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NERVES, HORMONES AND HOMEOSTASIS
Topic 6.5
Assessment Statements
6.5.1 State that the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves, and is composed of cells called neurons that can carry rapid electrical impulses.
6.5.2 Draw and label a diagram of the structure of a motor neuron. 6.5.3 State that nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory
neurons, within the CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to effectors by motor neurons.
6.5.4 Define resting potential and action potential (depolarization and repolarization). 6.5.5 Explain how a nerve impulse passes along a non-myelinated neuron. 6.5.6 Explain the principles of synaptic transmission. 6.5.7 State that the endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones that
are transported in the blood. 6.5.8 State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between
limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose concentration, body temperature and water balance.
6.5.9 Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables and correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms.
6.5.10 Explain the control of body temperature, including the transfer of heat in blood, and the roles of the hypothalamus, sweat glands, skin arterioles and shivering.
6.5.11 Explain the control of blood glucose concentration, including the roles of glucagon, insulin and α and β cells in the pancreatic islets.
6.5.12 Distinguish between type I and type II diabetes.
Organization of the human nervous system
Central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord
CNS receives sensory information from various receptors and then interpret and process that sensory information
Motor response – response initiated by the CNS
Neurons – cells which carry electrical impulses from one point in the body to another Sensory neurons bring info. into the CNS Motor neurons carry response info. to muscles
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made up of the sensory and motor neurons
When many individual neurons are grouped together into a single structure, the structure is called a nerve
Peripheral nerves: Spinal – 31 pairs emerge directly from the
spinal cord; mixed sensory and motor nerves Cranial – 12 pairs emerge from an area of the
brain called the brainstem
Motor neuron
nucleus
dendrites
Cell body
axonAction potential
Myelin sheaths made of Schwann cells
Nodes of Ranvier
Synaptic terminals of axon
Nerve impulses are conducted…
From receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons
Within the CNS by relay neurons From the CNS to effectors by motor
neurons
Example
You touch the arm of the person sitting next to you; Touch was accidental and you immediately remove your hand
Your touch began caused a pressure (sensory) receptor to begin an action potential
One of the spinal nerves carried the signal to spinal cord
Spinal cord made use of relay neurons to route the potential in the CNS to the appropriate area for interpretation
Your brain used relay neurons to pass action potential to spinal cord, then spinal nerves, then by way of motor neurons to cause your hand to move
When the action potential reaches the muscle (effector), the motor neuron sends a chemical signal to the muscle which results in a contraction
What is a nerve impulse?
Series of action potentials carried by axons
Axons are surrounded by a membranous structure called the myelin sheath which increase rate at which an action potential passes
Resting potential
The state of being where an area of neuron is ready to send an action potential; area is said to be polarized
Polarization is characterized by the active transport of sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions (K+)
Vast majority of Na+ are transported out of the axon; majority of K+ are transported into the axon; additionally there are negatively charged ions permanently located in the cytoplasm of the axon
Net result is + outside the axon and - inside
Action potential of non-myelinated sheaths Self-propagating wave of ion movements in and out of the
neuron membrane Movement is not along length of axon, but consists ions
diffusing outside and inside of the axon Requires active transport (protein channels and ATP) to set up
a concentration gradient of both K+ and Na+ Na+ actively pumped out; diffuse in when a channel opens Channel opens for K+ to diffuse out This diffusion is the “impulse” or action potential Nearly instantaneous event which occurs in one area of an
axon and is called depolarization This area then initiates the next area of the axon to open up
the channels for sodium, then potassium and thus the action potential continues down the axon
http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/matthews/channel.html http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp44/4402002
.html
Myelinated fibers
Myelin insulates fiber from the extracellular fluid
Myelin sheath interrupted by nodes of Ranvier
Na+ that enters at the previous node diffused down the fiber under the axolemma
Resistance occurs and the signal becomes weaker the further it goes
Nodes are close together and the signal is just strong enough to open gates and create a new action potential
Return to the resting potential Neurons may send dozens of action
potentials in a short period of time Must wait until the sodium and
potassium ions have been restored to original resting potential
Active transport causes this repolarization
The time that it takes for any one neuron to send an action potential and then repolarize so it can send another is called the refractory period of that neuron
Synaptic transmission
