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Proceedings of the Seminaron

“NATURE FOR WATER”

Organized by

NEPAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYKhumaltar, Lalitpur

GPO Box 3323 Kathmandu

28 March 2018Mahendranagar, Kanchanpur

Published byNepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST)

© NAST

200 copies published

Design and Print:S2 PrintersNayabazar, Kathmandu

Table of ContentsExecutive summary Acknowledgements01. Comparative Study of Crushed Glass and Sand as Filter Media in Rapid Filter 1-0702. Climate Change and Water Availability in Western Nepal 08-1903. Limnological Study of the Ghodaghodi Wetland in Kailali District 20-2404. Microbiological Analysis of Drinking Water & Street Food in Kanchanpur District 25-3205. Legal and Policy Framework in Ensuring Safe Drinking Water in Nepal 33-39

Executive SummaryAs a part of the national water week celebration, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) organized a seminar on “Nature for Water” in the province seven of Mahendranagar. The program was scheduled on 28 March 2018 in collaboration with World Wildlife Fund Nepal (WWF-Nepal), Water Engineering and Training Centre Pvt. Ltd. (WETC), Associated Enterprises, OXFAM-Nepal and Environment Management and Analysis Services Pvt. Ltd. (EMAS). The objective of the program was to discuss on water-related issues and fi nd out solutions for the management of the aquatic environment in relation to nature.

The program was inaugurated by watering the fl ower by the chief guest, Hon. Member of the federal parliament Dr. Dipak Prakash Bhatta. Prof. Dr. Parasnath Chaudhary, academician of the NAST welcomed participants with program highlights. Following welcome address, academician of the NAST, Dr. Laxmi Devkota presented a keynote speech on “Water, Environment, and Development”. Mr. Surendra Bist, Mayor of Bhimdatt Municipality thanks to the NAST for organizing scientifi c programs in province seven of the Mahendranagar. Former minister for environment Mr. Jaya Dev Joshi expressed his view on water resources available in the region and need to explore them in the favor of provincial development. Er. Ganesh Shah, former minister for Science, Technology, and Environment also shared his view on the importance of safe drinking water. Er. Shah further highlighted the importance of the program conducted by NAST and urged to preserve the nature and natural resources for the future. Special guest and provincial minister for industry, forest, and environment Mrs. Maya Bhatta highlighted the need for proper utilization and conservation of natural resources available in province seven. Chief Guest of the program Hon. Dr. Dipak Prakash Bhatta emphasized on research and development of the natural habitats and resources for the overall development of the nation. He also made the commitment to support the NAST for infrastructure development. From the desk of the chair, Vice-chancellor of the NAST Prof. Dr. Jiba Raj Pokharel expressed his remark and added the importance of water resources and need for their proper management and utilization. He further explained the background on the establishment of NAST provincial offi ce in the province seven of Mahendranagar and thanks all who directly or indirectly supported us. At the end of the inaugural session, the senior scientifi c offi cer of NAST, Dr. Bhoj Raj Pant paid vote of thanks to all the participants, collaborative organization, and individuals who helped in making the seminar successful.

Following the inaugural session, two technical sessions were scheduled. Each session was chaired by Prof. Dr. Parasnath Chaudhary, and Dr. Laxmi Devkota, academician of NAST, respectively. In both the technical sessions intensive discussion and interaction were observed. At the end of the program, the conclusion was drawn based on the papers presented and discussion made on them.

Acknowledgements

On the behalf of the seminar organizing committee, I would like to express our sincere thanks to the Vice-Chancellor and secretary of the Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) for their encouragements and all sort of support to organize this program. My sincere thank is to Dr. Laxmi Devkota, Academician of NAST for accepting our request to deliver a keynote speech on the theme of the program. I thank Er. Ganesh Shah, former Minister for Environment Science and Technology. Er. Shah provided us the suggestion and necessary feedback to conduct this program as a part of the national water week. Thanks are to World Wildlife Fund Nepal (WWF-Nepal), Water Engineering and Training Centre P. Ltd. (WETC), Associated Enterprises, OXFAM-Nepal and Environment Management and Analysis Services P. Ltd. (EMAS) for their support which made possible us to conclude this program successfully.

Similarly, I acknowledge all the members of seminar organizing committee for their help and co-operation which we received during the entire period of this program.

Finally, I would like to thank all the supportive hands who directly or indirectly helped us to conclude this program in Mahendranagar, Kanchanpur.

Bhoj Raj Pant, PhDSeminar Organizing Committee

1Proceedings of the Seminar on “NATURE FOR WATER”

Abstract

This study determines the effectiveness of crushed glass (CG) as fi lter media for a rapid fi lter in comparison with sand as principal fi lter media. Two physically identical fi lter columns one with CG and other with sand media were operated in parallel with fi ltration rate of 3 m3/m2/h and infl uent turbidity levels as 0-25, 25-50, 50-75, 75-100, 100-150, 150-200, 200-250 and 250-300 NTU. The properties of both fi lter media were kept same with effective size (D10) of 0.56 mm and uniformity coeffi cient (UC) of 1.57. Turbidity and head loss were measured and compared as functions of time. CG and sand produced effl uent with turbidity below 5 NTU lower limits prescribed by NDWQS. Head loss gained after producing fi ltrate of 100 m3 per m2 area of the fi lter for CG increased from 0.320 to 8.339 m and for sand from 0.341 to 12.158 m during fi rst to the eighth fi lter with lesser head loss gained by CG. For the same percentage of fi lter bed expansion by 20.0%, backwash velocity required by CG was 4.3% lesser than that of sand. So, CG can be an effective fi lter media in a rapid fi lter and a good alternative to sand.

Keywords: Alternative, Crushed Glass, Filter media, Recycling, Turbidity

IntroductionThe rapid fi lter is simply a slow sand fi lter without the schmutzdecke with higher fi ltration capacity employed a majority of water fi ltration plants. It usually consists of open rectangular tanks usually containing silica sand (size range 0.5–1.0 mm) to a depth of between 0.6 and 2.0 m [1]. The uniformity coeffi cient for rapid fi lter ranges from 1.30 to 1.75 [2]. The only fi ltration that occurs is due to the fi lter particles hindering large suspended colloidal from passing through the intra-granular space and

physicochemical interactions between the fi lter particles and the contaminants [3]. The fi lter cycle can be described as starting a clean fi lter, operating the fi lter to remove particles from water, ending the run, and backwashing so a new run can be started [4]. Silica sand has been the most widely used rapid fi lter media around the world. Other commonly used granular media for water fi ltration include anthracite coal, garnet sand, and ilmenite [5].

In 2012, the glass waste constitutes out of the total

Comparative Study of Crushed Glass and Sand as Filter Media in Rapid FilterManish Prakash1 and Iswar Man Amatya2*1Department of Civil and Geomatics Engineering, School of Engineering, Kathmandu University, 2Department of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Program, Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engineering, Nepal*E-mail: [email protected]

1

2 Proceedings of the Seminar on “NATURE FOR WATER”

waste generated per day in different municipalities of Kathmandu valley areas 2.9% of 31 MT in Kritipur, 5.4% of 457 MT in Kathmandu, 0.9% of 65 MT in Lalitpur, 2.0% of 17 MT in MadhyapurThimi and 2.3% of 24.2 MT in Bhaktapur [6]. Also, the recent earthquake in Nepal (25 April 2015, magnitude 7.8) added to the challenge of managing waste in the Kathmandu valley, as an estimated 3.9 million tons of additional solid waste was generated from 73,624 destroyed houses in the valley [7]. Earthquake-generated waste or rubble mainly consists of brick, stone, concrete blocks, tile, cement, concrete, steel bars, wood, steel pipes and tanks, polyvinyl chloride pipes and tanks, electrical wires and cables and also broken glass pieces. Thus, generated glass waste remains unmanaged in our context and is easily available for the recycle as fi lter media.

The application of crushed glass (CG) for fi lter media is relatively new and has been successfully applied as fi lter media for slow sand fi ltration by Piccirillo and Letterman in 1997[8]. CG fi lter medium is more durable than the natural sand [9]. Hu and Gagnon in 2006, studied the use of CG as a medium in recirculating biofi lters and noted CG has the following advantages over traditional silica sand: (i) CG is less expensive than silica sand, (ii) CG is more environmentally friendly as it is a recycled product, and (iii) CG can be pulverized into different sizes for specifi c design requirements [5]. Recycled CG is equally good as sand or in some cases, a much more effective and more environmentally friendly alternative to sand [10]. This study was carried out to further understand the effi cacy of CG as fi lter media at different infl uent turbidity levels.

MaterialsThe used glass bottles were collected from the local places from the various sources and were cleaned properly to avoid any contaminations. Thus, collected materials were crushed down and were

sieved through series of sieves. CGretained on each sieve was collected separately and again cleaned to remove fi ne particles. After drying, they were mixed in a fi xed proportion by weight to create 1 kg batch of UC of 1.57 and D10 of 0.56 mm. The particle size distribution of fi lter media is as shown in the Figure 1for sand, except crushing the same procedures were followed in order to have same particle size distribution to that of crushed glass.

Figure 1. Particle size distributions of fi lter media (CG and Sand).

MethodsThe laboratory models of rapid fi lters were constructed by fi breglass of internal dimensions (11 X 11 X 290) cm3 each for both fi lter media. The models were set up as shown in Figure 2. Each model consists of altogether six ports (Fig. 3) with total fi lter material of depth 110 cm. The value of the ratio of fi lter media depth to the effective size of fi lter media should be greater than 1000 for rapid fi lter [11]. So, the depths of fi lter media used in both the fi lters were kept 60 cm making the ratio value of 1071.43, which satisfi ed the condition. The fi lter materials used in the fi lter columns are shown in Table 1. The effl uent level was kept 10 cm above the fi lter media to keep a minimum of 10 cm water level above the fi lter media in order to keep media wet and to avoid development of negative head loss in the fi lter media. For the media used in this work, fi xed bed porosity of CG fi lter was 3.73 % more

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than that of Sand fi lter which was due to the angular shape of CG particles.

Also, the weight of CG required to fi ll fi lter column was 14.64% lesser than the weight of Sand that would fi ll the same volume.

Table 1. Filter materials used in fi lter column.

Filter Material Size, mm

Depth, cm

C.G, D10 0.56 60Sand, D10 0.56 60Gravel, Base Material Layer 1 2-4.75 10Gravel, Base Material Layer 2 4.75-10 10Gravel, Base Material Layer 3 10-20 10Gravel, Base Material Layer 4 20-28 10Gravel, Base Material Layer 5 28-30 10

Filters were operated in parallel with a fi ltration rate of 3 m3/m2/h using artifi cially turbid synthetic water. Turbidity and head loss were measured as a function of time. Turbidity wasmeasured by Digital Turbidity Meter manufactured by Labtronics India. Manufacturer’s instructions were followed while calibrating the instrument. Besides, section 2130 B, Standard Methods [12] and Method 180.1: Determination of turbidity by nephelometry [13]were followed while measuring turbidity. Filters were back-washed when the terminal head loss of 165.4 cm was reached with backwashing velocity of 24 m/h. Infl uent turbidity levels are maintained

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of filter models setup.

as shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Filter run and infl uent turbidity.Filter Run Infl uent Turbidity Range, NTU

1 0-252 25-503 50-754 75-1005 100-1506 150-2007 200-2508 250-300

Results and DiscussionThe fi lter effl uent turbidity generally fl uctuates with the change in corresponding infl uent turbidity. The effl uent turbidity for both fi lter models with different infl uent turbidity is shown in Figure 4. For the infl uent turbidity up 100 NTU (up to fourth fi lter run), CG fi lter effl uent was slightly better than sand fi lter effl uent, with both fi lter effl uent turbidity below 5 NTU lower limit prescribed by NDWQS [14]. With further increase in infl uent turbidity above 100 NTU, there was a sudden increase in effl uent turbidity for both fi lters. The effl uent turbidity for the sand fi lter was 19.5 NTU in fi fth fi lter run and that of CG fi lter were 11.7 NTU and


12.5 NTU in sixth and eighth fi lter run respectively which were above 10 NTU upper limits prescribed by NDWQS[14]. For higher infl uent turbidity above

150 NTU, sand fi lter performed slightly better than CG fi lter but the runtime was too short making the fi lter run uneconomical.

