable in this study, Granovetter’s less cited reason for why he developed the concept is very similar in

logic. He seeks to fill in a gap between micro and macro network analysis. Granovetter sees both the

strengths of and a disjuncture between quantitative macro-analysis, looking at organizational structures and

social mobility, and micro-analysis, examining a body of data and ideas happening within a smaller group.

He notes the advantage of creating a micro-macro bridge in interpersonal networks to help small-scale

interaction inform larger patterns and feed back into the smaller groups. By bemoaning the peripheral

micro-use of sociometry, the precursor to social network theory based in social psychology, he calls for it

to be more widely applied to larger systems. In Granovetter’s work he uses a social science definition of

micro and macro analysis, and not a historical definition. Granovetter 1973, 1360-9.

9

qualitative value. In this case, it is the annual lists of executive officer memberships,

tracking individuals as they move up and across organizational hierarchies that is

particularly suited to a network analysis approach.

The membership lists of executive officers are found in the public and semi-

public documents of major commemorative organizations. These were found in the

annual reports and newsletter Echoes16

from the IODE, and the annual reports from the

Ontario Historical Society (OHS) and United Empire Loyalist Association of Ontario

(UELAO).17

From these lists, I culled the names of women connected to the

organizations along with the year and position (president, etc.). While these reports are

the main source material for analysis, attention was first drawn to these women and their

organizations because of the select group of women who are frequently mentioned in the

secondary memory studies literature. Their biographies, taken from the Dictionary of

Canadian Biography and other contemporary biographical collections,18

often lack

information on their specific positions and the years in which they were held, and so the

membership lists fill an important lacuna.

In order to examine the spread of ideas accompanying the rise of the Brock

Centenary, data was collected from select relevant years, driven by context and

availability, and divided into three phases based on “natural” break-points. The first

16

At the Library and Archives Canada (LAC), the annual reports are in MG 28I 17, Vols.1-2, 11 and 15.

While part of the fonds, Echoes is stored separately and the Amicus number for Echoes is 114363 and

reference number L-510-4-7. Both sources have yet to be digitized. 17

Ontario Historical Society, Annual Report of the Ontario Historical Society (Toronto: Ontario Historical

Society, 1898-1908); United Empire Loyalists’ Association of Ontario, Annual Transactions (Toronto:

United Empire Loyalists’ Association of Ontario, 1896-1904). Both are available on Internet Archive. 18

Examples of such references include: Erin Brenault, “Ridout, Matilda (Edgar, Lady Edgar),” The

Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?id_nbr=7018;

Dignam, Mary Ella,” Who’s Who and Why: A Biographical Dictionary of Men and Women of Canada and

Newfoundland, Vol. 5, C.W. Parker editor (Vancouver: International Press, 1914), 280.

10

period runs from 1897-1902. All three organizations were formed between 1897 and

1901. To interpret how the social network was formed, this period ends in 1902. As the

IODE was used as the entry point into the network, the years of 1903-4 and 1907, drawn

from the issues of Echoes that are available at Library and Archives Canada, form the

second phase. Finally, the last phase runs from 1910-12 and includes the larger

organizations along with all regents of the General Brock chapter. These years were

chosen in part as they have surviving print lists available and can provide a snap-shot of

change over time. In addition to the executive lists found in the IODE fonds, a more

systematic analysis was taken through the records available at the Library and Archives

Canada and the Brockville Museum, particularly in connection to the IODE.

For the purposes of this study, three years have been highlighted. To gain insight

into the organizational nature of the women and organizations, the first unification point

of 1898 was selected, around the start of the OHS. The intermediate year of 1902 was

chosen to represent a time when all groups were involved, and 1910 was included since

this was when the OHS met in Brockville. This allows for examination of the social

environment that existed close to the Brock Centenary. The female executive officers of

the OHS were also collected for 1910 to balance the preponderance of historical records

on the IODE. In total, this represents 593 women and 63 organizations, a very strong

sample from the province.19

In order to make sense of this number of women and the connected organizations,

the scholar needs to turn to a process of analysis that fits with such a “big data” set to

19

This group represents a sizable proportion of the around 1,000,000 women in Ontario at the time, which

is representative to +/- 4.5%, 19 times out of 20. This suggests that interpretation of this network could

give a representative picture of the wider society.

11

allow for the historical research method to be augmented by a more systematic process.

To do this, relational data, or pairs of women and organizations, are put into an electronic

database to store and translate the historical record, so that a computer can understand the

report page. This step is performed by formatting an Excel database in a way to limit

error and allow for a record of the variation of names over time.20

By constructing this

database, preliminary trends can be seen, such as a general movement through an

organization or possible ties that existed, and what a researcher knows from contextual

research while still preserving as much detail as possible.

While the memory studies scholar looks at names and affiliation or ties to a

network and notes similar memberships, this approach is inherently influenced by how

closely they read and make notes on the lists and organizations along with their own

biases and those of previous scholars who have investigated the topic. Network analysis

methods rely on the scholar to provide information in a format that they can understand.21

They look specifically at ties between nodes and can quickly analyze a much larger set of

information in a basic way. Importantly, network analysis is uninformed by any

contextual information and instead focuses on the frequency of a tie being connected to a

node.22

The end result, when mapped and analyzed through a set of tools or metrics,

20

This technique uses a multiple-page linked Excel spreadsheet on which the two types or modes of

information, along with year, are recorded on three separate sheets that connect to a master sheet where the

relational data is collected. For the women, each one has a number based on when they were entered into

the system, and to which personal information is attached. This allows for a record of first names, maiden

name, marriage name, peerage, and the name of their husband. Variations of the name between years are

also recorded. The organizations are listed on another sheet. In the master sheet, the record number for

each woman from a controlled vocabulary list is tied to an organization from another controlled-vocabulary

list by years and, when possible, position. This system limits spelling errors that can create duplication.

The position is recorded for contextual analysis to track movement through the organizations. 21

This is in the form of a comma separated value format (.csv) for Gephi. 22

Gephi is based on a mathematical model informed by formulas or algorithms that read the data and

systematically go though each set of relational data and correlate any tie that is recorded to a node. Despite

the systematic way of going through tens or hundreds of nodes and ties, this entire process take up a

12

calculates and alters the display of the data so it can be interpreted. Some may see this

end result as too complex and as resulting only in a “spaghetti”-like map and so turn to

other methods.23

Yet looking carefully at the groupings and which nodes tie to others,

along with comparative use of some of the more analytical functions, can give the

memory studies scholar a map to better understand their sources. By examining one or

more network maps in social or historical context, the prominence of a woman and/or

organization can be confirmed, and the scholar can identify the potential importance of a

woman or organization that scholars have not previously noticed or considered.