A sensory pathway is unidirectional b/c the sensory neurons of the pathway are lined up so that the terminal end of the axon of the first neuron adjoins the dendrites of the next neuron
1st neuron – presynaptic neuron 2nd neuron – postsynaptic neuron Synapse occurs between neurons
Patterns of synaptic transmission Presynaptic neuron → postsynaptic
neuron Several presynaptic neurons →
postsynaptic neuron Presynaptic neuron → several
postsynaptic neurons
Mechanism of synaptic transmission Far end of axons are swollen
membranous areas called terminal buttons
Within these terminal buttons are many small vesicles filled with a chemical called a neurotransmitter (ex: acetylcholine)
When an action potential reaches the area of the terminal buttons, it initiates the following sequence of events
1. Calcium ions diffuse into the terminal buttons
2. Vesicles containing neurotransmitter fuse with the plasma membrane and release neurotransmitter
3. Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic gap from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron
4. Neurotransmitter binds with a receptor protein on the postsynaptic neuron membrane
5. This binding results in an ion channel opening and sodium ions diffusion in through this channel
6. This initiates the action potential to begin moving down the postsynaptic neuron because it is depolarized
7. Neurotransmitter is degraded by specific enzymes and is released from the receptor protein
8. The ion channel closes to sodium ions
9. Neurotransmitter fragments diffuse back across the synaptic gap to be reassembled in the terminal buttons of the presynaptic neuron
Homeostasis
Maintaining normal limits for physiological variables
Variables include: Blood pH Carbon dioxide concentration Blood glucose concentration Body temperature Water balance within tissues
The physiological changes that bring a value back closer to a set point are called negative feedback mechanisms
Endocrine system
Works cooperatively with the nervous system in order to ensure homeostasis
Consists of numerous glands which produce a wide variety of hormones
Each hormone is transported by the bloodstream from the gland where it is produced to the specific cell types in the body that are influenced by that particular hormone
Control of body temperature Biological thermostat for temperature
control is in the hypothalamus1. You exercise, body temp. rises2. Hypothalamus receives info. from
thermoreceptors in your skin and begins cooling mechanisms
3. Increased activity of sweat glands, evaporative cooling
4. Arterioles in skin dilate filling skin capillaries with blood; heat leaves the skin capillaries by radiation
1. You are in cold air environment2. Hypothalamus receives info. from
thermoreceptors in skin and begins warming mechanisms
3. Constriction of skin arterioles, blood is diverted to deeper organs; less heat is lost as radiation
4. Skeletal muscle stimulated to shiver; results in production of heat
Blood glucose level
Concentration of glucose dissolved in blood plasma
Cells rely on glucose for the process of cell respiration which they are constantly carrying out
Glucose is absorbed into the bloodstream in the capillary beds of the villi of the small intestine and thus increases blood glucose level
Level “see-saws” 24 hrs a day Maintained by negative feedback
mechanism
Route of glucose
1. Intestinal villi2. Capillaries, small venules, veins,
hepatic portal vein3. Liver4. Hepatocytes5. All other blood vessels Hepatocytes are directed to action by
two hormones, insulin and glucagon, which are produced in the pancreas
When blood glucose level goes above the set point… First effect:
Within the pancreas β cells produce the hormone insulin and secretes the insulin which is later absorbed by the bloodstream
Insulin opens protein channels in cells’ plasma membranes allowing glucose to diffuse into the cell by facilitated diffusion
Second effect: When blood relatively high in glucose enters the liver by
the hepatic portal vein, insulin stimulates the hepatocytes to take in the glucose and covert it to glycogen
The glycogen is then stored as granules in the cytoplasm of the hepatocytes. The same effect occurs in muscles.
When blood glucose level goes below the set point… Begins when someone has not eaten for
many hours or exercises vigorously for a long time
α cells of the pancreas produce and secrete the hormone glucagon
Glucagon circulates in the bloodstream and stimulates hydrolysis of the granules of glycogen stored in hepatocytes and muscle cells producing glucose
Glucose enters the bloodstream, increasing blood glucose
Diabetes
Disease characterized by hyperglycemia (high blood sugar)
People who have untreated diabetes have plenty of glucose in their blood, but not in their body cells where it is needed
Uncontrolled diabetes can lead to many serious effects including: Damage to the retina leading to blindness Kidney failure Nerve damage Increased risk of cardiovascular disease Poor wound healing (and possibly gangrene)
Type I diabetes
Caused when the β cells of the pancreas do not produce enough insulin
Can be controlled by the injection of insulin at appropriate times
An autoimmune disease where the body’s own immune system attacks and destroys the β cells of the pancreas so little to no insulin is produced
< 10% of diabetics are this type Most often develops in children or young
adults, but can develop in people of any age
Type II diabetes
Caused by body cell receptors do not respond properly to insulin
Controlled by diet Known as insulin resistance Initially, the pancreas continues to
produce a normal amount of insulin, but this level may decrease after a period of time.
Most common form (90% of diabetics) Associated with genetic history, obesity,
lack of exercise, advanced age, and certain ethnic groups
Diary of a diabetic