The rate of head loss build-up is also an important indicator of process performance. Sudden increases in a head loss might be an indication of surface sealing of the fi lter media (lack of depth penetration)[15]. With the increase in infl uent turbidity (Figure 5), the rate of head loss gained in meter after producing fi ltrate of 100 m3 per m2area of the fi lter by both fi lter models was increased. In all fi lter run, head loss gained for the sand fi lter (0.341 m - 12.158 m) was on the higher side thanCG fi lter (0.320 m - 8.339 m). Head loss gained for the sand fi lter was 6.22 % (minimum) and 129.93 % (maximum) more than that of CG fi lter in fi fth fi lter run and the sixth

Figure 3.Effl uent Turbidity with increase in infl uent turbidity.

fi lter run respectively. In average, head loss gained for the sand fi lter was 42.39 % more than that of CG fi lters.

The best way to compare fi lter runs is by using Unit Filter Run Volume (UFRV) technique [15]. The UFRV is the volume of water produced by the fi lter during the course of the fi lter run divided by surface area of the fi lter. This is usually expressed in m3 per m2. With the increase in infl uent turbidity, UFRV(Figure 6) for both the fi lter models was decreased.

Figure 4. Head loss gained with increase in infl uent turbidity.

0.1

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Eff

luen

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0 50 100 150 200 250 300

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Figure 5.UFRV with increase in infl uent turbidity.

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Sand…

In all fi lter run, UFRV for CG fi lter (474 m3/m2 - 18 m3/m2) was on the higher side than the sand fi lter(442.5m3/m2–12.0m3/m2). UFRV for CG fi lter was 6.00 % (minimum) and 136.54 % (maximum)

more than that of the sand fi lter in fi fth fi lter run and the sixth fi lter run respectively. In average, UFRV for CG fi lter was 44.20 % more than that of sand fi lters.

The amount of water used in backwash becomes increasingly important when compared to the amount of water produced during the fi lter run[15]. With the increase in infl uent turbidity, the percentage backwater consumption for both fi lters were in increasing trend (Figure 7) due to more suspended solids in the infl uent water, lesser fi lter run time and more backwashing time. In all fi lter runs, percentage backwash water consumption for CG fi lter (1.52 % - 26.67 %) was less than the sand fi lter (2.26 % - 56.67 %) making it more economical in terms of water saving and less backwash energy consumption. In average, percentage backwash water consumption for CG fi lter was 41.99 % less than that of the sand fi lter.

Due to the less specifi c gravity of CG (S=2.44) in comparison to sand (S=2.69), there was certainly ease in backwashing operation to that of the sand fi lter. Expanded bed height versus backwash velocity was recorded for each fi lter media (Figure 8) at water temperature between 18° to 19° C. For all backwash velocities (24.5 m/h – 65.4 m/h), CG media expanded (Figure 8) more than sand media. With lower backwash velocity, CG media expanded 14.29 % more and 9.68 % more with maximum backwash velocity than sand media, with maximum bed expansion of 17 cm for CG fi lter and 15.5 cm for sand fi lter during the test.

Figure 6.Backwash water consumption with increase in infl uent turbidity.

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% B

ackw

ash

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er

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Sand FilterCG Filter


For beds washed with full fl uidization of the fi lter media, an expansion of 20% will usually ensure that the bed is fl uidized [4]. For same percentage bed

expansion of media by 20 %, the backwash velocity required by sand media was 4.49 % more than that of CG media.

ConclusionsIn this study, we evaluated the performance of CG with sand as fi lter media in the rapid fi lter at different infl uent turbidity levels. Eight fi lter runs were operated; CG produced better infl uent turbidity below 5 NTU lower limits prescribed by NDWQS [15] for infl uent turbidity up to 100 NTU. Infl uent water with turbidity above 100 NTU should be pre-treated in order to meet effl uent turbidity standard. Also, CG produced better results than sand with fi lter media performance parameters like rate of head loss gained, UFRV, backwash water

Figure 7. Filter bed expansions with increase in backwashing velocity.

02468

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20 30 40 50 60 70

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Exp

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Sand FilterCG Filter

consumptions and fi lter bed expansion. Besides, the effectiveness of crushed glass as fi lter media will provide a recycling option for waste glasses and environmentally friendly alternative to sand in water fi ltration for the rapid fi lter.Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the M.Sc. in Sustainable Water Sanitation Health and Development, Norwegian NOMA Program, Pulchowk Campus, IOE, TU, Nepal for providing the part of the fi nancial support necessary for this study.

References[1] WHO, Guidelines for drinking-water quality: incorporating 1st and 2nd addenda, vol. 1,

Recommendations, Geneva, World Health Organization (WHO), 173 2008.[2] M. H. Mota, S. H. Chougule, and G. M. Bhosale, Improvement of Performance of Rapid Sand

Filter Using Coconut Shell as Capping Media, International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), 3,2254(2014).

[3] M. A. Gad, and A. Z. Al-Herrawy, Assesment of conventional drinking water treatment plants as removal systems of virulent microsporidia, World Academy of Science,Engineering and Technology, International Journal of Environmental and Ecological Engineering,11, 989(2017).


[4] A. F. Hess, M. J. Chipps, and A. J. Rachwal, Filter maintenance, and operations guidance manual, American Water Works Association (AWWA), 10-28 2002.

[5] E. Soyer, O. Akgiray, N. O. Eldem, and A. M. Saatc,Crushed recycled glass as a fi lter medium and comparison with silica sand, CLEAN–Soil, Air, Water, 38, 927 (2010).

[6] CBS, Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013, Kathmandu, Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), 113, 115, 2013.

[7] D. Gautam, and T. B. Chhetri, Waste management: new challenge after the recent earthquake in Nepal, CURRENT SCIENCE, 110,285 (2016).

[8] S. O. Rutledge, and G. A Gagnon, Comparing crushed recycled glass to silica sand for dual media fi ltration, Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science, 1, 349(2002).

[9] R. W.Elliott,Evaluation of the use of crushed recycled glass as a fi lter medium: Part 2, Water-Engineering & Management, 148, 20 (2001).

[10] J. Rajapakse, Handmade clay balls and recycled crush glass as alternative media in water fi ltration, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology. Proceedings, 60, 1393 (2011).

[11] S. Kawamura, Design and Operation of high-rate fi lters, American Water Works Association, Journal AWWA, 91, 79 (1999).

[12] APHA, Standard Methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 20th Edition, American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association (AWWA), Water Environment Federation, Washington, D.C, 2310 B,158 1999.

[13] USEPA, Method 180.1 Determination of Turbidity by Nephelometry, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory Offi ce of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 2-8 1993.

[14] NDWQS, National Drinking Water Quality Standards, Kathmandu, Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, 1 2062.

[15] EPA, Water Treatment Manuals Filtration, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Ireland, 38 1995.


Abstract

The response of any hydrological system to climate change may differ depending on characteristics of the system. Such studies are lacking for basins in Western Nepal. This paper, therefore, argues for a need to re-phrase the context of Western Nepal in more positive light and then analyses how a projected change in climate may impact on water availability of the region with a case of Chamelia watershed. A hydrological model in SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) environment is developed for the purpose. Future climate is projected using a set of fi ve Regional Circulation Models (RCMs). Then response of streamfl ow with projected change in climate is assessed. Results show the developed model performance is adequate to represent hydrological characteristics of the watershed. Future is projected to be warmer (high model consensus) and slightly wetter (more uncertainty), with winter and pre-monsoon season receiving more rainfall. Under the projected future changes, simulated stream fl ow is projected to change across future periods and seasons. The results are expected to be useful for future water resource and water infrastructure planning in the area.

Keywords: Climate change, Hydrological modeling, Springshed, SWAT, Western Nepal

IntroductionClimatic trends in Nepal reveal signifi cant warming in recent decades [1] and climate change (CC) scenarios for Nepal across multiple general circulation models (GCMs) show considerable convergence on continued warming, with projected increase in averaged mean temperature of 1.2°C by 2050 and 3°C by 2100 respectively [2]. Climate change may alter the response of the hydrologic systems [3] potentially causing the disappearance of natural springs, loss or functional change in

wetlands, increased variability in streamfl ow, and glacier retreat [4]. As water is a crucial resource for the socio-economic development of Nepal, it is important to understand likely impacts of CC on future water availability and incorporate them in future water resource planning. Such studies, however, are limited, particularly in Western Nepal.

Western Nepal is generally perceived as one of poorest regions in the country with high poverty, low literacy, limited development, very little market

Climate Change andWater Availability inWestern NepalVishnu Prasad Pandey1*, Sanita Dhaubanjar1,Luna Bharati1, Bhesh Raj Thapa1

1International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Nepal Offi ce*E-mail: [email protected]

2


access, and similar disadvantages. Such perceptions highlight the inadequate understanding of the untapped natural resources potential of the region. We argue that the prevailing perception of Western Nepal should be re-phrased to refl ect the region’s tremendous potential. The region has high per capita water availability compared to other regions. Natural resources are also abundant and tourism potential is high. Western Nepal comprises of Karnali and Mahakali basins with 62.2 billion-cubic-meters (BCM) of water resources annually [5], accounting for 28% of the total available water resources in Nepal. With steep slopes and meandering rivers, Western Nepal also offers tremendous potential for hydropower development. As per IWMI [6], there are 150 identifi ed hydropower projects under various stages of development here, with proposed installed capacity ranging from 0.5 MW to 6,720 MW. They include 19 projects of storage type, which are planned and/or proposed. Total estimated installed capacity of all these projects is more than 21,000 MW. Implementing all these projects will contribute to energy security and fuel economic growth for national prosperity.

However, to achieve sustainable and integrated water management in the long-run, we have to make sure water is used wisely as a “resource”. For that, we need to get a clear and precise answer to following questions: How much water is available at the location of interest and point of time (Month)? What is the extent of climate change (CC) in the area? What will be the implication of CC on water resources availability and its spatiotemporal distribution? Furthermore, we need to consider both rivers and springs to understand the role of surface and groundwater (GW) in the larger picture of water availability. In this context, this study sheds light on two projects being implemented by International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in Western Nepal. One project focuses on local level management of springs while the other delves into

basin-scale analysis for sustainable water resources development. Results from the latter study focusing on hydrological modeling are discussed in more detail from the perspective of climate change implications for water availability.