Thus, the systematic way in which network analysis interprets a set of relational

data that is collected through a spreadsheet database bears some similarity to how a

historical memory studies scholar might interpret the same evidence. There are also

important differences. The open-source program Gephi excels at measuring these

statistics, and then visualizing them. The statistics or metrics that Gephi can compute

enable the researcher to find possible trends concerning the flow of information through

different paths in the network, the identification of key individual nodes who act as

“gatekeepers” on that flow, inter-organizational subgroupings, and other information that

can tell the scholar about the larger-scale social relationships of these women.24

While the algorithmic and analytical framework of examining evidence from

social sciences is in many ways new and foreign to historical research, it should be seen

as a powerful ally for memory studies. This is especially true as more and more sources

fraction of the time a human could do the same calculations, normally less than a minute. For its website

see M.Bastian, S.Heymann, and M..Jacomy (2009). Gephi: An Open Source Software for Exploring and

Manipulating Networks. International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media. 23

Irad Malkin, A Small Greek World: Networks in the Ancient Mediterranean (New York: Oxford

University Press, 2011), 19. 24

Bastian M.,S. Heymann and M. Jacomy.

13

become available digitally offering a wider range of evidence that can strengthen

analysis.25

For an example of this process, Figure Two shows the methodological

transition from archival document to data set to network visualization for the

Commemorative Organizational Network of 1902.

Figure 2: 1902 officers, from list to Gephi visualization. The list shown is the mixed

membership of the OHS for 1901-2 while the IODE and UELAO have similar lists. The

list (formatted as a simple comma-separated table of values) shows just the relational data

that is interpreted and altered by Gephi, which converts the connections between the

women into ties between the nodes that represent organizations. The different colouring

and size in nodes represents further analysis of sub-groupings and importance by the

number of ties.

From archival document….

25

Ian Milligan, “Mining the Internet Graveyard,” Journal of the Canadian Historical Association, Vol. 23,

No 2 (2012, published in 2013). [Forthcoming].

14

…to a list or data set…

…to a network visualization showing the results of analysis.

15

Metrics

Just as social network analysis is contingent on research questions, the type of

tools of analysis or metrics depends on the researcher’s questions for the study. For this

study, metrics of modularity and betweenness centrality are used, which seek out

groupings and central or important women or organizations, through the network metrics.

Both metrics are based on algorithms from previous studies and analyze nodes and ties at

the basic level. 26

Looking into groups of nodes tied together or to one node over other

sets of nodes allows the scholar to suggest different sub-groupings or modular

communities. Visualized through different colours, these groupings can be interpreted by

the scholar to identify a central idea or factor and allow for a larger network community

to be studied by component elements. 27

To predict which nodes have higher influence and therefore control, a measure of

what network scholars call “betweenness” centrality, is helpful. This metric counts the

number of paths between every possible set of nodes (or individual women) in the

network. The nodes that sit atop the largest number of paths are hence the most

“between” within the network and thus are considered to be in a position of power to

influence the flow of information. This metric may be visualized by changing the node

and label size proportionally to the node’s statistical importance – bigger nodes are the

ones that are most in between. This visualization of the data suggests relationships and

connections that otherwise might go undetected and also raises a number of key

questions. For 1902, for example, this visualization suggests that the Women’s Canadian

26

This metric in Gephi is taken from the study Vincent D. Blondel, Jean-Loup Guillaume, Renaud

Lambiotte and Etienne Lefebvre, “Fast Unfolding of Communities in Large Networks,” Journal of

Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment (October 2008), P10008. 27

Blondel et al., 2

16

Historical Society of Ottawa and Ottawa in general played a greater role than suggested

by previous historical memory studies scholarship. Toronto’s overall influence in the

commemorative network decreased. Later in the essay, we shall see that this insight

triggers a number of important other questions about the Brock Centenary and about the

emergence of a province-wide commemorative network from 1898 to 1910.

Another metric that we can explore is the degree to which there are “subgroups”

in a network. These may or may not correspond directly with organizations. For instance,

it might be that the women who lived in a particular part of Ontario all belonged to the

same organizations, more or less. The “community detection” metric (also called

“modularity”, i.e., modules) can identify these patterns of similar ties that could be due to

geographic or other factors. In the diagrams that follow, node size always depicts the

relative “betweenness” of the node, whereas colour indicates individual “modules” of

similar sub-patterns in the network. Both of these metrics are outlined in Table 2.

Table 2: Metrics.

Term Definition

Betweenness Centrality This metric counts the number of paths

between every possible set of nodes (or

individual women) in the network. The

nodes that sit atop the largest number

of paths are hence the most “between”

within the network suggesting the node

is in a position of power to influence

the flow of information.

Modularity A measure of the degree to which there

are “subgroups" in a network that is

used for community detection in a

study.

17

Formal social network analysis can help the scholar to understand more than just

social connections. It can also indicate the means of communication when the network is

placed in context. For the Brock Centenary, this placement comes with the IODE’s Sir

Isaac Brock Chapter in Welland, Ontario. The focal point of the celebration of Brock

and the War of 1812 was Ontario, especially southern Ontario, and the organizational

effort by the women is quite impressive given the geographic area it covered. For ideas

and information to flow across the network, the women needed to be able to form

acquaintances, communicate across distances to keep up acquaintances, and meet face-to-

face in meetings. For this social network to be as connected as it became, it needed a

physical infrastructure and transportation network for social ties to build on, rather than

just relying on hubs of elite society in Toronto and even Ottawa.

As turn-of-the-century Canada experienced a period of rapid industrialization and

expansion, the railroad gained strength. Tracks connected the established cities with the

older wealth, such as Toronto, St. Catharines and Niagara, and cities like Hamilton and

Welland, which rose in wealth as they profited from the new industry. As industrial

nouveau riche families rose in wealth, they joined the same organizations as the

Loyalists, such as Lady William Mackenzie.28

These corridors or rails served as the

physical network that enabled the social society to shape the commemoration in part

because the lines served as corridors for the telegram and other forms of communication

along with travel. Even old wealth societies of the IODE took advantage of this network

28

Mrs. William Mackenzie rises to the peerage as Lady Mackenzie In 1911 when her industrialist husband

rose after helping establish the infrastructure for the TTC and CN railways. See Theodore D. Regehr,

“Mackenzie, Sir William,” Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, http://www.biographi.ca/009004-

119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=8258 (accessed March 31st, 2013).

18

to place chapters. The 1907 Niagara railroad network may well provide a clue as to why

Brock was commemorated in Welland by a chapter name in 1906 (See Figure 3).