Springshed StudyMajority of people in the mid-hills of Nepal rely on GW as the primary source of water for in domestic usage, irrigation, and small-scale industrial activities. GW systems also play an important role in regulating river fl ows, particularly by maintaining the base-fl ow. Considering the importance, a project titled “Building Climate Resilience of Watersheds in Mountain Eco-Region (BCRWME)” is being implemented by IWMI together with the Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management (DSCWM), the Government of Nepal. The four-year project (2015 – 2019) is supported by Climate Investment Fund and Nordic Development Fund (NDF) administered by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) with the goal to improve climate resilience in mountain eco-regions. The DSCWM is working in 108 village development communities spread across six districts and two basins (West Seti and Budhi Ganga), implementing various types of interventions to help increase year-round water availability in the springs. Potential interventions include afforestation, on-farm water conservation, infi ltration recharge ponds, bioengineering for gully protection, social fencing, etc. IWMI is leading research activities at two of these project sites located in Doti and in Baitadi districts (Fig. 1) to further understand springshed hydrology. The objectives of the study are to understand the land and water processes that affect water availability in springs, and recommend evidence-based watershed intervention/ management plans for spring-shed management.

To this end, IWMI is monitoring climatic parameters (precipitation, temperature, relative


humidity, wind speed and solar radiation), spring discharge, and stream hydrology by establishing on meteorological and one hydrological station at each site. Isotopes samples have also been collected over two years and analyzed to identify potential sources and/or area of recharge to the springs [7]. Isotope analysis has also helped understand the types of different springs and their relation to surface and groundwater. Combining data from

hydro-meteorological monitoring, hydro-geological survey and isotope analysis, we are developing a conceptual model to describe spring hydrological process in the study watersheds. Furthermore, we aim to assess the response of springs under various scenarios of changes/interventions and evaluate the effectiveness of watershed interventions on enhancing water availability in springs in current and future climate conditions.

Figure 1. Location of two watersheds under BCRWME project in Doti and Baitadi districts for spring-shed study

Hydrological ModelingContext of study areaConsidering the need to have better scientifi c knowledgebase of river basins in Western Nepal, IWMI is implementing “DigoJalBikas (DJB) project” with funding support from United States

Agency for International Development (USAID). The three-year project (April 2016 – March 2019) focuses on Karnali, Mahakali and Mohana basins in Western Nepal. One of the components of the project is river basin characterization, which includes database development, hydrological


modeling, and climate change impact assessment on water availability across the basins over time. The results from hydrological modeling will be fed with a hydro-economic model to evaluate trade-offs of various water development pathways for the

region. Two hydrological models are developed for the region, namely, Karnali-Mohana, and Mahakali. In this paper, we describe a case of Chamelia watershed, a tributary of the Mahakali River (Fig. 2).

Figure 2.Location of DJB basins and Chamelia watershed in Western Nepal.

Chamelia is the largest watershed in the Nepalese side of the Mahakali Basin covering an area of 1,603 km2. According to the data from Department of Electricity Development (DoED), Chamelia has 14 hydropower projects at various stages of development, with individual capacity ranging from 1 to 40 Mega-Watts (MW), and a total capacity of 214 MW [8]. The topography varies from 505 to 7,090 meters-above-mean-sea-level (masl) (Fig. 3a); land use/cover ispredominantly forest (40%) and rainfed agriculture (28%) (Fig. 3b); and soil type is dominated by EutricRegosols (23.8%),

EutricCambisols (24.5%), and GelicCambisols (22.0%) (Fig. 3c).

Methodology Fig. 4 depicts the methodological framework for hydrological model development and CC impact assessment adopted in this study. Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) [9, 10] was set up, calibrated, and validated in the ArcSWAT2012 environment for the Chamelia watershed to simulate hydrology. Spatial and temporal data were prepared in the SWAT-compatible format [11].


The watershed was discretized into 16 sub-watersheds (Fig. 3a) and 225 hydrologic response units (HRUs). Ten elevation bands at an interval of 500m were defi ned to model the process of snowmelt and orographic distribution of temperature and precipitation. Weather input was fed in the form of daily rainfall (3 stations), maximum and minimum temperatures (2 stations), relative humidity (2 stations), wind speed (1 station) and solar radiation

(1 station). The model was calibrated at two hydrological stations (Q120 and Q125, see Fig. 3a for their locations) against daily observed river fl ow for the period of 2001-2007 and further validated for the period of 2008-2013. SWAT-CUP was used for sensitivity analysis and auto-calibration, which was followed by additional manual calibration to keep physically based parameters within a reasonable range.

Figure 3.Spatial distribution of topography (a), land use/cover (b), and soil type (c) in Chamelia watershed.


Model performanceThere is a good agreement between the model simulated and observed streamfl ow values during calibration as well as validation periods (Figs. 5). The model reasonably simulates the hydrological regime for daily and monthly fl ows, reproducing daily fl ow duration curve (FDC),and keeping statistical parameters (R2, NSE, and PBAIS) within a reasonable range. Additionally, the hydrological response pattern follows the rainfall pattern at all

the stations, for both daily and monthly simulations. Based on the general performance rating criteria developed by Moriasi et al. [12], for both monthly and daily time steps, model calibration results are “very good (NSE>0.65)” for the stations Q120. The performance at other station (Q115) is also reasonably good. The simulated results can, therefore, be used for further analysis of water availability.

Figure 4. Methodological framework adopted in this study.


Projected Future ClimateFuture climate (precipitation, maximum temperature, and minimum temperature) projected by following fi ve RCMsunderRCP4.5 and 8.5 scenarios were considered: ACCESS_CCAM, CNRM_CCAM, MPI.ESM_CCAM, MPI.E.MPI_REMO, and ICHEC_RCA4. Please refer Pandey et al. [11] for the description of those RCMs. They were extracted at three climatic stations as shown in Fig. 3a. The raw RCM projections were then bias corrected using quantile mapping method. The bias-corrected time series were averaged to generate ensemble to reduce the uncertainty in climate projection seen across individual RCMs. Then projected change inclimate with respect to baseline (1980-2005)was estimated for three future time frames: near future (NF, 2021 – 2045), mid-

future (MF, 2046-2070), and far-future (FF, 2071-2095). The period of 1980-2005 was considered as the baseline. Future projections are discussed based on that at climatic station 103.

Projected Future PrecipitationAnnual total precipitation for the baseline and future periods show no obvious trend (Fig. 6). However, the range of projection increases while moving from NF to FF. It indicates an increase in uncertainty range when we progress further into the future. Considering the range of predictions as a measure of uncertainty, the annual and monsoon precipitations show the least uncertainty in the projection, whereas post-monsoon precipitation shows the high level of uncertainty for all the scenarios and futures considered.

Figure 5. Comparison of observed versus simulated stream flows at Q120 (Karkalegaon) station: a) Hydrograph for daily simulation, b) Hydrograph for monthly simulation, c &d) Scattered plots for daily calibration and validation, e & f) Scattered plots for monthly flow calibration and validation, e) Flow duration curve (FDC, daily).


Average annual values of precipitation are projected to increase up to 15% over three future periods (Table 1). However, annual changes are not representative of the seasonal changes. Only MAM (pre-monsoon) season follows consistent increasing trends from NF to FF as annual values;

albeit, the rate of change is higher for MAM season compared to the annual ones. Median for most cases lies within the +/-50% range, which indicates that RCMs predict an increase in seasonal precipitation for some years whereas the decrease in other years.

Figure 6. Trends in long-term average annual total precipitation and max/min temperature at station 103. Baseline period shows observed data while future timeframes show range of bias-corrected projections from different RCMs for both RCP scenarios.


Table 6: Projected changes in total precipitation [mm] at seasonal and annual scales at st103 station based on an ensemble of fi ve RCMs under RCP scenarios for three future periods

Change from baseline [%] DJF MAM JJAS ON AnnualBaseline [mm] 111.8 206.0 982.5 39.3 1340.7

RC

P 4.

5 NF Mean [%] 22 26 5 15 10MF Mean [%] 37 28 3 18 10FF Mean [%] 35 39 5 16 13

RC

P 8.

5 NF Mean [%] 22 29 6 18 11MF Mean [%] 13 38 11 12 15FF Mean [%] 16 44 8 42 15

Notes: DJF is December-January-February (Winter Season); MAM is Mach-April-May (Dry Season); JJAS is June-July-August-September (Rainy/Monsoon Season); ON is October-November (Post-Monsoon Season)

Projected Future TemperatureUnlike precipitation, average annual time series of the projected temperature shows a clear increasing trend until the end of the century for both maximum and minimum temperatures (Fig. 6).

Maximum temperature: All changes for all RCMs, RCPs, and futures indicate increase with both means and medians lying above zero. The projected average annual maximum temperature for RCP4.5 scenarios, based on an ensemble of fi ve RCMs, are gradually increasing compared to the baseline over three future periods by 0.9°C (for NF), 1.4°C (for MF) and 1.6°C (for FF). It is increasing across all the seasons too, but the amount of increase is not consistent. Winter (DJF) temperature is projected to increase more for all the three futures and two scenarios considered, followed by dry (or pre-monsoon; MAM) season.

Minimum temperature: There is more model consensus and certainty that future minimum temperatures will increase. The average annual

minimum temperature is projected to increase from the baseline value by 0.9°C, 1.7°C, and 2.0°C for NF, MF, and FF, respectively, under RCP4.5 scenarios. In case of RCP8.5 scenarios, the rate of increase is signifi cantly higher; up to 3.9°C increase from the baseline period for FF. The increasing trend is consistent across all the seasons and for both the scenarios; albeit the rate of increase varies with the season. The higher rate of increase is projected for summer (JJAS) and winter (DJF) seasons for both the scenarios.

Climate Change Impacts on Water AvailabilityChange in water availability in terms of streamfl ow under a projected change in future temperature and precipitation was simulated using the calibrated and validated SWAT model. The analysis was made at annual as well as seasonal scales. Changes in streamfl ow due to the projected change in precipitation and temperature were analyzed at Q120hydrological station located near to the outlet of the Chamelia (Fig. 3a). The results are shown in Fig. 7.


However, increase instream-fl ow is maximum for winter (DJF) and pre-monsoon (MAM) The projected changes instream-fl ow for an ensemble of the fi ve RCMs show increasing trends for annual as well as seasonal values, for all the future periods and scenarios considered (Fig. 7). Average annual stream-fl ow is projected to increase gradually from NF towards MF under both the scenarios. For RCP4.5, the annual values are projected to increase by 8.2% in NF, 12.2% in MF, and 15.0% in FF. Such a signifi cant increase was also reported for other watersheds in Nepal [13, 14]. The projected increasing trend is consistent across all the seasons (Fig. 7). Seasons compared to other seasons. Considering RCP4.5 scenarios, projected increase in winter season (DJF) fl ow is 33.8% in NF, 39.8% in MF, and 41.6% in FF. The increase instream-fl ow is mostly contributed by increases in precipitation. The increase in total stream-fl ow is less compared

to increase in precipitation because of loss of some precipitation by evapotranspiration.

ConclusionsSWAT model developed in this study is capable to adequately simulate water availability and its spatiotemporal distribution in the Chamelia watershed in Western Nepal. The results in the watershed show that projected precipitation is likely to increase both annually and across the seasons, however, more in winter and pre-monsoon seasons. In case of temperature, both maximum and minimum temperatures are projected to increase, but with a higher rate of increase for minimum temperature. The climate change is projected to alter the future periods and seasons. The magnitudes of change during the winter (DJF) and pre-monsoon (MAM) seasons are even more than in the annual average. While hydrological modeling

Figure 7. Change in simulated stream-flow at the st120 hydrological station of Chamelia watershed under future climate represented by the ensemble of the five bias corrected RCM outputs.


is yet to be applied to spring-shed studies, isotope analysis has provided promising results. Increased understanding of springs in the study areas has been gained by identifying potential recharge zones for springs using isotopes.

AcknowledgmentsThis study is supported by: i) DigoJalBikas (DJB) project under the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID); and ii) GRANT: 0358-NEP-Building Climate Resilience of

Watersheds in Mountain Eco-regions (BCRWME) - Package 2: Watershed Hydrology Impact Monitoring Research project, in collaboration between the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the Government of Nepal (GoN) Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management (DSCWM), supported by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), Nordic Development Fund and Climate Investment Fund. The contents are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily refl ect the views of supporting organizations.

References[1] Devkota L.P., GyawaliD.R. (2015). Impacts of climate change on hydrological regime and water

resources management of the Koshi River Basin, Nepal, Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 4(Part-B): 502-515.

[2] World Bank (2009). Glacier Retreat in the Nepal Himalaya: An Assessment of the Role of Glaciers in the Hydrologic Regime of the Nepal Himalaya. Prepared for the South Asia Sustainable Development (SASDN) Offi ce, Environment and Water Resources Unit.

[3] Bolch T., Kulkarni A., Kääb A., Huggel C., Paul F., CogleyJ.G., Bajracharya, S. (2012). The state and fate of Himalayan glaciers. Science, 336 (6079): 310–314.

[4] Bates B.C., KundzewiczZ.W., Wu S., Palutikof J.P. (Eds.) (2008) Climate Change and Water: Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). IPCC Secretariat: Geneva, 210 pp.

[5] Pandey V.P., Babel M.S., Shrestha S., Kazama F. (2010).Vulnerability of freshwater resources in large and medium Nepalese river basins to environmental change. Water Science and Technology, 61(6): 1525-1534.

[6] IWMI (2018).Annual Report of DigoJalBikas (DJB) Project submitted to United States Agency for International Development (USAID). International Water Management Institute (IWMI): Kathmandu, Nepal. April, 2018.

[7] Matheswaran K., Khadka A., Kumar S., Dhaubanjar S., Shrestha S., Bharati L. (2017). Draft Report on delineating spring recharge zones using stable isotopes in two mountainous Far-Western Nepal catchments. Colombo, Sri Lanka.

[8] IWMI (2017). Progress report of DigoJalBikas (DJB) Project submitted to United States Agency for International Development (USAID). International Water Management Institute (IWMI): Kathmandu, Nepal. September, 2017.

[9] Arnold J.G., Srinivasan P., MuttiahR.S., Williams J.R. (1998).Large area hydrologic modelling and assessment.Part I. Model development. Journal of American Water Resources Association, 34: 73–89.


[10] Srinivasan R., RamanarayananT.S., Arnold J.G., Bednarz S.T. (1998).Large area hydrological modeling and assessment. Part II: Model application Journal of American Water Resources Association, 34(1): 91-101.

[11] Pandey V.P., Dhaubanjar S., Bharati L., ThapaB.R. (2018). Hydrological response of Chamelia watershed in Mahakali Basin to climate change. Science of the Total Environment, xx (xx): xx-xx (Under Review).

[12] MoriasiD.N., Arnold J.G., van LiewM.W., BingnerR.L.,Harmel R.D., VeithT.L. (2007). Model evaluation guidelines for systematic quantifi cation of accuracy in watershed simulations. Transactions of the ASABE, 50 (3): 885–900.

[13] Immerzeel W.W., Pellicciotti F., BierkensM.F.P. (2013). Rising river fl ows throughout the twenty-fi rst century in two Himalayan glacierized watersheds. Nature Geoscience, 6:742–745.

[14] Bhattarai B.C., Regmi D. (2016). Impact of climate change on water resources in view of contribution of runoff components in stream fl ow: a case study from Langtang Basin, Nepal. J. Hydrol. Meteorol. 9 (1): 74–84.


Abstract

Freshwater habitat is one of the most common and stable habitats that support diverse communities within a wetland. The Ghodaghodi Lake is a natural freshwater oxbow lake on the lower slope of Siwalik. The dissolved oxygen content at site 1 and 2 was found to be 6.42 mg/L and 8.09 mg/L. In natural freshwater high concentration of chloride is considered to be an indicator of environmental pollution due to the accumulation of organic wastage of animal origin. The presence of high density of Hemiptera (384.33 individuals/m2) and Ephimeripterae (243.6 individual/m2) indicates that water is polluted due to high nutrient deposition. Hydrillasps shows the maximum density in both the sites followed by Potamogentunnatans.

Keywords: Dissolved oxygen, Freshwater, Ghodaghodi Lake, Nutrient, Phosphate

IntroductionNepal is very rich in water diversity which includes different wetlands, rivers, lake, pond, fens etc. wetlands provide habitat for numerous fl ora and fauna. They serve for provisioning, regulatory, sink, cultural and educational function [1]. Freshwater habitat is one of the most common and stable habitats that support diverse communities within a wetland. It involves the interaction between organism, physical and chemical characteristic of the system.

The Ghodaghodi Lake is a natural freshwater oxbow lake on the lower slope of Siwalik. It is a large and shallow lake, having fi nger-like projections, with

associated marshes and meadows surrounded by tropical deciduous forest on the lower slopes of Siwalik range [2]. There are thirteen associated lakes and ponds; some streams have separated lakes and ponds, and some streams are separated by hillocks. Ghodaghodi lake (150 ha) is one of the 14 lakes of Ghodaghodi Lake Complex (2563 ha) – a Ramsar site of Nepal. Many of the branches become disconnected from the main water body during low water seasons. The wetland has a permanent fl ow [3], [4]. The present study was conducted during February 2018. The objective of the study was to analyse the physiochemical properties of lake water and study the phytoplankton, zooplanktons and aquatic invertebrates in the lake.

Limnological Study of the Ghodaghodi Wetland in Kailali DistrictJanak Bhatta, Rupesh Bohara, Bhoj Raj Bhatta, Tark Raj Joshi*Department of Environmental Science, Far Western University*E-mail: [email protected]

3


Materials and MethodsThe seasonal study was conducted in February at two different sites of the lake. Physiochemical properties of water were studied for the assessment of water quality and also the fl oral and faunal composition of aquatic diversity was analyzed.

Site selection and samplingThe sampling sites were selected on the basis of convenience sampling method for water quality

and fl oral and faunal analysis. A transect walk and random sampling methods were adopted for the study of vegetation. Two sites were considered for the study.

• Site 1st (view tower 1st) - 28˚ 41’06’’N and 80˚ 56’44’’E

• Site 2nd (view tower 2nd) - 28˚ 41’04’’N and 80˚ 56’43’’E

Figure1.Map of the Ghodaghodi Lake showing sampling sites.

Study of physiochemical parametersAnalysis of the physicochemical parameters were carried out as per the APHA 1998 [5] and chemical and biological method for water pollution studies [6]. Majority of the physiochemical properties were

immediately analyzed at the site using chemicals and necessary instruments. Test parameters, methods of analysis and instruments used for analysis are shown in Table 1.


Table 1. Test parameters, methods of analysis and instruments used [5, 6].Parameters Method of AnalysispH pH meter (portable)Temperature (o C) Mercury thermometerConductivity (micro simen/cm) Conductivity meterDissolved oxygen (mg/L) Winkler’s iodometric methodTotal alkalinity (mg/L) Titrimetric methodTotal acidity (mg/L) Titrimetric methodDissolved carbon dioxide (mg/L) Titrimetric methodChloride (mg/L) Argentometric methodHardness (mg/L) EDTA Titrimetric methodPhosphate (mg/L) Ammonium molybdate method

Study of Macrophyte and phytoplanktonThe plankton net was used to sample the phytoplankton and sampling of benthic fauna from two sites was carried out using the grab sampler of an area 0.02498 m2. Macrophytes were sampled, collected and their number was counted and analyzed by using quantitative parameters of vegetation analysis.

Results and DiscussionPhysiochemical ParametersThe pH value at two different sites was found to be 7.6 and 7.5 respectively. The temperature at two different site ranges from 15oC and 16oC at site 1 and 2 respectively. Temperature and pH are an important limiting factor of an aquatic ecosystem and a good indicator of water quality. All metabolic and physiological activities such as respiration, circulation, and reproduction are generally infl uenced by temperature [7]. The present investigation did not show considerable changes in temperature. The dissolved oxygen content at site 1 and 2 was found to be 6.42 and 8.09 mg/L. Dissolved oxygen is considered as an important parameter in water quality assessment. The concentration of oxygen in water depends mainly on two sources: diffusion from the atmosphere, which depends on the solubility of oxygen under the infl uence of temperature, salinity, water movement

and photosynthetic activity, which is a biological process and depends on the availability of light and of the metabolic process [5]. The variation in oxygen content at two different sites may be due to low surface temperature. Total alkalinity was found to be 44 mg/L at both sites. The hardness ranges from 51.2 to 57 mg/L at site 1 and site 2 respectively. The chloride content at two different sites was found 17.04 and 17.02mg/Lrespectively.In natural freshwater, high concentration of chloride is considered to be an indicator of environmental pollution due to organic wastes of animal origin. The chloride concentrations at all the sites were within the specifi ed range of water quality. Similarly, the phosphate concentration at site 1 and site 2 was found to be 0.408 mg/L and 0.421 mg/L respectively. Phosphorus was found mostly in the form of phosphate. It is rarely found in high concentration as it is actively taken up by plants. Natural source of phosphorus is mainly due to the weathering of phosphorus-bearing rocks and the decomposition of organic matter. In most natural surface water, phosphorus ranges from 0.0055-0.020 mg/L as orthophosphate. In the study, all the sites have exceeded this natural level. The deviation to some extent might be due to agricultural runoff from the surrounding area and addition of nutrient-rich food wastes and other additives due to ecotourism activities. The study revealed that


phenolphthalein alkalinity was absent manifest that the total alkalinity was only due to bicarbonates.

Table 2.Physiochemical parameters of Ghodaghodi Lake.

ParametersObserved valuesSite -1 Site -2

pH 7.6 7.5Temperature (degree Celsius) 15.0 16.0Conductivity(micro simen/cm) 111.0 111.0Dissolved oxygen(mg/L) 6.42 8.09Total alkalinity (mg/L) 44.0 44.0Total acidity (mg/L) 25.0 25.0Dissolved carbon dioxide (mg/L) 66.0 66.5Chloride (mg/L) 17.04 17.02Hardness (mg/L) 51.2 57.0Phosphate ( mg/L) 0.408 0.421

Benthic Fauna and MacrophytesThe bottom fauna plays an important role in the overall biological productivity of the lake. They serve as food for most of the bottom-feeding fi shes and are the nutritional sources. Eight taxas were recorded from the two different study sites. The density of Hemipteraspp (384.33 individual /m2) was the highest and that of Corixasps., (0.2 individual /m2 each) was the lowest.Macrophytes are the large visible plants in the aquatic body. These may be rooted, non-rooted, fl oating or submerged. These fl oras play important role in the overall biological productivity of

lake [7]. They serve as food for aquatic animals. The aquatic fl ora collected and identifi ed during the study are Hydrillasps, Ceratophyllumsps, Potamogentumnatans and Hygorbyzasps. The seasonal study on February reveals the highest density of Hydrilla,i.e.400 individuals/m2 in site 1 and 440 individuals/m2 in site 2 followed by Potamogentumnatans.