The placement of the Welland chapter in an industrial hub for multiple railways

line, especially the Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway, suggests an answer as to

why the chapter was not placed in Niagara, an old wealth centre. The potential for close

communication with Toronto and Hamilton, both influential in commemoration at times,

while offering a location close to the geographic area where Brock made his mark, made

Welland a perfect place for the IODE’s goals. This placement may have also reflected

territorial issues. The 1910 executive list for the Niagara Historical Society, the historical

society at Niagara–on-the-Lake, where the chapter could have easily gone, shows how

Miss Janet Carnochan directed the area as not only president, but also as treasurer and

curator, in much the same way Mrs. Nordheimer directed the IODE as a whole as

president from 1901-1910.29

The close connection between the algorithmically analyzed

social network and the physical network of the past can help to explain trends which

would be difficult to understand using archival documents alone.

29

Ontario Historical Society, Annual Report of the Historical Society, 1910, (Toronto, Ontario Historical

Society, 1910), 80-4. Mrs. Nordheimer’s DCB entry notes her controlling leadership of the IODE.

Examining the list of regents over the years, one cannot help but notice the number of listings for Miss

Boulton and Mrs. Nordheimer.

19

Figure 3: The 1907 railroad network in Niagara showing the extent of rail connections

that served as the underlying network to connect the social network. From an unknown

source posted on www.niagararails.com.

The Brock Centenary serves as a case study to use this methodology. The

relationship between the algorithmic metrics and the historical time period extends

beyond informing and being informed by historical context, as it can also be used to track

the spread of an idea through time. The metrics of betweenness centrality and modularity

become tools for the scholar to re-examine the shape of society and how the importance

of select ideas around the Brock Centenary and certain organizations and women rose

and fell in society. This basic analysis helps to support and strengthen the historical

memory studies’ ideas about the commemoration of the War of 1812 as the Brock

Centenary.30

30

The narrative and networks presented in the following section represents a small subset of the amount of

work and analysis put into the project. For example, there were multiple network investigations that sought

20

Social network analysis in historical memory studies practice

The decision to commemorate General Brock during the centenary of the War of

1812 dates from as early as 1898. Interpreting a snapshot of the first year of the Ontario

Historical Society illustrates the importance given by those included in the network to the

Loyalist past and to the sites of the War of 1812 along with links to the early formation of

the women’s movement. This community appears to have been affiliated with limited

sub-groups. The network analysis illustrates how the organizations were a strong uniting

force, tying a core group of women together. It reduced an already small average number

of ties or connections between the fifteen women through whom the information needed

to pass to only a few women, meaning that the information would only have to pass

through up to three women across the highest number of ties with similar numbers. This

was partially due to the importance of the Ontario Historical Society and the headquarter

city of Toronto, along with select ties to societies focused on commemorating the War of

1812 in the Niagara Peninsula, especially around Wentworth County and Thorold.

In this case, network theory supports what scholarship had suggested about the

importance of the OHS in the Ontario cultural scene.31

Gerald Killan argues that the idea

of connecting nationhood and history began early in Ontario and that this process was

directed by British-Canadian nationalists who drew on Loyalist and pioneer pasts,

particularly those related to the War of 1812.32

Killan notes that it was Canon Henry

to examine the same evidence in different ways that discovered different ideas and properties of the

network that did not make it into the analysis for this work. This work along with the relevant data files in

.exel, .csv, and .gephi form will be available at http://figshare.com/authors/Peter%20Holdsworth/402385. 31

Killan, 4. 32

Killan plays on the ideas of Carl Berger to suggest a central role of the Loyalist past as influencing this

national intent, though compromises more than Carl Berger by adding other factors. Killan,4-7. This is

supported by Berger with an entire chapter on some Loyalist origins of imperial nationalism, which allows

21

Scadding, president of the York Pioneer and Historical Society, who was behind a

general organization of the early historical societies in 1896 to help preserve and extend

the influence of the historical societies. The Pioneer Association of Ontario became the

OHS in 1898 under James Coyne. Its intent to become a “clearing house for the local

historical society movement” over time was achieved and even superseded Coyne’s

wishes.33

It even pushed the UELAO into an assisting organizational role, which raises

new questions about the Loyalist influence in the early historical society movement.

Looking at the organizations alone, the OHS is shown to be at the centre of the

network, with the UELAO playing a secondary role. The UELAO had direct ties to the

OHS, but stronger intermediary ties through the Women’s Canadian Historical Society of

Toronto (WCHST). For its part, the OHS drew in the Niagara Peninsula and other

societies outside Toronto. The use of historical societies by women supports arguments

Berger to claim the Loyalist past as a way for Toronto to represent the imperial centre of Canada, on pages

29-35, but suggests that another factor was the use of the past for the goals of the present, as old wealth

families who had inherited social status attempted to counter the rise of the industrial nouveau riche.

Combining this literature with an analysis of some of the women suggests that the class-consciousness of

the upper-middle and elite Anglo-Saxon families meant that membership in these organizations was already

socially controlled. Many of these women knew each other from family connections of husbands and

fathers. While they were publically known under their husbands’ names, they seemed to have been

participants in a compromise of old wealth and the nouveau riche. In this compromise there appears to have

been a tendency for the daughters of old wealth to marry members of the commercial class of nouveau

riche. In this social environment, membership in the upper-middle to elite class society relied on marriage.

These women seemed to understand the importance of marriage and patronage themselves; in public they

identified by their married names, but amongst their families and themselves they routinely traded on their

maiden names and lineage. For examples of this compromise in the Niagara region see Tori Smith,

“Boulton, Edith Sarah Louisa (Nordheimer),” The Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online,

http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?id_nbr=7226; Erin Brenault, “Ridout, Matilda (Edgar, Lady

Edgar),” The Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-

e.php?id_nbr=7018; “Dignam, Mary Ella,” Who’s Who and Why: A Biographical Dictionary of Men and

Women of Canada and Newfoundland, Vol. 5, C.W. Parker editor (Vancouver: International Press, 1914),

280 and Peter Hanlon, “Beemer, Sara Galbraith (Calder),” Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online,

http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=7199. Despite this social network spreading

geographically as far as Cornwall, Hamilton and the Niagara peninsula, the historical contexts of the social

class structure and Loyalist and Family Compact families collapsed the Brock Centenary commemorative

network to a manageable data set. 33

Killan 37-56. The Pioneer Association of Ontario, eventually changing its name to the OHS under St.

Thomas’s James Coyne in May 1898.

22

made by Morgan and Killan, who have noted the ties of first-wave feminists to the

WCHST, especially efforts to contribute to the (re)education of a Canadian public that

was thought to be under assault by immigration and other elements of modernity

including suffrage.34

How the WCHST connected the patriotic and historical societies,

questions whether the WHCST and the historical groups associated with the women’s

movements should be seen as having a more central role in the historical society

movement, rather than being studied as either peripheral or independently. For a visual

representation of this network, see Figure 4.