ConclusionsThe present study reveals the physiochemical contamination of the lake water. The decomposition of dead algae uses available oxygen, resulting in some sort of oxygen depletion problem. The presence of high density of Hemiptera (384.33 individual/m2) and Ephimeripterae (243.6 individual/m2) indicates that water is polluted due to high nutrient deposition. The wetland serves habitat for different varieties of plants and animals which are deteriorating due to the organic pollutions in water which directly harm the ecological balance and biodiversity. It has a great effect on economy and tourism of the country.

AcknowledgementsAcknowledgment is to the Department of Science and Technology, Far Western University. The authors are grateful to Mr. Ganesh Thagunna, Environment Offi cer, DTO/DCC Kanchanpur for his constant support and guidance. The Ghogaghodi lake conservation committee is highly acknowledged for necessary support and cooperation to carry out this work.

References [1] BPP, Biodiversity Assessment of Terai Wetlands, Biodiversity Profi le Project, Publication No. 1,

Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1995.[2] DNPWC and WWF, Fact Sheet Ghodaghodi Lake Area Kailali, Department of National Parks

and Wildlife Conservation and World Wildlife Fund, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2005.[3] Ghodaghodi– An Introduction, Ghodaghodi area conservation and people awareness forum,

Kailali, Nepal, 2017.


[4] G. Kafl e, Avifauna and Vegetation of Ghodaghodi Lake (A Ramsar Site ) of Nepal, Nature Conservation, 2006.

[5] APHA, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water, 20th edition, American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association and Water Environment Federation, United Book Press, Inc. Baltimore, Maryland, USA, 1998.

[6] R. K. Trivedi and P. K.Goel, Chemical and Biological Method for Water Pollution Studies, 1st edition, Environmental Publication, Karad, India. 1987.

[7] J. Diwakar, the Environmental study of Ghodaghodi Lake, A fi eld study report, Central Department of Environmental Science, Kirtipur, Nepal.


IntroductionMicrobiological contamination in drinking water is of serious concern to consumers, water suppliers, regulators and public health experts [1]. Microbial

parameters are of great concern to public health because of their immediate health risks [2]. The presence of pathogenic bacteria in meat and meat products indicate public health risk and give the

AbstractPresent study was undertaken to assess the status of drinking water quality, chicken meat and street vendor food in Kanchanpur district. The study was completed in three phases. In phase fi rst: fi fty water samples representing 43 hand pumps and 7 piped/tap water from ward no. 4, 7 and 18 of Bhim Datta Municipality of Kanchanpur was collected from July to October 2014 for microbiological analysis of drinking water. Out of 50 water samples, 4% sample showed total hardness, 30% sample nitrate, 6% sample arsenic, iron, ammonia, and chloride higher than the WHO guideline value and Nepal Drinking Water Standard but the arsenic was within the guideline. In the microbiological examination, E. Coli was found in 16% of samples and total coliform in 58% samples. In phase II: Forty-fi ve fresh slices of chicken meat was collected from local market of fi ve municipalities in Kanchanpur during the March 2014 to April 2015 for microbial analysis of chicken meat. Different fi ve foodborne pathogens viz. 18 (40%) of E. Coli, 17(38%) of Shigella spp., 17(38%) of Salmonella spp., Citrobacter spp., and 26 (57%) of Staphylococcus aureus were isolated and identifi ed from samples. In phase III: Seventy-eight samples of street foods were collected from different six locations of Mahendranagar town area in between March to August 2017 to assess microbiological quality of street vendor foods. Total bacterial count in all the samples varied between 6.5 to 8.4 log CFU/g, LAB count was 0.8 to 5.2 log CFU/g, coliforms between 2.1to 5.2 log CFU/g, Bacillus between 3.0 to 7.2 log CFU/g, Staphylococcus areus was detected in all the samples except the vegetable momo and vegetable chaumein where they vary 0.6 to 5.0 log CFU/g. Salmonella spp. was also found in chicken momo and samosa. The yeast contamination was also found in all food samples except samosa and bread chop within the range 1.5 to 3.8 log CFU/g. The drinking water quality is not safe for drinking without purifi cation. The sample collected from the hand pump/tube were more contaminated with bacteria than piped/tap water supply. The broiler chicken meat and street food were found contaminated with pathogenic and indicator bacteria.

Keywords: Broiler chicken, Drinking water, Microorganism, Street food

Microbiological Analysis of Drinking Water and Street Foods in Kanchanpur DistrictMadan Singh BoharaFaculty of Science and Technology, Far-west University, NepalE-mail: [email protected]

4


alarming signal for the possible occurrence of foodborne intoxication [3]. Meat-borne diseases such as; Salmonellosis, E. Coli enteritis and food poisoning by Clostridium, Staphylococcus, etc. are the major problems caused by eating contaminated meat. Such incidences happen due to contamination of chicken with pathogenic bacteria, and poultry products [4]. Broiler meat is considered a cheap source of protein. In the context of Nepal, increasing population and growing income level of consumers have added to an increased demand for livestock and poultry products [5]. Microbial contamination of ready-to-eat foods and beverages sold by street vendors is one of the reasons public health threat in Mahendranagar. Vendors are often with no formal education, untrained in food hygiene, and work under crude and unsanitary conditions and have no or very little knowledge about the cause of food-borne diseases [6].

Materials and MethodThe present study was completed in three phase for microbiological analysis of drinking water, chicken and street vendor foods of Kanchanpur district.

Phase I: Drinking water samplesA total 50 water samples representing 7 taps/ piped and 43 tube well/hand pumps were collected from ward no. 4, 18 and 7 of different localities of Bhim Datta Municipality in sterilized 1 L bottles. Microbiological analysis was performed following standard techniques set by American Public Health Association [7] during the month of July 2014 to October 2014. Total coliform and E. Coli were enumerated by the membrane fi ltration (MF) technique as described by standard microbial technique [8]. The microbiological parameters were compared with national standard and WHO guideline value and statistical analyzed [9]. The samples were analyzed on the same day immediately after its delivery. All isolated colonies were streak on nutrient agar to get pure colonies for the further

biochemical test. Bacterial isolates were identifi ed on the basis of their cultural, morphological and biochemical tests.

Phase II: Chicken meat samplesForty-fi ve fresh chicken meat samples were purchased from local stores from fi ve municipal towns viz. Mahendranagar, Dodhara-Chadani, Belauri, Kalika, Punarbas and Jhalari of Kanchanpur district during the month of March 2014 to April 2015. Freshly slaughtered 25g broiler chicken meat samples from the above outlets were collected into sterile plastic bags, labelled and stored at ~ 4oC in an ice chest fi lled with ice box. Samples were subjected to microbiological analysis according to standard procedures [10]. Samples (25g each) were made 1:10 dilution homogenized in 225 mL lactose broth (LB) using blender for 2 m at high speed then serially diluted were spread plated (0.1 mL) on MacConkey agar for coliforms, Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB) for E. Coli, Mannitol Salt Agar (MSA) for S.aureus, Salmonella-Shigella agar for Salmonella and Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) for total viable count. After the overnight incubation at 37oC, plates with approximately 30-300 colonies were selected for counting. The samples which were out of the above range for plate count further proceeded for serial dilutions and plating was immediately carried out within 24 hours on dilutions stored in a refrigerator. Bacterial counts were expressed as log10 colony forming units per gram (log10CFU/g).

Phase III: Street vendor food samplesSeventy-eight of different street foods samples were aseptically collected twice within 15 days interval in sterile containers from different six location of Mahendranagar town area in Kanchanpur district to assess microbiological safety of street vendor foods from March to August 2017. The samples were stored ~4oC and analyzed within an hour of procurement. Aseptically ten grams of each sample was weighed


and homogenized with 90 mL of sterile distilled water to obtain 1:10 dilution by using mortar and piston then serial dilutions were prepared and spread plate technique was used on appropriate selective media. The selected food items for microbial analysis were performed by a standard procedure in specifi c culture media [11]. The Plate Count Agar (PCA) was used for Total Plate Count (TPC), Coliforms on Violet Red Bile Agar (VRBA), Bacillus cereus on Mannitol Egg Yolk Polymyxin Agar (MYPA), Staphylococcus in Mannitol Salt Agar (MSA), Salmonella on Bismuth Sulphite Agar (BSA) and Yeast and Moulds on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). Enumeration and identifi cation of isolates were performed after overnight incubation at 37oC of all

food samples. Biochemical tests were performed for characterizations of isolated organisms.

Results and DiscussionMicrobiological Analysis of Drinking WaterThe microbiological analysis of water samples revealed the presence of total coliform in 58% of samples (Hand pumps 62.8% and 28.6% piped water). Table 1 shows the percentage of total E. Coli contamination for all 8 (16%) samples, the contaminated samples were 16% hand pumps sources and 14% piped supplied water. The hand pumps sources of drinking water were more contaminated with bacteria than piped supplied water.

Table 1.Bacterial contamination in drinking water.

Sources Total sampleE. Coli (CFU/100 mL) Total Coliform (CFU/100mL)

Number % Number %Hand pumps 43 7 16 27 62.8Piped supply 7 1 14 2 28.6

A study carried out in Madhyapur Thimi, reported bacterial contamination in drinking water was found total coliform count in 64.76% of samples and coliform were found 28.88% in tap water samples [12]. A similar study conducted in Kathmandu reported 61.4% (70/114) of the water samples were found coliform above the recommended level of WHO guideline which is similar to present study [13]. In another study conducted in Arthunge VDC of Myagdi district, Nepal out of 68 tap water samples, 62 (91.18%) were contaminated with total coliform which is higher than this study [14]. The water from hand pump is more contaminated with bacteria than piped water. This might be due to the shallow tube well of this region. Even though the tap water were chlorinated and then supplied but they were also found to be contaminated with coliform and E. Coli. The presence of coliform bacteria in the tap water may be due to contamination in the old

pipelining system, back siphoning, drainage system and discontinuity in water supply pattern or may not be effectively disinfected. Also, carelessness may be also the reasons for contamination with coliform. The result shows that water sources in the sampling sites are unsafe because of the presence of total coliform bacteria. Most of the samples were contained with a maximum number of coliform bacteria even the tap water. If the quality of water is not improved, it may exert serious public health problem. In Nepal, morbidity and mortality rates from water-borne diseases are considered high particularly among children below the age of fi ve[15]. The monitoring of drinking water quality remains a major challenge in urban as well as rural areas. Strategies like protection of natural sources, treatment and distribution management should be applied in order to maintain and improve drinking water supply system.


Microbial analysis of broiler chicken meatThe broiler chicken meat in Kanchanpur district was found to be contaminated with six genera of pathogen and indicator bacteria such as Enterobacter spp., Citrobacter spp., E. Coli, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus. These were isolated and identifi ed from 45 samples and compared their morphological and biochemical characteristics with standard reference organisms [10]. The Staphylococcus aureus was found maximum 26 (57%). The E. Coli was isolated from18 (40%) samples followed by Shigella spp. in 17(38%), Salmonella spp. and in Citrobacter spp. in 15(33%) samples. The Enterobacter spp. was found in 5(11%) in mutton samples (not shown in table). The chi-square test was performed for the isolated. The statistical result showed that there was no signifi cant difference (P>0.05) of bacteria

present in meat sample.