If the organizational ties of 1898 point to the overstated role of the Loyalists in

the movement, then the methodology of looking at the ties between the women supports

current scholarship as well as offering the opportunity for reinterpretation. While the

network shows that the organizations seem to link the women, the network also indicates

that the women formed a tight group that helped the organizations to influence

commemorative activity. The core of the social network was most influenced by either

Matilda Ridout Edgar or Mrs. James D. Edgar. Mrs. Edgar was a Toronto society

woman from the Loyalist Ridout family; she was also a member of the WCHST and

helped in the OHS. The next most influential woman was Mrs. Forsyth Grant, U. E. and

WCHST member. The two women that had closer connections to the OHS grouping of

women were Mrs. Brant-Sero and Mrs. E. Farmer.

These women formed the core that kept the group together with multiple ties

going between them, while the others clustered in a grouping that mimicked the

34

Morgan and Killan, 27-9. This work ties to efforts in Toronto and Wentworth County to disguise

societies in the women’s movement, particularly those with feminist leanings, as historical societies.

Much of what Killan and Morgan note are more radical elements, rather than those of maternal feminism

that focused on extending rights outside the Victorian home to a point.

23

organizations. While other scholars have identified Mrs. Edgar as influential during this

time period, the other women have not been given much attention, including Mrs. Brant-

Sero.35

Although there is very little scholarship concerning Mrs. Brant-Sero, her

importance is not all that surprising as her husband was the Loyalist Mohawk descendant

J. O. Brant-Sero, who was seen as a Six-Nations representative to the OHS.36

Given the

importance of Loyalist heritage for Mrs. Edgar and Mrs. Grant, this adds the question of

whether the Loyalist influence should be measured through organizational presence or by

Loyalist membership in other groups. To see this in network form, see Figure 5 and Table

3. The apparent supporting role of the WCHST suggests that more research could be

done on the Women’s Canadian Historical Society in the historical society movement and

that increased scholarly analysis of the wives of key male commemorators is needed.

From this tight grouping of organizations and women, the patriotic and historical

societies and women’s movements expanded and changed rapidly within the five years to

1902, at which time the IODE joined the network.

35

Morgan. Matilda Ridout Edgar becomes Lady Edgar and in 1904 publishes General Brock. 36

Killan, 43.

24

Figure 4: Organizations are the nodes, paired together by women who are members of

both organizations..

25

Figure 5: The network of women in 1898; the organizations are represented by the ties

which appear as the lines joining the nodes.

Table 3: The women of 1898 in order of decreasing influence.

Identification

number

Name

60 Mrs. James D. Edgar (née Matilda

Ridout)

83 Mrs. Forsyth Grant

16 Mrs. Brant-Sero

68 Miss E. Farmer

Using social network theory in an historical context allows a scholar to compare

change over time and to track the evolution of ideas in a systematic way. By 1902, the

network had expanded across historical societies, patriotic institutions, and the women’s

movement, reaching other settlements in southern Ontario like Brockville in Eastern

Ontario. The network shows the influence of the new ideas that characterized Ontario

26

society at the turn of the century, as commemorative and social ties were in flux.

Interpretation suggests that the networks of women and organizations were comparatively

weaker as more women joined from different groups and regions. From the structure and

those involved, it appears that Loyalism was losing cultural importance to imperial

nationalism and an active women’s movement, particularly that of maternal feminism.

The UELAO and Loyalist promoters would turn to the War of 1812 and General Brock to

promote an historic past to engage the public starting around 1907, efforts which would

be organized in 1912 around Queenston Heights.37

An examination of 1902 supports a case for re-examining the past through

networks, given that the influential groups and women were less from Toronto and more

from Ottawa and Niagara. Historically, the shift toward more imperial national ideas ties

in with Canadian involvement in the Imperial Boer War in 1899 that created the

organization that became the most central in collection in this study, the IODE.38

While

started as a war aid patriotic society by Mrs. Margaret Smith Murray (née Polson), the

IODE soon began to turn to the past and make its mark in the centennial celebration of

the War of 1812 as the “Brock Centenary,” both in Brockville, Ontario (formed 1902)

and in Toronto and Niagara.39

37

Knowles suggests that the reality of the Loyalist influence was declining even by the end of the War of

1812 despite efforts by Lord Dorchester and the renewed political efforts to use the Loyalists’ claims. The

shift toward the War of 1812 is outlined on 160-2. 38

Carmen Miller, Canada’s Little War: Fighting for the British Empire in Southern Africa, 1899-1902

(Toronto: James Lorimer and Co., 2003), especially p. 94; Pickles; Berger. 39

LAC, MG28 I 17, Vol. 11, Folder 1, 1901-2, Imperial Order Daughters of the Empire, Annual Report

President’s address, 3. L-510-4-7, Echoes, no. 49 October, 1912, 9 and no. 50 December 1912, 9-10. See

also Margaret Gillett, “Polson Margaret Smith (Murray),” Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online,

http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=7850 9 (accessed March 30th, 2013). She signed

her name as “Margaret Paulson Murray.”

27

Isolating the organizations shows how rapid growth around imperialism affected

network composition and suggests new geographic areas for study. As previously noted,

the network is a linear system that relies on the relative strength of an organization in

maintaining ties with the organization next to it, and in this case leaves many of the

expanding historical societies isolated. The network expansion suggests growth beyond

the means of society to connect fully. By 1902 this growth was to such an extent that the

commemorative network was splintered with the imperial and feminist historical societies

not fully connecting to the 1898 core. Tied together were the Loyalist organizations,

Wentworth historical societies and the OHS. Within this community the Women’s

Wentworth Historical Society had a continued importance and influence. The IODE

pulled away the WCHST and Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa

(WCHSO), and the rest of the groups were isolated. Particularly surprising are the

isolation of the Niagara Historical Society, and the non-existence of its ties to the

Wentworth Historical Society and Women’s Wentworth Historical Society.40

With the

growth from the 1898 core, the social ties could not hold the network together. The

strength of Wentworth County and Niagara is shown by the group led by Mrs. John

Calder replacing the WCHST, hinting at the later 1910 strength of the Wentworth

Historical Society.

40

Ontario Historical Society, Annual Report of the Ontario Historical Society, 1899 (Toronto: William

Briggs, 1899), 52-5. This year represents the move by the Ladies’ Committee of the Wentworth Historical

Society to split and become the Women’s Wentworth Historical Society, giving separate reports to the

OHS. The Women’s Wentworth Historical Society was led by the feminist painter Mrs. John Calder.