The Staphylococcus aureus dominants all other isolated organisms in most of the municipalities. The highest prevalence was found 6(75%) in the PM and lowest 2(25%) in JPM. E. Coli was isolated maximum 7(70%) in samples of DCM and lowest 2(25%) in JPD. It was not isolated from Belauri municipality. The chicken samples 7(64%) of BDM showed maximum contamination with Salmonella spp. and lowest 1(13%) in BM. It was not found in JPM. The very low prevalence of Enterobacter spp. was found in municipalities but highest 3(27%) were found in BDM and lowest 1(13%) were BM and PM. Enterobacter spp. was not isolated from meat samples of both DCM and JPM. Citrobacter spp. was found highest 6(75%) in samples of JPM and lowest 1(9%) in BDM.

Table 2.Frequency distribution of bacteria isolated from fresh chicken meat.

PathogenTotal

(N=45)BDM (n=11)

BM(n=8)

DCM(n=10)

JPM(n=8)

PM(n=8)

No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %E. Coli 18 40 6 55 0 0 7 70 2 25 3 38Salmonella spp. 15 33 7 64 1 13 3 30 0 0 4 50Shigella spp. 17 38 2 18 3 38 3 30 5 63 4 50Enterobactor spp. 5 11 3 27 1 13 0 0 0 0 1 13Citrobactor spp. 15 33 1 9 2 25 3 30 6 75 3 38Staphylococcus aureus 26 57 8 73 4 50 6 60 2 25 6 75

P- Value >0.05

The broiler fresh chicken meat in Kanchanpur district was found high microbial count over than permissible limit. The total viable count was indicative of the populations of spoilage microorganisms and act as an index of hygienic quality. The high microbial count enumerated from fresh chicken meat samples indicated that the meat samples were contaminated. Microorganisms may be able to easily be introduced either in the pre or post-processing stages of meat processing.

The bacterial contamination of meat samples shows no signifi cant differences (P>0.05). Moreover, the fecal coliforms as Escherichia coli are generally considered as indisputable indicators of fecal contamination from warm-blooded animals [4]. The presence of E. Coli (40%) and Enterobacter spp. (11%) in the fresh meat sample is an indication of fecal contamination of the meat. However, the fi nding of this study was compared to the study conducted by in wet market of Bangalore, India,


where it has reported the prevalence of Salmonella in the range of 25 to 65% and E. Coli in the range of 42 to 88 % [16]. According to this study prevalence of Salmonella in retail broiler meat in Kanchanpur district is found to be 38% which is higher than that obtained in Chitwan [17]. The prevalence rate is lower than another study [3], where it found 46.2% Salmonella in poultry meat in Chitwan. The presence of Salmonella and Staphylococcus aureus organisms demonstrates a potential health risk since the organisms are pathogenic and give warning signal for the possible occurrence of foodborne intoxication. This study revealed the prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus was 57%, highest among the other pathogen in all study sites. The reason for the high prevalence of S. aureus could have been the poor personal hygiene of workers and the technique used for opening the abdomen practiced in the traditional shops. Contamination of meat with S. aureus has been associated with the risk of staphylococcal food poisoning [18]. Staphylococcus aureus which is a normal fl ora of the body indicates contamination from handlers. It is the major cause of food poisoning known as staphylococcal food poisoning. The poisoning is caused by the ingestion

of an enterotoxin produced, which is characterized by diarrhea and vomiting [19].

The prevalence Gram-negative bacteria Shigella spp. was found in 17 (38%), Citrobacter spp. in 15(33%) samples and Enterobacter spp. was found lowest in 5(11%) samples. Enterobacteria spp. 34.84% were isolated from chicken conducted in Croatian market is higher than this study [20]. The presence of these organisms in the chicken meat is indicative of public health hazard and gives a signal of the possible occurrence of foodborne intoxication and infection. Undoubtedly, the poultry slaughtered and dressed under local conditions in Kanchanpur may carry high initial contamination of bacterial load from the point of slaughtering process to the point of offering to consumers. It is, therefore, necessary to explore the use of an innovative food processing techniques such as irradiation in addition to traditional temperature management techniques such as chilling and freezing. In particular, the technology of irradiation has been recognized as one of the safest and most effective methods for inactivating bacteria in raw poultry either freshly chilled or frozen.

Microbial analysis of street vended foodTable 3.Microbial profi le of street vended food sold in Mahendranagar.

Street FoodMicrobial load (log cfu/g sample)

LAB Bacilli Coliform Staphylococcus Salmonella Yeast TVCVeg momo (7) 2.8±0.06 3.0±0.06 5.2±0.01 <DL <DL 3.2±0.04 7.0±0.06Chicken momo (9) 5.2±0.03 7.1±0.04 4.7±0.0 3.1±0.05 2.1±0.02 1.5±0.0 7.3±0.02Somasa n=10 0.9±0.03 7.2±0.05 5.1±0.06 3.4±0.02 0.5±0.01 <DL 8.4±0.06Bread chop(13) 2.4±0.03 5.3±0.06 4.8±0.03 4.0±0.03 <DL <DL 6.5±0.0Veg chowmin (11) 0.8±0.03 3.8±0.05 3.8±0.01 <DL <DL 3.8±0.04 7.4±0.0Panipuri (15) <LD 7.2±0.06 2.1±0.03 5.0±0.06 <DL 3.8±0.04 7.4±0.03AluTika (13) 2.3±0.04 3.8±0.04 4.2±0.04 0.6±0.06 <DL 2.0±0.04 6.8±0.0

Data represents the means (± standard deviation) of number of samples. Each sample was analyzed in duplicate. DL: less than detection limit (10cfu/g); LAB, lactic acid bacteria; TVC, total viable count.


In this study, all the food samples showed maximum total viable count ranging 106 CFU/g to 108 CFU/g, which is unsatisfactory from the hygienic point of view. The high total aerobic plate counts indicate poor general quality of the street vendor foods. The existence of these bacteria in foodstuffs could induce potential health problems. Poor personal hygiene, improper handling, and storage practice of food and poor knowledge of food vendors about the foodborne diseases may be the associated risk factors that lead to contamination of street vendor foods. It was detected up to the level of 105 CFU/g. The predominance of Bacillus spp. was possibly due to the presence of spores in the raw materials which may survive even after cooking [21]. High prevalence of Bacillus species(107 CFU/g) in the present study is similar to fi ndings of the report of Baripada town in Odisha state in India [22].

In this study, the load of coliforms was found between 102 CFU/g to 105 CFU/g which is above the acceptable level and it is higher than the work conducted in Tirumala [23]. The presence of total coliforms in street vendor food can be linked to contamination resulting from inappropriate processing, incomplete heating, use of contaminated water during preparation and washing or secondary contamination via contact with contaminated materials such as chopping boards, knives and serving wares [24].

We found the prevalence of S. aureus in range of 103 CFU/g to 105 CFU/g in all food except Alu- Tika but vegetable momo and chicken had very low count which is at the marginal level of an acceptable limit. There was a low contaminant bacterial count in vegetable chowmein, vegetable momo, and alutika. In this fi nding; the load of Staphylococcus aureus exceeded the acceptable limit in chicken momo, chicken chowmein, alu chop and panipuri. The contamination may be introduced into the street foods during handling,

processing or vending [25]. The maximum total Staphylococcus counts were found in panipuri, which may attribute to unhygienic handling by the vendor owner. Similarly, Salmonella spp found 103 CFU/g in chicken momo and also reported in somasa as well. This is similar to previous works carried out in ‘Gangtok ’ and ‘Nainital, India [26]. The presence of Salmonella spp. might be due to the difference in the ingredients in foods included animal products. In the present study, yeast isolated from street foods was identifi ed as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichiaburtonii. This is related to similar findings on the study conducted in Gangtok and Nainital, India [26].

ConclusionsThe fi nding of this work shows that the water is not safe for drinking purpose without purifi cation. Maximum bacteria are enumerated in the shallow hand pump than the deep aquifer. The marked growth of bacteria concludes that broiler chicken meat is not suitable for consumption. The high total viable counts recorded in this study showed all the samples were over the permissible level of microbial load. The presence of pathogenic bacteria demonstrates a potential health risk and gives warning signal for the possible occurrence of foodborne intoxication. The street-vendor foods in Kanchanpur district are contaminated with different pathogenic bacteria. The existence of these bacteria in foodstuffs could induce potential public health problems.

AcknowledgementsWe are grateful to Ministry of Science and Environment, Government of Nepal and Siddhnath Science Campus Mahendranagar for providing research grant. Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University for approved the research. Drinking Water and Sanitation Division Kanchanpur and Nepal Drinking Water Supply Corporation Mahendranagar Branch Kancahanpur for providing water test kits.


Dedication This research article is prepared to dedicate for

condolence of my late father BahadurBohara who passed away on 4 February 2018.

References[1] World Health Organization, Regional Offi ce for South-East Asia (WHO-SEARO), Drinking

water quality in the South-East Asia Region, Mahatma Gandhi Marga, New Delhi, India, 2010.[2] K. Rajini, P. Roland, C. John, and R. Vincent, Microbiological and physicochemical analysis of

drinking water in Georg town,Nature and Science, 8 (8), 261-265 (2010).[3] N. Bhandari, D. B. Nepali, and S. Paudel, Assessment of bacterial load in broiler chicken meat

from the retail meat shops in Chitwan, Nepal, International Journal Infectious Microbiology, 2(3), 99-104(2013).

[4] A. H. Yousuf, M. M. K. Ahmed, S. Yeasmin, N. Ahsan, M. M. Rahman, and M. M. Islam, Prevalence of microbial load in Shrimp, Penaeusmonodon and Prawn, Macrobrachiumrosenbergii from Bangladesh, World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 4 (5) 852-855 (2008).

[5] Community Livestock Development Project (CLDP), Baseline market study for livestock and livestock-related products, Socioeconomic and Ethno-Political Research and Training (SEEPORT) Consultancy, Submitted to Community Livestock Development Project, 2007.

[6] N. A. Barro, R. Bello, Y.Itsiembou, A. Savadogo, C. A. T. Ouattara, P. D. S. C.Nikiema, and, A. S. Traore, Street vendor foods improvement: contamination mechanism and application of food safety objective strategy, critical review, Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 6,1-10 (2007).

[7] American Public Health Association, Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewaters, 20th edition, Washington DC, 1998.

[8] K. R. Aneja, Experiments in Microbiology, Plant Pathology and Biotechnology, 4thed.New Age International (P) limited publishers, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi, 2008.

[9] WaterAid, Water quality standards and testing policy, Protocol-Water quality standards and testing: Instructions for a partner organization, WaterAid in Nepal publication September 2011.

[10] M. Cheesbrough, Medical Laboratory Manual for Tropical Health Technology. Low price edition, Doddington, Cambridge Shire, England, 20- 35(2003).

[11] ISI, Handbook of food analysis, General methods, 18(Part-I). Printograph Press, Karol Bagh, New Delhi, 7-189 (2001).

[12] B. L. Jayana, T. Prasai, A. Singh, and K. D. Yami, Assessment of drinking water quality of Madhyapur-Thimi and study of antibiotic sensitivity against bacterial isolates, Nepal, Journal of Science and Technology, 10, 167-172(2009).