28

A surprising finding in relationship to the scholarship is the influence and

grouping of the WCHSO.41

The increasing efforts by some in Canada to intensify

identification with Britain is suggested by how the WCHSO almost counterbalances the

influence of the IODE in the network while the WCHST is subsumed within the IODE’s

influence. One reason for this influence will be suggested by looking at the influential

women in 1902, but ideologically, the increased connection of Canadian nationalism to

an imperial identity would suggest that organizations like the IODE and other groups

began to look to the closest manifestation of the royal family in Canada. This would be

found in a limited capacity through the Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario in Toronto where

the organizations were, but the ultimate patronage would be through the nation’s capital

in Ottawa where the monarch’s national representative, the Governor General lived.

While part of the women’s movement by belonging to an organization of women to

promote Canadian history, the members of the Women’s Canadian Historical Society of

Ottawa were also the wives and sisters of the Prime Minister, ministers, and members of

Parliament, both anglophone and francophone, along with genteel society ladies. In their

efforts to extend their roles outside the house, these women could be seen as holding

greater influence over national and possibly imperial policy. This connection can be seen

as possibly replacing the effectiveness of the OHS to promote goals as Canada was

involved in its first imperial war. The OHS seems not to have fully realized this tie and

in many ways remained isolated in its own society circle. See the final step of Figure 2

for the organizational ties for 1902.

41

Killan, 125 and 144, only mentions the Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa tangentially, as

having a secondary role while looking at the WCHST. Both Morgan and Berger do not mention the society,

with Berger not even bringing in the WCHST.

29

Focusing on a snapshot of the women involved in 1902, the trends and new

directions from re-interpretation are supported. If the goal of the OHS in 1898 was to

promote social interest in the past, it was successful, and imperialistic patriotism helped

to more than triple the number of women involved in the social-commemorative

network.42

These women formed a splintered network of sub-communities by mimicking

the organizational structural network, showing how the organizations relied on the

women to tie them together. The fragility of the social system and the nature of ties

amongst organizations can be shown by looking at the influential women. Listed by

decreasing influence they were Countess Minto, Mrs. R. R. Waddell, Mrs. Mary Rose-

Holden, and Mrs. S. Carey, and equally Miss. C. R. Boulton and Miss Mowat. The first

two tied the WCHSO and WCHST to the IODE and the UELAO to the WWHS

respectively. Mrs. Rose-Holden linked the Wentworth historical societies and OHS to

the UELAO. Mrs. S. Carey served a secondary role within the Loyalist associations to

Mrs. Waddell, and Miss Mowat and C. R. Boulton connected the WCHST to the IODE.

This network allows the scholar to suggest which ideas were shaping the commemorative

environment and suggests that the focus was on those with a Loyalist past. It also

indicated many names that scholars know little about. The ties of the most influential

women to the IODE and Ottawa merit further discussion.

The influential nature of the WCHSO can be suggested by looking at one woman

who helped to tie it to the other organizations along imperial lines and to allow ideas to

flow through imperial and some historical societies. Supporting the importance of the

imperial connections of those in the middle and upper–class Anglo-Saxon society, the

42

In 1898, there were 51 women and by 1902 there were 188.

30

highest number of ties was with the Countess Minto. The Countess was in Ottawa and

the wife of the Crown’s representative in Canada, the Governor General Earl of Minto.

In this sense Countess Minto was the closest female representative to the Crown and

gained “influence” through honorary and patronage positions if organizations wanted

direct ties to authority. See Figure 6 and Table 4 for a visual of the network of women in

1902.

Figure 6: The network of women for 1902. The pink represents women who are all in the

IODE along with an internal grouping from the WCHST while the red are women who

are part of the WCHSO. The green represents the 1898 core community of the UELAO,

and Wentworth historical societies with the OHS. The rest of the OHS societies are

isolated in different colours.

31

Table 4: The women of 1902 in order of decreasing influence.

Identification

number

Name

62 Countess Minto

191 Mrs. R. R. Waddell

158 Mrs. Mary Rose-Holden

28 Mrs. S. Carey

12 Miss Constance Rudyard Boulton

137 Miss Mowat

In examining the basic structure of society through time, the scholar can see and

possibly confirm broad social adoption of ideals. A snapshot of the social-

commemorative society around the meeting of the OHS at Brockville, Ontario in 1910

suggests that a large percentage of the women were beginning to move towards an idea or

goal, forming the social ties to achieve that goal. While the network for 1902 suggests

that the social structure had not had time to catch up to social change, 1910 could

represent a more stable society despite a large number of women and organizations. The

networks of both organizations and women show that there were six subgroups, which is

closer to the four groups in 1898, and much smaller than that of 1902, which had eleven

groups. The power of the organizations to connect and direct communication is shown by

their ability to reduce the number of ties, and the 37,312 ties between the women show

how tight this society was and how far things had come since 1902.43

In terms of

controlling ideas and interest, there appears to have been a strengthening of the women’s

43

In 1898, there were 760 ties between 51 women and 14 ties between nine organizations. By 1902, there

were 7464 ties between 188 women and 20 ties between 17 organizations which grew to the 37,312 ties

between 270 women and 32 ties between 15 organizations in 1910.

32

movement, in particular the historically minded groups, and of the Niagara Peninsula, as

the OHS membership moved strongly away from Toronto towards Wentworth and

Niagara. Examining this general shift in the historical context suggests the idea/event

that these women were working towards, the centenary of the War of 1812 and in

particular the celebration of General Sir Isaac Brock. The networked society that was

being shaped by ideas of feminism and imperial nationalism had found the figure and

event to which they could attach their view of the past.

As the ideas of imperialism grew in visibility and influence in public discourse,

the organizations seem to have supported a multi-institutionalization of those ideas

around unifying groups. Analysis of the data which focus on the OHS and IODE, given a

lack of easily accessibly records for the UELAO, indicates that the OHS had been slowly

gaining a wide support from the geographic area of the War of 1812, shifting its focus

away from Toronto. The isolation of the Niagara Historical Society appears to be due to

its rapid expansion in 1902, as the society controlled by Miss Janet Carnochan became a

major player, out-influencing the WCHST. This may have been due to Miss Carnochan

placement on the OHS’s new “Special Committee to Consider and Report as to Suitable

Commemoration of the Canadian Historic Events of 1812-15,” along with Mrs. Simpson

of Ottawa.44

Outside the influence of the Niagara Historical Society, the closer ties with

two ladies auxiliaries or committees that became their own societies in Wentworth and

Elgin suggests that the women’s movement’s use of history had been integrated into the

OHS. Mrs. Simpson’s placement on the committee with judges, lawyers and academics

also shows Ottawa’s role in the social network.

44

, Ontario Historical Society, Annual Report of the Historical Society, 1910 (Toronto, Ontario Historical

Society, 1910), 5.