[13] P. Shakya1, T. Prasai, D. R. Joshi, and D. R. Bhatta, Evaluation of physicochemical and microbiological parameters of drinking water supplied from distribution Systems of Kathmandu Municipality, Nepal Journal of Science and Technology, 13 ( 2), 179-184(2012).

[14] J. Aryal, Gautam, and N. Sapkota, Drinking Water Quality Assessment, J. Nepal Health Research Council, 10(22), 192-69(2012).

[15] Ministry of Health and Population, Annual Report, Department of Health Services, MoHP, 2008. [16] S. W. Ruban, N. K. Prabhu, and K. G. S. Naveen, Prevalence of foodborne pathogens in market

samples of chicken meat in Bangalore, International Food Research Journal, 19, 1763-65 (2012).


[17] I. P. Dhakal, and P.Manandhar, Isolation of Salmonella in the pooled samples of litter, food, and water in Chitwan poultries, In: Proceedings of National Poultry Expo-2005, Chitwan, December 15-19, 43-46 (2005).

[18] Department of Agriculture, Animal Health and Product,Animal and animal origin foods,Bulletin,5214,727–45 (2004).

[19] V. C. Eze, Okoye, J. I. Agwung, F. D. and C.Nnabueke,Chemical and microbiological evaluation of soybean fl ours bought from local markets in Onitsha, Anambra State, Nigeria, 2008.

[20] L. Kozacinski, M. Hadziosmanovic, and C. Zdole, Microbiological quality of poultry meat on the Croatian market, VeterinarskiArhiv, 76 (4) 305-313(2006).

[21] F. M. Mosupye, and A. Von Holy, Microbiological quality and safety of street-vendor foods in Johannesburg city, South Africa, Journal Food Protection, 62, 1278-84(1999).

[22] N. Khare, U. Palni, andJ. P. Tamang, Microbiological assessment of ethnic street foods of the Himalayas,Journal of Ethnic Foods, 3, 235-241 (2016).

[23] C. Suneetha, K. Manjula, and B. Depur, Quality assessment of street foods in Tirumala, Asian Journal of Experimental Science, 2, 207–211(2011).

[24] Q. Wei1, S. Hwang, and T. Chen, Microbiological quality of ready-to-eat food products in Southern Taiwan, Journal of Food and Drug Analysis,14, 68–73(2006).

[25] C. C. Rath, and S.Patra, Bacteriological quality assessment of selected street foods and antibacterial activity of essential oils against foodborne pathogens, International Journal Food Safety, 14, 5-10 (2012).

[26] S. Oranusi, M. Galadima, and V. J.Umoh, Toxicity test and bacteriophage typing of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from food contact surfaces and foods prepared by families in Zaria, Nigeria,African Journal of Biotechnology,5, 362-5(2006).


IntroductionWater is a transparent and nearly colorless substance that is the main constituent of Earth’s streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fl uids of the most living organism. Water covers the 71 percent of the Earth’s surface. On Earth, 96.5% of the planet’s crust water is found in seas and oceans, 1.7% in groundwater, 1.7% in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland, a small fraction in other large water bodies, 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds, and precipitation. Only 2.5% of this water is fresh water, and 98.8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0.3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes,

and the atmosphere, and an even smaller amount of the Earth’s freshwater (0.003%) is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products [1]Over 90 percent freshwater is locked in the polar region as ice, and much of the remaining renewal water runs off the land in fl oods and cannot be used[2].

Access to safe drinking water supply services is fundamental to improving public health and meeting national poverty reduction objectives. An estimated 80 percent of all diseases and over one-third of deaths in developing countries are caused by

Abstract

The present Constitution of Nepal has guaranteed right to clean drinking water as a fundamental right. The Government of Nepal showed fully committed to providing basic water supply services to all by 2017 which was not attained. In this context while reviewing the Constitution of Nepal, some of the major water-related Act, Rules, Policies, Plans, Programs and Strategies, Supreme Court verdict, Reports, Books and articles related with the supply of drinking water found that the Acts, Rules, Policies, Strategies, Plans, and Programs are required to be reviewed and updated so as to implement the new federal constitution and ascertain the people to the right of access to clean drinking water. As the Constitution has conferred the power of supplying drinking water to three levels of state i.e. the federal, state and local level, laws relating thereto are urgent to enact in all three levels. Moreover, proper coordination and harmonization are required for enforcement of the federal, state and local level laws.

Keywords: fundamental right, federal level, state level, local level, harmonization

Legal and Policy Frameworkin Ensuring Safe DrinkingWater in NepalShringa Rishi Kafl eEnvironmental Law ExpertE-mail: srkafl [email protected]

4


the consumption of contaminated water[3]. Many people, both in rural and urban areas, are affected by waterborne and water-related diseases due to use of unsafe water. Particularly rural women are deprived of fi nding the income sources including due to the hardship of availability of water as they spend several hours a day to fetch water from far away sources.

Millennium Development Goal (MDG) has provided a solid footing for the Government to set higher targets for the service. Nepal has already exceeded in 2013 the 2015 MDG targets which were set respectively at of 73 % and 53 % for basic water supply.While the Government of Nepal showed fully committed to providing basic level water supply services to all by 2017 acknowledging it as a fundamental human need and a basic human right, it has also envisaged a need to improve the basic level of water supply services to medium and higher levels to all by 2027. The main focus has been and still is on coverage rather than quality improvement of the water supplied [4].

The present Constitution of Nepal has guaranteed the right of access to clean drinking water as a fundamental right. Similarly, As, Nepal has already embarked on the federal governance system; the powers of management of drinking water as well shall be divided in accordance with the Constitution. In this context, there is required to enact new federal, state and local law for management of the safe drinking water. Moreover, the existing Acts, Rules, Policies, Strategies, Plans, Programs should be reviewed so as to ascertain the right.

MethodologyThe Constitution of Nepal, some of the major water-related Act, Rules, Policies, Plans, Programs and Strategies, Supreme Court verdict, Reports, Books, and articles were the major research materials which have been reviewed to prepare this article.

This article is completely based upon the doctrinal method of study.

Existing Laws and policy relating to drinking waterThe Constitution of Nepal [5]Article 35 (4) of the Constitution reads; every citizen shall have the right of access to clean drinking water and sanitation. As this is a fundamental right the state must manage the clean drinking water for the people. Similarly, it is contained under the policies relating to protection, promotion and use of natural resources that making the multi-purpose development of water resources, while according to priority to domestic investment based on public participation shall be the policy of the state. The constitution has distributed the power as shown hereunder:

a) According to Schedule-5 framing policies relating to conservation and multiple uses of water resources is the power of Federal level.

b) According to Schedule-6 management of state-level water supply services and use of forests and waters and management of environment within the State is the power of state level.

c) According to Schedule-7 management of water supply and waters stretching in inter-State form is the concurrent power of Federal and state level.

d) According to Schedule-8 management of water supply in local level is the power of local level.

e) According to Schedule-9 management of water supply and water uses is the concurrent power of Federal, state and local level. Hence, it is a function of all the tier of the governments to manage water supply and water use. The proper laws and effective implementation, therefore, is required to ascertain the right.


ActsNepal Water Supply Corporation Act 2046 (1989) [6]The Act and the succeeding Rules were enforced to convert the Nepal Water Supply and Sewerage Board to an autonomous Corporation to develop, operate and manage water supply services in the larger and medium-sized municipalities, including Kathmandu valley towns.

Water Resources Act 2049 (1992) [7]This Act and one of the succeeding Rules related to water supply provides a legal basis for state ownership over water resources and governs national water resource management including its use for drinking water purposes. The Act accords priority to water supply over other uses of water sources. The Act requires formation and registration of Water Users’ Association (WUSA) to obtain the license for the use of water source from the District Water Resource Committee. The Act requires for maintaining water quality, protection of the environment and prohibits pollution. Contrary to the general understanding that it may be treated as a comprehensive legal instrument to address all uses of water, it is increasingly being felt that the Act is inadequate to encompass all issues related to the effective and effi cient operation and management of water supply services.

Environment Protection Act 2053 (1997) [8]The Act and its succeeding Rules require either EIA or IEE, depending on its scale and complexity, of all development projects. The Act empowers the Government to control pollution of all water resources.

Water Supply Management Board Act 2063 (2006) [9]This Act empowers the Government to form WSMBs, in consultation with the concerned municipalities, to take over the operational responsibility from other agencies to develop, manage and operate water

supply and sanitation services in Municipalities. A few Boards, including KVWSMB, have so far been formed to improve water supply and sanitation services in the municipalities.

Water Supply Tariff Fixation Commission Act 2063 (2006) [10]The Water Supply Tariff Fixation Act (WSTFCA) has created an independent and autonomous Commission to protect consumer interest by approving tariff to be raised by commercially operating service providers for providing safe and reliable water supply and sanitation services. The Act, however, falls short of clearly defi ning the Commission’s roles to regulate services provided by and fi x tariff for all service providers in the country.

Essential Commodity Protection Act, 2012[11]This Act Considers drinking water as an essential Commodity and strictly protects drinking water.

Local Government Operation Act, 2073[12]This Act has some provisions regarding supply of drinking water as this power is also conferred on to the local level. But it is not adequate to address the need of the people.

RulesWater Supply Rules 2055 (1998) [13]The Rules has been promulgated under the Water Resources Act 2049. This Rule has made provision of formation and registration of Users’ Associations for the use and protection of water sources for drinking water purposes, and operation and management of water supply and sanitation services. As the parent Act, the rules also have obviously been inadequate to address the sector issues fully.

PolicyRural Water Supply and Sanitation National Policy 2060 (2004) and Rural Water Supply and Sanitation National Strategy 2060 (2004) [14]


The principal objectives of this policy were to set a new set of targets to provide safe, reliable and affordable water supply with basic sanitation facilities to 100 percent of the population on priority basis specially targeting the backward people and ethnic groups, reduce water-borne diseases and save the time and labor of men, women and children from fetching the water. The policy focuses on massive renovation, rehabilitation, improvement, and expansion works of the existing system and increases the quality of service. The Policy has provided some guidance on water and sanitation service provision also in urban communities as it was partially relevant to the urban context, particularly around the integration of inputs and local capacity building. As it obviously failed to address the complex operational issue of urban water supply and sanitation service delivery, an Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Policy was formulated and enforced in2009.

Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Policy 2066 (2009) [15]The Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Policy (UWSSP) had addressed the need of an umbrella policy to achieve coherent, consistent and uniform approaches of development of the sector in urban areas by all the different agencies and institutions involved. The Policy sets the cost recovery principles, public-private partnership and sector effectiveness for improved service delivery in proper perspectives according to the need of the day.The Policy had identifi ed four major initiatives at the implementation level that are addressing Nation’s urban water supply and sanitation challenges and provide important insights for the development of the Policy. Those were the Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project (STWSSSP), the Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Sector Development Program (KVWSSSP), the Urban Environment Improvement Project(UEIP) and the Integrated Urban DevelopmentProjects

(IUDP). This policy had provided a fi rm basis for the extension of the Projects with additional resources made available.

PlansThree-Year Plan 2073/74- 2075/76(2016/2017-2018/2019) [16]

The fourteenth Three-year Plan has continued to follow the guidance of the previous 3-year Plan with further emphasis on user co-funding and their ownership over the built water supply, water quality improvement, integrated environmental mitigation measures in project construction to prevent adverse effect on climatic change and improvement in institutional capacity.