33

While the IODE appears to have been at the edge of the system in some ways, it

was well connected to the OHS through a well supported tie to the WCHSO. The other

tie that triangulates the network and makes it stronger is between the Wentworth

Historical Society and the National Council of Women, suggesting that the broader

women’s movement was being more integrated into the commemorative societies. This is

surprising in light of the work by Morgan, who has focused on the role of the Women’s

Wentworth Historical Society for the movement in contrast to the Wentworth Historical

Society.45

The direct representation of the Ladies Committee to the National Council of

Women suggests that from 1902, the societies had gained strength in integrating with the

women’s movement, which had a strong presence in the area around Stoney Creek.46

Belying its stature in the urban network of the province, Toronto was represented by just

its president and the IODE, both serving a slightly more peripheral role. See Figure 7 for

a visual representation of this complex network.

The growth of organizational connections around a tighter network was because

of the social and commemorative ties of society women. This network shows not only

the importance of the IODE, but also the important role of imperial and women’s

movements in creating a tightly knit group of women representing local power in places

like Ottawa and Wentworth County. The most influential woman was Mrs. R. G.

Southerland of Wentworth and the National Council of Women, who connected to Mrs.

John Henry Wilson and Sarah Calder (Mrs. John Calder). The other grouping of women

focused on the WCHSO, which was tied together to the IODE by Countess Grey, wife of

45

Morgan. 46

Morgan and Linda McGuire Ambrose, For Home and Country: The Centennial History of the Women’s

Institutes in Ontario (Erin, Ontario: Boston Mills Press, 1996). Stoney Creek was the birthplace of the

Women’s Institutes and the Battle of Stoney Creek was the organizing event for the Wentworth Historical

Societies.

34

the Governor General, and Mrs. E. S. Gwynne. Both women linked to almost separate

groups of women within the organization. Tying to the Women’s Canadian Historical

Society of Ottawa was Mrs. Thomas Ahearn, who had the strongest ties to Mrs. E. J.

Thompson, who in turn had ties to Miss Janet Carnochan. These women belonged to

both the women’s movement and the historical societies. Mrs. R. G. Southerland,

Countess Grey and Mrs. Gwynne had three separate forms of ties within the IODE. See

Figure 8 and Table 5 for the network visual. The importance of the imperial and

women’s movements and of Ottawa along with Wentworth County strongly suggests that

scholarship should focus less on Toronto. While an organizational picture suggests that

the IODE was more peripheral, the women suggest otherwise. One possible research

question that comes up again is the role of the women’s movement in this cycle, with a

possible answer suggested by the 1910 network, which indicates that it was able to tie

together the patriotic and historical societies.

35

Figure 7: Organizational ties in 1910

.

36

Figure 8: The network of women for 1910 where the major dense circle represents the

IODE.

Table 5: The women of 1910 in order of decreasing influence.

Identification

number

Name

173 Mrs. R. G. Southerland

195 Mrs. John Henry Wilson

287 Countess Grey

428 Miss Gwynne

25 Mrs. John Calder (née Sarah Galbraith)

1 Mrs. Thomas Ahearn

185 Mrs. E. J. Thompson

29 Miss Janet Carnochan

37

The idea of the Brock Centenary

What the social network analysis supports is that by 1910 the planning for the

commemoration of the War of 1812 was underway but that a focal point on Sir General

Isaac Brock was not yet fully apparent. However, the historical context sheds greater

light on how the ideas of the women’s movement and imperial nationalism played out in

the historical and patriotic organizations that were active in the commemoration. A

focused effort toward the commemoration of Brock by first-wave feminists and

imperialists alike can be shown through an examination of meeting minutes and

documents created by the organizations themselves. Despite Brock’s possibly thinking of

Canada as a backwater to the Napoleonic wars and his distrust of the famed militias,

suggested by George Sheppard,47

his success at Detroit and how he died at Queenston

Heights in front of a combined force of regulars and militia made him a powerful symbol

for the Canadian social elite. Terms such as “The Saviour of Upper Canada” and a move

towards him by society members wanting to tie Canada’s future and identity to England

and the Empire illustrated how he became the perfect connection for some of the Loyalist

and Anglo-Saxon elite.48

The commemoration of the centenary of the War of 1812 as the “Brock

Centenary” was promoted by the IODE at both national and local levels. According to the

long-serving president Mrs. Samuel Nordheimer (née Edith Boulton) in 1901, the goal of

the IODE was to “Promote in the Motherland and Colonies the study of the history of the

47

George Sheppard, “Cool Calculators, Brock Militia,” 40-67 in Plunder, Profit, and Paroles; A Social

History of the War of 1812 in Upper Canada (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press,

1994), 40-67. 48

Wes Turner, ‘Sir Isaac Brock,” The Canadian Encyclopedia,

http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/sir-isaac-brock (accessed April 14th, 2013).

38

Empire, and current Imperial questions; to celebrate patriotic anniversaries; to cherish the

memory of brave and heroic deeds, and to care for the last resting places of our heroes

and heroines,[...].”49

Despite the use of the word “heroine,” which linked to the female

membership and their many ties to feminism, their commemorative focus was not the

heroine, but the hero, especially General Sir Isaac Brock. This focus did not reduce any

feminist goals, but instead indicated an alternative path that the organization was taking

to other women who were also part of the WCHST.50

While fully underway by 1909, the IODE’s efforts to tie themselves to Brock

began even earlier during the rise of imperial sentiments. Examination of their annual

reports and Echoes illustrates an initial focus on charity and the Boer War, but early

naming and actions soon led to a strong focus on Brock. One of the first chapters was the

General Brock Chapter in Brockville, which by the1902-3 Annual Report announced the

project of “a suitable monument to the memory of the illustrious soldier, General Sir

Isaac Brock, by and after whom their town was named.”51

Upon the monument’s

completion and unveiling in 1912, Echoes highlighted this patriotic work in two issues.52

This focus on Brock was not just there. A new Welland, Ontario chapter reported in

1906 was titled “Sir Isaac Brock.”53

This chapter’s placement in an industrial rather than

old wealth centre such as Brockville becomes more understandable by connecting this

49

LAC, MG28 I 17, Vol. 11, Folder 1, 1901-2, Imperial Order Daughters of the Empire, Annual Report

President’s address, 3. 50

Cecilia Morgan, “History, Nation, and Empire: Gender and Southern Ontario Historical Societies, 1980-

1920’s,” Canadian Historical Review 82, 3 (September 2001): 503. She mentioned Lady Edgar and Mary

Agnes FitzGibbon as among the many female historians of the era. Both were known for their work on the

hero including Lady Edgar on her family and General Brock and FitzGibbon on her ancestor James

Fitzgibbon, who had ties to Laura Secord. See Mary Agnes FitzGibbon, A Veteran of 1812: The Life of

James FitzGibbon (Toronto: William Briggs, 1894); and Lady Matilda Ridout Edgar, General Brock

(Toronto: Morang & Co. Ltd., 1904). 51

LAC, MG28 I 17, Vol. 11, Folder 1: 1901-2 Annual Report, 171-2.. 52

LAC, MG28 I 17, 114363, L-510-4-7, Echoes, no. 49, October, 1912 and no. 50, December 1912. 53

LAC, MG28 I 17, Vol. 11, File 2, Meeting Minutes 1905-6, 130.