StandardsNational Drinking Water Quality Standards 2063 (2006) [17]

The Standards has made it mandatory to comply with its provisions in all new water supply systems and has triggered a water quality improvement drives in urban and rural water supplies alike. Most of the water supplies based on surface water sources generally meet the physical and chemical water quality standards except for high turbidity in Monsoon season. Groundwater sources at some places are reported to contain iron, manganese, and ammonia in excess. Shallow groundwater in a couple of districts is reported to contain arsenic above permissible level. Water qualities of existing water supplies not meeting National Drinking Water Quality Standards (NDWQS) will be improved in the phased manner with appropriate treatment measures.

In addition, national water plan, 2005, Water resources strategy, National wetland policy, 2012 etc are other plans and policies of the government of Nepal which are also related to the drinking water supply.


Human life is the end, and development is a means of leading a happy life. Man cannot live in a clean and healthy manner without clean and healthy environment. Effective and satisfactory work has not been done regarding a sensitive matter like environmental protection of Godavari area which is of human, national and international signifi cance. Also, taking this matter into consideration, as it looks appropriate to issue instructions regarding matters like enforcing the Mine and Mineral Substances Act, 1985, which is yet to be enforced, enactment of necessary laws for the protection of air, water, sound and environment and undertaking measure for effective protection of the environment of Godavari area, an instructive orders is hereby issued in the name of the respondents.

Advocate Prakash Mani Sharma Vs Nepal Drinking Water Corporation and Others (Writ No. 2237/2047)

As the petitioners have claimed that drinking water has not been regular and clean, and as Drinking Water Corporation has put forward the plea that bacterial examination has been conducted in accordance with the norms of World Health Organization, there seems to be disagreement between both the parties resulting in a dispute and because it is incompatible with the principle of writ to make a decision after evaluating proof and evidence, the writ petition is quashed.

However, in view of the fact that Nepal Drinking Water Corporation cannot get immunity from its vital responsibility towards the people, it should always remain conscious and alert towards its functions, duties and obligations prescribed by the Statute and should conduct necessary study, enquiry and research, and keep trying for getting grants as much as possible for the purpose of supplying clean adequate drinking water on regular basis.

So Correspondence should be made, especially drawing the attention of the Ministry of Housing and

Physical Planning, to issue appropriate instructions including whatsoever is deemed necessary to caution the Drinking Water Corporation and its subordinate Drinking Water Corporations about their obligations to distribute clean water as mentioned in the Preamble of the Act.

Advocate ThaneshworAcharyaVsBhrikuti Pulp and Paper Nepal Ltd. And Others (Writ No. 3089/2057)

There is no dispute that it is a major duty of the respondent Industry to operate without causing any damage to the environment. A look at the fulfi lment of human needs as well as the indispensability of development requires that the Industry needs to be operated maintaining balance in the environment. In view of the statement of the respondent Industry made in its written reply about its sensitivity in regard to environment and water pollution and also its commitment for not allowing such things to happen, it does not seem appropriate to issue the writ to close down the Industry or to shift it somewhere else as sought by the petitioner. Nevertheless, such a matter cannot be ignored rather it is necessary to be sensitive and more active in this regard. So an instructive order is hereby issued in the name of the respondent Bhrikuti Pulp and Paper Industries to set up immediately a water treatment plant for discharging the water used in the Industry as pure water and to use the dust collector effectively to prevent mingling of the dust of husk (chaff) in the smoke.

ShatruganPd Gupta vs. Everest Paper Mills Pvt. Ltd. and Others (Writ No. 480/2059)

As mentioned in the report given by the expert committee constituted as per the order of this Court, the respondent Industry seems to have polluted the Aurahi (Bagle) River by operating the Industries mixing the effl uents released in that river contrary to the prescribed standards. Therefore, an


instructive order is hereby issued in the name of the respondents to operate the Industry only after making arrangements for necessary reforms not violating the standards prescribed in the Gazette and granting time to the Industry up to the end of the current fi scal year and causing inspection of the Industry by the above- �mentioned expert committee or by any other expert committee, if so needed, to allow the operation of the Industry only within the prescribed standards.

ConclusionsSafe and adequate drinking water has been declared as a basic fundamental right by United Nations. Similarly, the present Constitution of Nepal has also guaranteed it as a fundamental right. Though Nepal has already met the MDG target, the focus is still on coverage rather than quality improvement of the water supplied.

Nepal had planned to supply the basic level drinking water to cent percent of the population within the end of 2017 which has been failed to attain. Similarly, only fi fteen percent of populations have access to the medium and upper level of water supply service and the GoN has made target to make it 30 percent in the fourteenth plan which seems a big challenge. No water supply project was completed in specifi ed time. The status of present water supply and goal set for the existing 3-year plan is shown in the table.

The Constitution of Nepal has explicitly mentioned about the right to drinking water. There are above mentioned few Acts, Rules, Policies, Strategies, Plans, Programs which are directly and indirectly related to the drinking water supply. The existing regulatory laws are realized to be weak to effectively and adequately safeguard citizen’s right in receiving safe and reliable services from service providers at an affordable price and at the same time make them aware to use the services responsibly. Similarly, the policies are needed to review and update for addressing ever-increasing demand for improved water supply in the context of improving economy

and living standards, increasing awareness and changing lifestyle in both urban and rural areas. The existing laws and policies were also not implemented effectively.

Judiciary has shown its proactive role in providing citizen’s right to the environment including water sector. A separate Ministry has been established and other departments and offi ces are in existence but there is lack of coordination among the stakeholders.

The constitution has distributed the powers relating to water supply among the federal, state and local level. Hence, there is a big challenge to enact the law at all levels and enforce them in a harmonized way.

RecommendationsNepal is in a situation of ‘water, water everywhere, but not a drop to drink’. Safe and adequate drinking water is essential because it is directly related to the health of the people. No development can be achieved unless people are physically and mentally healthy. The following acts should be done immediately to ensure safe and adequate drinking water to the people, which are guaranteed by the Constitution of Nepal.• As the Constitution confers powers of

supplying drinking water to the federal, state and local level, laws relating thereto should be enacted in all three level with the provision of effective monitoring, supervision, control, reward, punishment etc.

• Necessary institutions should be established so as to enforce the laws to be made in the three levels.

• As the water supply target set by the government has not been attained till now, the existing laws, policies, plans, and programs should be effectively implemented in one hand and it is required to review and update the policies and strategies etc. in other hands

• The projects pertaining to the supply of drinking water should be completed in specifi ed time.


• Proper coordination should be made among the concerned stakeholders.

• The governmental institutions responsible for providing drinking water should perform their functions in an effective and result oriented manner for expansion and increment of quality and GoN should provide suffi cient budget,

human resource, technology and other supports.• GoN should play the active role to implement

the judicial decision for the establishment of environmental justice.

• Training, educational and awareness program is essential for proper consumption of drinking water.

References[1] www.wikipedia.org (accessed on Feb 4, 2018)[2] Hunter, David et al., Environmental Law and Policy, (2nd ed.), New York Foundation, New York, (2002)[3] Kiss, Alexandret.al, International Environmental Law, (3rded.) Transnational Publisher Inc New

York,454, (2004)[4] National Water Supply and Sanitation Policy 2014 DRAFT (https://www.google.com.np/

search?q=rural+water+supply+and+sanitation+national+policy) (accessed on Feb 4, 2018)[5] The Constitution of Nepal, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Law, Justice and Parliamentary

Affairs, Law Book Management Board, Kathmandu [6] Nepal Water Supply Corporation Act 2046, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Law, Justice and

Parliamentary Affairs, Law Book Management Board, Kathmandu[7] Water Resources Act 2049, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Law, Justice and Parliamentary

Affairs, Law Book Management Board, Kathmandu[8] Environment Protection Act 2053, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Law, Justice and

Parliamentary Affairs, Law Book Management Board, Kathmandu[9] Water Supply Management Board Act 2063, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Law, Justice and

Parliamentary Affairs, Law Book Management Board, Kathmandu[10] Water Supply Tariff Fixation Commission Act 2063, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Law,

Justice and Parliamentary Affairs, Law Book Management Board, Kathmandu[11] Essential Commodity Protection Act, 2012, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Law, Justice and

Parliamentary Affairs, Law Book Management Board, Kathmandu[12] Local Government Operation Act, 2073, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Law, Justice and

Parliamentary Affairs, Law Book Management Board, Kathmandu[13] Water Supply Rules 2055, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Law, Justice and Parliamentary

Affairs, Law Book Management Board, Kathmandu[14] Rural Water Supply and Sanitation National Policy 2060 and Rural Water Supply and Sanitation

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Kathmandu[17] National Drinking Water Quality Standards 2063, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Physical

Planning and Works, Kathmandu.


SEMINAR ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Chairman Dr. Buddhi Ratna KhadgeSecretary, NAST

MembersProf. Dr. Anjana SinghAcademician, NAST

Dr. Laxmi DevkotaAcademician, NAST

Prof. Dr. Sadhana PradhanangAcademician, NAST

Jaishree SijapatiFaculty of Science, NAST

Er. Ganesh ShahFormer Minister, MoEST

Mr. Inij MaharjanWWF Nepal

Mr. Dinesh BajracharyaOXFAM Nepal

Mr. Bhola Nath PaudyalWater Engineering and TrainingCenter

Er. Sailesh BaniyaAssociated Enterprises

Mr. Surendra ParajuliEMAS-Nepal

Member SecreateryDr. Bhoj Raj PantFaculty of Science, NAST

TECHNICAL SUB-COMMITTEE

CoordinatorJayshree SijapatiFaculty Chief, Science Faculty, NAST

Members Dr. Bhoj Raj PantFaculty of Science, NAST

Dr. Anup Basnet ChhetriFaculty of Science, NAST

Dr. Iswor Man AmatyaInstitute of Engineering, Pulchok

Dr. Tista PrasaiFaculty of Science, NAST

Member SecretaryMs. Nandini Pari GhimireFaculty of Science, NAST

Seminar on “Nature for Water”Mahendranagar, Kanchanpur

(March 28, 2018)


FINANCIAL SUB-COMMITTEE

CoordinatorEr. Ganesh ShahFormer Minister, MoEST

Members Mr. Inij MaharjanWWF Nepal

Mr. Dinesh BajracharyaOXFAM Nepal

Mr. Bhola Nath PaudyalWater Engineering and Training Center

Er. Sailesh BaniyaAssociated Enterprises

Mr. Surendra ParajuliEMAS-Nepal

Member SecretaryMr. Narendra Kumar SinghFinance Section, NAST

MANAGEMENT SUB-COMMITTEE

CoordinatorShiva Prasad UpadhayayaAdministrative Offi cer, NAST

Members Mr. Dhurba Man DangolSecretary Offi ce, NAST

Mr. Aanandi Ray YadavGeneral Administration, NAST

Mr. Agni DhakalFaculty of Science, NAST

Mr. Dev Raj SapkotaFaculty of Science, NAST

Mr. Lul Bahadur DhamalaGeneral Administration, NAST

Member SecretaryMs. Niru BurlakotiFaculty of Science, NAST

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Documents

Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) - Nature of … · 2018. 9. 6. · Executive Summary As a part of the national water week celebration, Nepal Academy of Science and