39

social network of commemoration to the emerging urban network in Ontario, discussed

previously around metrics.

The IODE’s internalization of the commemoration of Brock became stronger and

more public when the active Chamberlain Chapter of Toronto, introduced by its Regent,

Miss Constance Rudyard Boulton, brought forward a successful motion in 1909 that not

only mentioned the chapter’s study of “Sir Isaac Brock,” but also called to the executive

council’s attention the upcoming one-hundredth anniversary of the general’s death

declaring, “In the opinion of the Chapter, such an important historical event should not be

allowed to pass unnoticed. And the Chamberlain Chapter desires to assure the Executive

Council of their hearty support in any arrangement they make for the celebration of the

heroism of General Brock.” Cooperation with all relevant organizations and levels of

government was encouraged.54

With the adoption of this motion, the IODE national

leaders were framing the centenary of the War of 1812 as a “Brock Centenary.” That this

motion came from a Toronto chapter showed not only internalization by the organization

but also the efforts and power of Toronto in directing the organization.

With the 1909 adoption of the Chamberlain Chapter’s motion, the organization

put its full support behind the idea. By December 1910, October’s “Patriotic

Programmes for the Year” for the schools, as listed in Echoes, was on “Sir Isaac Brock.”

It included a lesson plan that highlighted his role as the “hero of Upper Canada” and

focused on the Battle of Queenston Heights, also noting his “association with the famous

Indian chief, Tecumseh.” Among the suggested readings was member Lady Edgar’s

54

LAC, MG28 I 17, Vol. 11, File 3; Meeting Minutes, 1907-10, 1909: 93 and 5.

40

book, “General Brock.”55

In October 1912, the issue’s front pages focused on the

commemoration of General Brock, particularly on the work of the General Brock

Chapter. In the section of recent key correspondences and accomplishments was an

account of the ceremony from Brockville.56

A few pages later, a page was dedicated to

the commemoration of the War of 1812 and especially of General Brock, with an account

of the ceremony that took place at Queenston, illustrating cooperation with other

organizations,57

along with related patriotic poems, highlighting the roles of Brock, the

militia, and women in the war.58

The commemoration of Brock did not disappear with

this issue. In December, the General Brock Chapter gave an expanded account of the

ceremony in Echoes, mentioning the activities in October 1912 around the statue,59

and

the June 1913 Echoes noted that a western chapter, possibly in Winnipeg, was organized

on October 7th

, 1912, titled “The Brock Centenary Chapter, I.O.D.E.” 1913 appeared to

have marked a wrap-up of the IODE commemoration of Brock with attention then

shifting toward Laura Secord.60

The celebration of General Brock by the General Brock Chapter of the IODE in

Brockville, Ontario leading to their Brock monument and fountain indicates a level of

unity between this commemoration and the ideas of the women’s movement. The bronze

bust that stands in front of the Brockville courthouse has often been overlooked by

55

LAC, MG28 I 17, 114363, L-510-4-7, Echoes, no. 41, December 1910, “Patriotic Programs of “Empire

Builders,” 20. 56

LAC, MG28 I 17, 114363, L-510-4-7, Echoes, no. 49, October, 1912, 9. 57

To see how many organizations were involved in the ceremony at Queenston Heights, which was led by

the United Empire Loyalists of Ontario, see the commemorative pamphlet Alexander Fraser, Brock

Centenary, 1812-1912: Account of the Celebration at Queenston Heights, Ontario, on the 12th October

1912 (Toronto: William Briggs, 1913). 58

LAC, MG28 I 17, 114363, L-510-4-7, Echoes, no. 49, October, 1912, 12. 59

LAC, MG28 I 17, 114363, L-510-4-7, Echoes, no. 50, December 1912, 9-10. 60

LAC, MG28 I 17, 114363, L-510-4-7, Echoes, no. 52, June 1913, 56 and 42.

41

memory studies scholars, receiving the most attention from the Brockville local historian,

Doug Grant. However the monument’s unveiling in the summer of 1912 can tell us a lot

about the way social ties influenced ideas and goals.61

The recent history of Brockville by

Glenn Lockwood draws on Grant’s work on the monument and suggests that this was

part of the hidden efforts of the Brockville ladies, especially Mrs. Ida or G. Crawford

McClean, to show what women could accomplish.62

The pride that the chapter felt in this

accomplishment is suggested in the June 1912 meeting minutes reporting on the

forthcoming August 19th

, 1912 ceremony, noting “the culmination of years of persisting

effort was witnessed in unveiling of the Monument on Courthouse Square of General Sir

Isaac Brock.”63

While there remains room for a focused study of this memorial effort,

network theory can play a role in suggesting how ideas used in Brockville had been

shaped and how they in turn influenced the wider commemoration.64

As one of the early chapters of the IODE, Brockville began to discuss a

monument to General Sir Isaac Brock as early as 1902, but fundraising efforts such as

lunches and teas took time. By 1911, the monument was finally in the planning stages.

The correlation between the OHS meeting in their city and growing interest in the

commemoration of the War of 1812, along with the 1909 IODE motion seemed to move

the effort along. In a meeting after June 1911, the meeting minutes of the chapter noted

61

Doug M. Grant, “The General Isaac Brock Monument: unveiled August 19th, 1912,” Brockville History:

All About the History of Brockville. Posted June 14th, 2008.

http://brockvillehistoryalbum.wordpress.com/2008/06/14/the-general-isaac-brock-monument/ (accessed

April 12th, 2013).

62 Glenn J Lockwood, The Story of Brockville: Men and Women Making a Canadian Community on the

United States Frontier, 1749-2007 (Brockville, Ontario: The City of Brockville Corporation, 2006), 373-5. 63

Brockville Museum Library and Archives (BMLA), BB4, Secretary’s Minutes, General Brock Chapter

of the IODE January 7, 1912, November 1916, June 1912. 64

The Brockville Museum archives has not only the meeting minutes and other documents on the General

Brock Chapter, but also library clipping files on the IODE and courthouse square with a wide range of

newspaper and other records. This study will only just touch on this collection.

42

that an agreement with the sculptor Hamilton MacCarthy had been drawn up.65

Based in

Ottawa, Hamilton MacCarthy’s body of work was composed of commemorative plaques

and monuments, particularly those linked to the Boer War.66

This suggests that the

connections between Ottawa and the IODE were strong enough that Brockville looked

towards the capital instead of Toronto. The strength of the IODE executive in Toronto in

serving as a connection to royal power can be seen in the chapter passing a motion that

“His Royal Highness the Duke of Connaught, Canadian Governor General be asked by

the Chaplain to unveil the monument of Sir Isaac Brock on the First of July,” in January

1912.67

Why did the local chapter believe that they could get the Governor General of

Canada to come to Brockville to unveil their small monument? By examining the social

network, it can be suggested that since his wife was the Honorary President of Canada of

the IODE, due to her position as the wife of the Governor General, they believed they

could get this close to royal representation.68

This one just of many questions and

answers that formal social network analysis can help historical memory studies to

explore.

65

BMLA, BB4, Secretary’s Minutes, General Brock Chapter IODE March 1907- December 1911. The

previous page has been removed from the book and it is hard to determine the exact month. There are no

page numbers in the meeting minutes. 66

For a sense of his work see Hamilton MacCarthy, Sculpture from the Hand of Hamilton MacCarthy

R.C.A. Sculptor, Ottawa, 1870-1918 (Ottawa: MacCarthy, 1918),CIHM microfiche no.80654. This is a

self-published pamphlet that served to advertise his services. 67

BMLA, BB4, Secretary’s Minutes, General Brock Chapter of the IODE, January 7, 1912, November

1916, January 1912. 68

LAC, MG28 I 17, 114363, L-510-4-7, Echoes, no. 49 October, 1912, 1.The Brockville Recorder account,

“Canadians and Many Prominent People Took Part. Occurred in the Presence of Hundreds of Citizens at

One of the Island City’s Beauty Spot Yesterday,” Brockville Reporter, Friday August 23, 1912 from the

Tuesday daily. In the “Courthouse Avenue /Square,” Library file of BMLA, photocopied article. This

account notes that they did not get the Governor-General but Sir Sam Hughes, Minister of Militia. This

primary source account contradicts Glenn Lockwood’s suggestion it was the Duke of Connaught in the

caption of the photograph of the unveiling (Figure 1 in this work), but in text he agrees with Grant on the

Minister of Militia. Lockwood, 373-5.

43

While the ladies of the General Brock Chapter of the IODE created their own

monument and celebrated Brock in 1912, the larger social-commemorative network

seems to have centered their efforts on tying Brock to Queenston Heights and to his

memorial in Niagara. This effort included elements of the IODE and OHS, but was led

by the UELAO. The UELAO’s vision was shown in a pamphlet written by Alexander

Fraser of the UELAO on the centenary celebrations calling 1912 the “Brock

Centenary.”69

In the front of the pamphlet is what can be seen as manifesto framing the

memory of Brock with the imperial language of its day.70

Although the organizing

committee was initially proposed by John Stewart Castairs, B.A., U.E. and led by the

UELAO, its members were drawn from the OHS, IODE and militia units. It sought to

celebrate “Brock Day,” and recommended meeting at Queenston to celebrate Brock on

the centenary of his death and re-name places in Toronto and elsewhere in his honour.71

Documents like Fraser’s pamphlet can allow the scholar to use social network theory and

re-interpret the commemoration, serving as another potential source for lists in addition

to those of society memberships. By examining these detailed public reports of

commemorations along with those found in the newspapers of the time,72

a historical

social memory studies scholar could get a different narrative using a similar methodology

for the commemoration.

69

Fraser. 70

Fraser, 21-8. 71

Fraser, 21-8. 72

See LAC, MG28 I 17, 114363, L-510-4-7, Echoes, no. 49, October, 1912, 12 and LAC, MG28 I 17,

114363, L-510-4-7, Echoes, no. 50, December 1912, 9-10; “Canadians and Many Prominent People Took

Part. Occurred in the Presence of Hundreds of Citizens at One of the Island City’s Beauty Spot Yesterday,”

Brockville Recorder, Friday August 23, 1912 from the Tuesday daily. In the “Courthouse Avenue

/Square,” Library file of BMLA, photocopied article.

44

Social network analysis as a way to gain insight into general commemorative

practice

What can this re-interpretation of the Brock Centenary through social network

analysis tell the memory studies scholar about commemoration in general? While the

social-commemorative network for the Brock Centenary must be understood in the

context of imperialism, Loyalism and the early women’s movement, its merits of working

within a context to aid interpretation also make the methodology transferable. By

breaking down analysis to simple elements of belonging to an organization and looking at

multiple organizations, many past commemorations could be re-interpreted in a similar

way in comparison to the literature around the commemoration in question. This

methodology could even be used by drawing on some of the same archival documents to

see how male participation played out in the centenary of the War of 1812. The merits of

connecting close reading analysis with distant reading through social network analysis

can help historical memory studies to connect different sets of scholarship and can both

suggest answers to earlier questions and help to formulate new ones.

This application of social network analysis also suggests ways in which

governments and scholars could get ahead of the hindsight analysis of commemorations.

As outlined in the beginning of the study, the study of the Brock Centenary is based on

the executive lists kept by the organizations, a resource that exists today in modern

heritage societies, historical societies, museums and other societies along with academia.

These lists are less selective and are in the form of electronic listserves and mailing lists

of all interested members, whether they are actively involved in the organization or not.

In many ways, these more democratically collected lists have greater potential for

45

analysis than those of 1912. As Canadians look to commemorate key events like the

First-World War, the 150th birthday of Canada and other expanded cycles, the heritage

movement could use social network analysis in the earliest organizational stages though

membership lists to create an more inclusive presentation of the past. By comparing the

membership lists of possible stakeholders, common ties and connections could become

apparent through members or missions, and groups could collaborate on exhibits or

overall policy in effective ways creating partnerships that might not be thought of

otherwise. Just as the OHS was formed in the early days of the historical society

movement to serve as a clearinghouse for ideas and a unified place to promote ideas by

strength of numbers, the OHS or other organizations that exist today to serve similar

functions could internalize such a methodology to effectively analyze and share

information. This methodology allows for the organizations to not just send out calls or

information to all involved, but also to target influential organizations or businesses,

knowing that they will be able to reach a wide range of people with possibly more uptake

in collaboration or activity.

The Brock Centenary and the centenary of the War of 1812, while being well

studied by memory studies scholars, should be understood through multiple narratives.

Social network analysis can contribute to the shaping of such narratives by suggesting

new interpretations and actors. Indicating the potential for the digital humanities, this

social science methodology can serve as an ally to the previous forms of study. It allows

for the narrative to be further enriched by a selective analysis of the women involved in

turn-of-the-century historical, patriotic, and women’s movement groups, which can

confirm and strengthen some commonly held views while questioning others and posing

46

new questions for scholars to explore. This methodology not only has the potential to

bring organizations like the Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa to new

attention. It also can serve as an aid to help organizations direct further

commemorations as society continues to look to the past in the future.

47

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